DEPARTMENT OF SPORT
SCIENCES
Sport migration in a Global World: A Case study of Lithuanian Swimmers migration to the United States Ignas Vaicaitis
Sport Science – Sport in Society One-year master’s program (60 Credits) 15 credits thesis 02/06/2021 Supervisor: Thomas Peterson Examiner: Jyri Backman
ABSTRACT
Keywords: Migration, swimming, Lithuania, The United States, Collegiate sports
In this master's thesis, I studied the migration of Lithuanian swimmers to the United States. This study covered the period from 1990 when Lithuania regained its independence from the Soviet Union to 2004 when it joined the European Union and opened up to the free labor market movement. In the 20th century, sports activity grew into a global and multi-billion-dollar industry. Currently, research into the sports migration process is becoming increasingly important in the scientific discourse of sports science. However, it is still a relatively rare occurrence. Various research and insights into this phenomenon can only be discovered in the context of professional sports such as football, basketball, hockey, rugby, and other popular sports. However, in the area of non-revenue sports, migration is a relatively unexplored area. In this way, my master's study analyzing migration in swimming will be one of the first steps in further research. This master's study tried to fill the gap in the academic discourse by deepening and gaining data on the narrow field of Lithuanian swimmers. As swimming is not a commercially successful sport, the United States was the only destination to migrate for Lithuania swimmers. Research by Bale (1991) showed that the one main reason for the migration of international student-athletes to American universities is academic sports scholarships, which provide free participation in sports and higher education. This study will help strengthen prior findings and unveil other factors and reasons affecting the migration of international students to U.S. universities. The findings of this study contributed to a deeper understanding of the situation and motivation of migrants athletes in non-revenue sports. The study results also provide insights and context for a better understanding of the reasons for migration from the small post-Soviet country. The research showed that most Lithuanian swimmers recognized better conditions to improve abroad than in Lithuania. The quality of most of their sports training conditions was poor or insufficient. The recruitment process and contacts played an essential role in establishing connections with university coaches; only after
1 establishing relationships with coaches in America, Lithuanian swimmers opened their way to the United States. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology, including twelve semi-structured interviews. Eight interviews were done with swimmers who went to the United States to compete in sports and receive education, and four interviews were done with athletes who remained to develop their talents in Lithuania. All the interviews were analyzed using the thematic analysis method. This master's thesis applied world-systems theory (Wallerstein, 1974) as a framework for exploring and understanding the experiences and motivations of research participants from their experienced perspective.
2 Table of Contents
LIST OF TABLES ...... 5
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS...... 6 MASTER’S THESIS STRUCTURE ...... 7
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 8
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...... 9 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ...... 10 RESEARCH QUESTION ...... 10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 12
SPORT MIGRATION OVERVIEW ...... 12 GLOBALIZATION OF SPORTS ...... 14 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION TO NCAA COLLEGIATE SYSTEM ...... 16 Recruitment Process ...... 18 LITHUANIAN SPORTS MIGRATION BACKGROUND ...... 18 The Period of 1900-1940 ...... 18 The Period of 1940-1950 ...... 19 The Period of 1945-1989 ...... 19 The Period of Perestroika...... 21
CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL JUSTIFICATION ...... 22
WORLD SYSTEMS THEORY ...... 23 TYPOLOGIES OF ATHLETES' MIGRATION...... 25
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY ...... 27
RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 27 CASE STUDY ...... 27 SAMPLE ...... 28 DATA COLLECTION ...... 29 CHALLENGES CONDUCTING A QUALITATIVE INTERVIEW VIA ONLINE ...... 30 DATA ANALYSIS ...... 31 TRANSCRIPTION ...... 31
3 MEMBER CHECKING ...... 31 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 32 SCIENTIFIC CONSIDERATIONS ...... 33
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS ...... 34
REASONS FOR MIGRATION ...... 34 RECRUITMENT PROCESS ...... 34 U.S SPORTS SYSTEM ...... 39 POLITICAL AND POLICY REASONS FOR ATHLETES MIGRATION ...... 42 Dual Citizenship ...... 44 ECONOMIC REASONS ...... 44 INDIVIDUAL REASONS FOR MIGRATION: PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT ...... 47 Language Barrier ...... 47
CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ...... 49
DISCUSSION ...... 49 CONCLUSION ...... 50 LIMITATIONS ...... 51 FUTURE RESEARCH...... 51 REFLEXIVITY ...... 52
REFERENCES LIST ...... 53
APPENDIXES ...... 62
APPENDIX A: THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS GUIDE WITH SWIMMERS WHO WENT TO THE
U.S (LITHUANIAN VERSION) ...... 62
APPENDIX B: THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS GUIDE WITH SWIMMERS WHO WENT TO THE
U.S (ENGLISH VERSION) ...... 63
APPENDIX C: THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS GUIDE WITH SWIMMERS WHO REMAINED TO
SWIM IN LITHUANIA (LITHUANIAN VERSION) ...... 64
APPENDIX D: THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS GUIDE WITH SWIMMERS WHO REMAINED TO
SWIM IN LITHUANIA (ENGLISH VERSION) ...... 65 APPENDIX E: CONSENT FORM (LITHUANIAN VERSION) ...... 66 APPENDIX F: CONSENT FORM (ENGLISH VERSION) ...... 67
4 List of Tables
Table 1 ...... 29
5 List of Abbrevations
