Agunah Agur Ahab (King of Israel)

615 Agunah 616

32. ■ A. Kerkeslager, “Agrippa and the Mourning Rites for Agrippa probably supplied some sources used Drusilla in Alexandria,” JSJ 37 (2006) 367–400. ■ A. Ker- by Josephus. Sources on Agrippa include Josephus, keslager, “Agrippa I and the Judeans of Alexandria in the the archaeology of Paneas, coins, and inscriptions. Wake of the Violence in 38 C.E.,” REJ (forthcoming). ■ N. Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty (Sheffield 1998). ■ Y. Mes- Bibliography: ■ N. Kokkinos, The Herodian Dynasty (Shef- horer, A Treasury of Jewish Coins (Jerusalem 2001). ■ D. R. field 1998). ■ N. Kokkinos, “Justus, Josephus, Agrippa II Schwartz, Agrippa I (Tübingen 1990). ■ J. Wilker, Für Rom and his Coins,” SCI 22 (2003) 163–80. ■ Y. Meshorer, A und Jerusalem (Frankfurt a. M. 2007). Treasury of Jewish Coins (Jerusalem 2001). ■ T. Rajak, The Jewish Dialogue with Greece and Rome (Leiden 2002). ■ D. R. 2. Agrippa II Schwartz, Studies on the Jewish Background of Christianity (Tü- ■ Agrippa II was the last Herodian king in Palestine. bingen 1992). J. F. Wilson, Caesarea Philippi (New York 2004). He was born ca. 27 CE and named after his father Allen Kerkeslager Marcus Julius Agrippa (see 1.). He was educated in Rome under Claudius’ patronage. Agrippa was placed over Chalcis in 49. Probably he ruled without leaving Rome. In January of 53 he gave up Agunah Chalcis and received the former territories of Philip /Divorce and Lysanias. Agrippa was enthroned in Paneas (Caesarea Philippi) by summer of 53 or 54. He then began construction that included monumental fa- Agur cilities in foreign cities such as Berytus, renovations Son of Yakeh and purported compiler and/or au- to the temple and palace in Jerusalem, and the first thor of Prov 30 (cf. 30 : 1). Interpreters debate how of many projects in Paneas and other primarily much of Prov 30 to attribute to Agur, but lack of Gentile cities in his kingdom. Agrippa’s aid in the another superscription or obvious shift in speaker, Parthian tensions in 55 probably influenced Nero’s coupled with the largely discontinuous texture of decision to award him Tiberias and other cities in Prov 10–29, suggests the whole chapter is Agur’s Galilee and Peraea. In 60, Agrippa refounded Pa- “oracle.” Use of two consecutive terms meaning neas and named it “Neronias.” His regnal years on “[the] oracle” (hammas´ s´ a¯ and ne˘u¯ m)in30:1 coins and inscriptions are dated by two concurrent prompts many to emend the first term slightly to systems: a Tiberian system beginning in autumn read “the Massaite” or “from Massa,” i.e., as an eth- of 55 and a Panean system beginning in autumn nic designation (cf. Prov 31 : 1; Gen 25 : 14; 1 Chr of 60. 1 : 30). Agur may thus be non-Israelite. Many Jews were alienated by Agrippa’s Roman- In the history of reception, Agur is understood ization, conflicts with the Jerusalem priesthood, variously as: and patronage of foreign cults. He was unable to quell the eruption of the Jewish revolt. During the a) the proper name of an otherwise unknown war, he aided Vespasian and Titus. Titus and Ag- sage; rippa celebrated Domitian’s birthday in 70 with b) an appellative (e.g., “the Assembler” in the Vul- combats between Jewish captives in Paneas. Ag- gate); rippa advertised the Roman victory on coins. His c) a reference to Solomon (e.g., “these are the rewards included new territory, probably acquired words of Solomon; Agur – he who girded [agur] while in Rome in 75. His patronage of Pan and his loins for wisdom” in Midrash Mishle); or other deities in Paneas continued until his death. d) simply a verb (e.g., “fear my words” in LXX). Some of his other territories may have been ceded Christine Roy Yoder shortly beforehand due to changing frontier poli- See also /Proverbs, Book of; /Wisdom cies. He died childless, either in Palestine or Italy. His death is usually dated before 93 or in 100. Probably 100 is correct. Josephus’ compositional Ahab (King of Israel) processes and use of sources can accommodate I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament coins, testimony by Photius, and other evidence for II. Judaism this date. Agrippa’s remaining territory then was III. Literature added to the province of Syria. His clients and rela- tives remained among the elites at Paneas. I. Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Agrippa’s sister Berenice frequently lived with Ahab (MT Ahøa¯ b) was a member of the Omride dy- him because of her ill-fated marriages. Rumors of nasty and is referenced in both biblical and extra- incest were mere slanders often hurled at royalty. biblical sources. In the Bible, Ahab first appears in Paul’s hearing before Agrippa in Acts 25–26 ex- 1 Kgs 16 : 29 as a king of Israel who reigned for 22 emplifies its author’s strategy of recruiting famous years. The dates for his reign are disputed: Thiele figures to defend Paul against critics and enhance places his reign 874–853 BCE, while Barnes dates Paul’s historical significance. Probably it is en- his reign 873–852 BCE and Miller and Hayes argue tirely fictional. for 873–851 BCE.

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The biblical account of Ahab is most promi- whether a prophet would demand strict adherence nently found in 1 Kgs 16 : 29–22 : 20, intermixed to YHWH worship at this time. But the story with the stories of the prophet Elijah. The Deuter- presents the popularity of Baal worship in the king- onomistic compilers judge him as one of the worst dom of Israel during the reign of Ahab, and credits kings of Israel during the divided monarchy. Ahab much of this popularity to Jezebel’s support of it. is also mentioned in Mic 6 : 16 and 2 Chr 17–20. It also depicts Jezebel as a fierce advocate for Baal The “House of Ahab” (bayit Ahøa¯ b) is also men- worship, which follows a pattern found in other tioned 18 times in the Hebrew Bible, which is pecu- areas of the Bible, where a queen or foreign wife is liar in view of the fact that this title is usually given the reason for the rejection of strict obedience to to the founder of the dynasty, in this case Ahab’s YHWH (Miller/Hayes: 314). father Omri. This title is probably used by the Deu- c. Naboth’s Vineyard (1 Kgs 21). Unlike the stories teronomists to reference Ahab because of his dis- connected to Elijah and the drought, Naboth’s tinction as the worst ruler in the history of Israel, Vineyard is directly linked to the tradition of Ahab even outdoing his father, Omri, in evil deeds (Ish- and Jezebel. Moreover, Jezebel is the main villain ida 1975: 136). in the story, thereby reflecting a clear anti-Jezebel 1. Traditions in 1 Kings. The Ahab material in sentiment that is integral to this story. When Ahab 1 Kings can be classified as follows: Introduction of offers to purchase Naboth’s land, Naboth refuses Ahab (1 Kgs 16 : 28–34); The prophet Elijah and the to sell, arguing that Israelite property laws do not drought (1 Kgs 17–19); Naboth’s Vineyard (1 Kgs permit him to sell (1 Kgs 21 : 3). This conflict of in- 21); The battle narratives (1 Kgs 20; 22 : 1–38). terest leads to Naboth’s demise, as he was falsely a. Introduction of Ahab (1 Kgs 16 : 29–34). 1 Kings charged with treason and executed (1 Kgs 21 : 13). 16 : 30 introduces Ahab with this judgment: “Ahab This story indicates later perceptions about the son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD more Omrides, who seem to have been known for deceit than all who were before him.” 1 Kings 16 : 31–33 and unlawful practices in later memory (Miller/ then elaborates on his sins, first citing that he fol- Hayes: 274). Micah 6 : 16 echoes this opinion con- lowed the ways of King Jeroboam son of Nebat, and cerning this dynasty: then that he married Jezebel, the daughter of King For you have kept the statutes of Omri and all the Ethbaal of Sidon. He is also credited with venerat- works of the house of Ahab, and you have followed ing Baal, building a temple for him in Samaria and their counsels. Therefore I will make you desolation, also erecting a sacred pole. 1 Kings 16 : 33 con- and your inhabitants an object of hissing; so you shall bear the scorn of my people. cludes the list of the evil deeds of Ahab stating, “Ahab did more to provoke the anger of the LORD, d. The Battle Narratives (1 Kgs 20; 22 : 1–38). In these the God of Israel, than had all the kings of Israel chapters, three battles are chronicled between the who were before him.” This analysis continues king of Israel and Ben-Hadad, king of Damascus. throughout the stories of Ahab and his wife Jezebel In the first battle, Ben-Hadad besieges Samaria, but and thus reflects the later Deuteronomistic bias to- the Israelites eventually defeat him leading to Ben- wards the kingdom of Judah and against the king- Hadad’s withdrawal (1 Kgs 20 : 20). In 1 Kgs 20 : 26– dom of Israel. 34, a second battle occurs when Ben-Hadad advan- b. The Prophet Elijah and the Drought Stories (1 Kgs ces against Israel at Aphek. The king of Israel is 17–19). The stories of the drought in Israel are set successful again, which led to a peace treaty be- during the time of Elijah the prophet. In this series tween their two kingdoms. The final battle is re- of narratives about the activities of Elijah, Ahab is ported in 1 Kgs 22 : 1–38, when the king of Israel mentioned in 1 Kgs 17 : 1, where Elijah informs attempts to capture Ramoth-Gilead. The title “King him that there would be no rain for several years. of Israel” is most commonly used to in these sto- 1 Kgs 18 furnishes an account of the story of Elijah ries, and only a few times is Ahab mentioned by and the priests of Baal, set on Mount Carmel. Al- name. Thus, it seems likely that these battles did though Ahab is also mentioned in the introduction not necessarily all occur during his kingship and to this story (1 Kgs 18 : 17–20), he does not play a that they were only later assigned to the period of role in the actual contest between Elijah and the his reign. priests of Baal. The stories were probably originally e. The Death of Ahab (1 Kings 22 : 34–40). 1 Kgs independent traditions about the prophet Elijah 22 : 34–37 presents his death as occurring during and later included into the Ahab stories (McKen- the battle for Ramoth-Gilead when he was mortally zie). Ahab’s inclusion functions as a means to link wounded on his chariot. He died and then was together the two narratives concerning the drought brought to Samaria where he was buried. But 1 Kgs and also the contest on Mount Carmel. 22 : 40 states that he “slept with his ancestors” The Elijah stories focus on the struggle between which is a formula in the Deuteronomistic writings the followers of YHWH and followers of Baal. It is to indicate a peaceful death. Thus, it seems more questioned whether these events reflect a real con- likely that he died in Samaria since the battle narra- flict in 9th-century BCE northern Israel, and also tives do not necessarily chronicle the life of Ahab.

2. Ahab as Builder. Ahab is credited with several Lord God of Israel (ibid.). Maimonides saw the sto- building projects. In 1 Kings he is recognized as ries of Ahab as cautionary tales about the dangers constructing the temple to Baal in Samaria as well of covetousness and homicide, including indirect as constructing other structures throughout his involvement in murder (Book of Commandments, kingdom, including Megiddo and Hazor. He is re- negative commandment 266; MishT, Laws of Mur- corded as building an “ivory palace” indicating the der 4 : 9). wealth that his dynasty is later remembered as pos- Yet surprisingly often in Jewish literature a sessing. These building projects were a continua- number of more favorable comments about Ahab tion of his father’s, Omri’s policies, and manifest can be found. While Josephus does write that Ahab the wealth and labor at their disposal. “exceeded in madness and wickedness all [the 3. The Chronicles’ Account of Ahab. In 2 Chroni- kings] who went before him” (Ant. 8 : 13), Feldman cles, Ahab is only mentioned in connection to Jeho- has argued that Josephus attempts to mitigate sephat, King of Judah (2 Chr 17 : 1–20 : 37). Ahab is Ahab’s behavior, shifting most of the blame to his contrasted with Jehosephat, the pious king, whose wife, Jezebel. Feldman also concludes that, in Jose- biggest mistake is his alliance with Israel. The phus’ retelling of the biblical story, “Ahab’s quali- Chronicler depicts Ahab as the king who Jehose- ties of leadership are stressed” and “in his diplo- phat unwisely allies himself with both in military matic encounters Ahab is depicted more honorably conflicts and marriage alliances. by Josephus” than the Bible would suggest (Feld- man: 375). 4. Other Sources. Ahab and the Omride dynasty This trend to uncover something positive in are known through biblical and extra-biblical sour- Ahab is found also in rabbinic literature. Waldman ces, like the Monolith Inscription of the Assyrian has argued that “what is particularly interesting is king Shalmaneser III, uncovered at Nimrud (Calah˚ ), that the rabbinic conception of Ahab comes closer where Ahab is mentioned together with a coalition to the image suggested by the extra-biblical mate- of forces. Also, the Mesha inscription from the king rial than to the image presented in the Bible. While of Moab (also called the Moabite Stone) mentions the rabbis acknowledge Ahab’s idolatry, they stress Omri and credits him with the victory over Moab, his military prowess. Surprisingly they even see although 1 Kings credits Ahab with defeating and him as a great supporter of Torah.” (Waldman: 41). subduing the Moabites. He also appears in many rabbinic texts as a para- 5. Conclusion. The different sources that mention digm for proper penitence (e.g., PRE 42). Ahab and his father Omri depict this family as a Like Josephus, many rabbinic and medieval exe- powerful dynasty that had money and resources at getical texts defend Ahab by shifting blame to his their disposal. The biblical representation of Ahab wife. Isaac Abarbanel who suffered expulsion along shaped by the Deuteronomists, depicts him as one with the other Jews from Spain in 1492 took a dif- of the strongest leaders during the divided monar- ferent approach, emphasizing that Ahab was at chy, but also as the worst king of Israel. This later least as culpable as his wife. Mack argues that Abar- pro-Judah and anti-Israel position is particularly banel was taking a political stand against his own acute in the Ahab stories. contemporaries who absolved King Ferdinand of Spain of blame for the expulsion, claiming that it Bibliography: ■ W. H. Barnes, Studies in the Chronology of the Divided Monarchy of Israel (HSM 48; Atlanta, Ga. 1991). ■ T. was all the fault of his consort, Isabella/Jezebel. Ishida, “The House of Ahab,” IEJ 25 (1975) 136–37. Bibliography: ■ L. Feldman, “Josephus’ Portrayal of ■ G. N. Knoppers, “Reform and Regression,” Bib. 72 (1991) Ahab,” EThL 68,4 (1992) 368–84. ■ L. Ginzberg, Legends of 500–524. ■ S. L. McKenzie, The Trouble with Kings (VT.S 42; the Jews, 7 vols. (Philadelphia, Pa. 1909–38). ■ H. Mack, Leiden et al. 1991). ■ J. M. Miller/J. H. Hayes, A History of “In the Eyes of Abarbanel,” in Collected Studies in Biblical Exe- Ancient Israel and Judah (Louisville, Ky./London 22006). ■ A. gesis Presented to Amos Hakham (eds. M. Bar-Asher et al.; Alon Rofé, “The Vineyard of Naboth,” VT 38 (1988) 89–104. Shvut 2007) 257–68. [Heb.] ■ N. Waldman, “Ahab in Bible ■ E. R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings and Talmud,” Jdm 37 (1988) 41–47. (Grand Rapids, Mich. 21965). Martin Lockshin Deirdre N. Fulton III. Literature II. Judaism Though the roundly entertaining story of Ahab in Not surprisingly, rabbinic literature includes many 1 Kings has as its central character an evil, apostate negative comments about King Ahab. He is listed enemy of YHWH and worshipper of Baal – who is among the seven Jews who have no share in the simultaneously a tyrant, a greedy weakling and a world to come (mSan 10 : 2). The worst of the trans- uxorious husband manipulated by his fearsome, gressions of Jeroboam – until Ahab’s days the para- strong minded, shrewish wife Jezebel – it has in digmatic evil king – are considered equivalent to English literature primarily remained an allusive Ahab’s smallest infractions (bSan 102b). Ahab is de- footnote, with the startling exception of H. Mel- scribed as priding himself on his apostasy, writing ville’s Moby-Dick (1851), wherein the protagonist is on the gates of Samaria that he had no share in the explicitly named for the “vile … king.”

The biblical Ahab is depicted as part of a triad Testament source; as Ishmael enquires of the ship’s including Jezebel (who suffers the gory fate of be- owners: “‘When that wicked king was slain, the ing eaten by dogs) and a fearful prophet Elijah dogs, did they not lick his blood?’” There is also searching for his role and his courage. Added to an Elijah in the novel, who tries to warn Ishmael this are miracles (the fire consuming the meat sacri- (inadequately) of Ahab’s blasphemy, and the conse- ficed to YHWH, but not that offered to Baal), and quences of joining in his quest for the White Divine revenge on overweening pagan pride. The Whale. That Ishmael incorrectly states the facts of moral of the story, simply put, appears to be: the 1 Kings tale (Jezebel and Ahab’s followers were Indeed, there was no one like Ahab, who sold himself eaten by dogs, but Ahab was doomed to sackcloth, to do what was evil in the sight of the LORD, urged on ashes, and humiliation), signals Melville’s mytho- by his wife Jezebel. He acted most abominably in going poeic intention with regard to his sources (both after idols, as the Amorites had done, whom the LORD biblical and literary), using these merely as a start- drove out before the Israelites. (1 Kgs 21 : 25) ing point. As Richard Chase succinctly observes: Despite the potentially fascinating Morality Play “Ahab is composed of many myths and many possibilities of this episode, Ahab appears only tan- men.” gentially in English literature; e.g., in Book I of Subsequent filmic adaptations of Moby-Dick Milton’s Paradise Regained (1674), where he is re- (e.g., the Walter Huston 1956 version starring Gre- ferred to by the deluded Satan as an example of the gory Peck as the White Whale’s tormented nemesis) latter’s supposed dutifulness to God: of course stress the Melvillian source rather than And when to all his Angels he propos’d any Ahabian characterizations or plot details from To draw the proud king Ahab into fraud the Bible. Recent works such as Sena Jeta Naslund’s That he might fall in Ramoth, they demurring, Ahab’s Wife: Or, The Star-Gazer (1999) owe little to I undertook that office, and the tongues 1 Kings; in this case Ahab’s wife is literally not a Of all his flattering Prophets glibb’d with lies Jezebel, but is named – almost in deliberate opposi- To his destruction, as I had in charge; tion to 1 Kings – “Una” (the name of Edmund For what he bids I do. Spenser’s embodiment of true Faith in The Faerie Jezebel’s fate is echoed in Spenser’s depiction of Queene), a passionate, questing intellectual living in Redcrosse’s encounter with Errour in Book I of The 19th century Nantucket. Faerie Queene (1596) albeit without an explicit bibli- Bibliography: ■ R. Chase, Herman Melville (New York cal allusion to 1 Kgs 21 : 24: 1949). Leslie Sheldon Her scattred brood … See also /Jezebel … flockéd all about her bleeding wound, And suckéd up their dying mothers blood, Making her death their life, and eke her hurt their good. Ahab (Prophet) Ahab ben Qolaiah was a prophet contemporary A similar tableau is referenced when the Eden- with and in opposition to Jeremiah. His sole ap- bound Satan meets his daughter, Sin, and his son pearance is in Jer 29 : 21–23, together with a com- (Death) during a bleakly comic, incestuous “family panion named Zedekiah ben Maaseiah (see also reunion” in Paradise Lost (1667); as Sin describes her bSan 93a). The Septuagint version is significantly canine-like tormentors (offspring in fact fathered shorter in these verses. The context suggests that by Death when he raped her): both of them were prophesying among the depor- … that rape begot tees in Babylon. Apparently, they played a role in a These yelling Monsters that with ceaseless cry controversy about the duration of Babylonian rule Surround me … hourly conceived and the Judean exile after the first deportation 597 And hourly born, with sorrow infinite BCE. Their message is not reported; it is only sum- To me, for when they list, into the womb marized with the term sˇqr “falsehood” and stated That bred them they return, and howl and that they acted without God’s authorization. Addi- gnaw tionally, both are charged with the possibly hyper- My Bowels, their repast; then bursting forth bolic accusation of adultery (cf. Jer 23 : 14). Jere- Afresh with conscious terrors vex me round. miah was arguing for the necessity of submission Milton makes transformative use of Jezebel’s bibli- to the Babylonian rule (Jer 27 : 11; 28 : 14; 29 : 7) cal fate to make a graphic point about the nature and for a long duration of the exile (Jer 29 : 5–7; of Satan’s obsessive, narcissistic, and self-consum- 32 : 14); therefore, it can be concluded that Ahab ing mind. and Zedekiah prophesied the opposite. The most culturally famous, and explicit, use of The punishment announced for Ahab and Ze- the biblical Ahab is of course Melville’s Moby-Dick dekiah consists of being handed over to Nebuchad- (1851), in which the name of the obsessed, tortured nezzar in order to be stricken down by him. They Captain of the Pequod is explicitly linked to its Old shall become the subject of a curse (qllh “curse”