CASK: Central Army Sports Club ...... 16 IOC: International Olympic Committee ...... 6 MLB: Major Baseball League ...... 11 NBA: National Basketball League ...... 9 NCAA: National Collegiate Athletic Association ...... 5 NHL: National Hockey League ...... 11 SAT: Scholastic Assessment Test ...... 7 TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language ...... 7
6 Master’s Thesis Structure
This master's thesis starts with an abstract, followed by the research topic introduction, literature review, theoretical justifications, research methodology, data analysis, research results, and discussion. The final step of the master's thesis is the conclusion. Chapter 1 briefly introduces the master's thesis and introduces the reader to this research's relevance, importance, and goals. Arguments are provided as to why it is essential to conduct this research, and the research question is introduced. Chapter 2 presents an extensive literature review examining the historical causality and implications of global sport migration. The subsequent sequence of migration literature relates to the NCAA collegiate system and the recruitment process for international athletes. In the final part, the context typical of Lithuanian sports migration is presented. In Chapter 3, at first, the reader is introduced to migration theories and their shortcomings. The following is a presentation of the world-systems theory and its applicability in this study. And finally, I present how Maguire (1999); Magee & Sugdan (2002) used world- systems theory to developed a tool for exploring and explaining the image of a migrant athlete according to one's motives. Chapter 4 presents the methodology and data analysis of this study. Here I argue why the qualitative research method was the most appropriate for this study and why the thematic analysis method was chosen. The following is the data collection tool and its sample size. And finally, research ethics and scientific considerations are described. Chapter 5 presents the results of this master's thesis. Chapter 6 discusses the findings and conclusion, limitations of this master's thesis, and the author's reflexivity. I discuss what my research revealed about the phenomenon of athletes' migration. And for the final conclusion, I present suggestions for future research regarding sport migration.
7 Chapter 1: Introduction
Over the last few decades, globalization has significantly impacted the sport (Botelho & Agergaard, 2011). The commercialized and internationalized sports industry flourished into a global and multi-billion-dollar industry. Much research has highlighted and studied the relationship between globalization and athletes' migration and how globalization has led to migration and athletes' participation in these complicated processes. In the sixties of the last century, NCAA granted full athletic scholarships to foreign athletes representing American universities in NCAA collegiate conferences; since then, attracting athletes from abroad has become a systemic process that is critical to the success of the university's sports programs. Sports departments' international scouts started recruiting international athletes to come to study and compete in the United States. Since then, the number of international students in the NCAA has been steadily increasing. After international students were allowed to participate in NCAA championships, NCAA individual conferences have become more competitive than individual national championships in European countries. Researchers even claim that the final NCAA tournament is a world-class elite-level competition, second only to world championships and Olympic games (Swann et al., 2015). The National College Sports Association (NCAA) is the only organization globally that offers access to elite sports competitions and provides high-level education at university. As of late, 480,000 (NCAA, 2021) student-athletes compete in the U.S. National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The latest NCAA statistics show that out of those 480,000, more than 20,000 students are international (NCAA, 2021). Research shows that many international student-athletes believe that getting an education in the U.S. is a top priority (Popp et al., 2010). In order to come to the United States, international athletes must meet many requirements: pass several exams, be recruited by a university coach, adapt to a new language, new culture, and environment. Therefore, Bale (1991 notes that transferring from a sports school or club background to the NCAA championship setting is challenging to adapt for international student-athletes. Their experience is much different from American student-athletes, who develop in the high school sports system, which introduces them to the transition to a university sports system.
8 After the second world war ended, Lithuania was a part of the Soviet Union for 50 years. Lithuanian sports continued to develop under the custody of the Soviet Union's sports policy, and Lithuanian athletes represented the Union's national teams in the international arena. Only after Lithuania regained its independence in 1990, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and other international sports governing bodies allowed the country to compete again in the international sports arena as an independent country. At the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, while still representing the Soviet Union, Lithuanian athletes won 10 gold, three silver, and two bronze medals. However, after Lithuania regained its independence, sports systems collapsed, sports funding and governance were disrupted, and sports infrastructure went bankrupt. Consequently, many Lithuanian athletes chose to migrate to Western Europe, Australia, or the United States, looking for better living and training opportunities. Men and women basketball, football, handball, volleyball players went abroad to compete in foreign professional leagues. Even individual sports athletes such as tennis players, cyclists, and swimmers looked for ways to compete and develop their talents abroad. Lithuanian sports migration is not a thoroughly researched topic. I have found only the study (Evans & Piggott, 2016), which analyzed Lithuanian male amateur basketball player's identity and migration into the eastern part of England. This master's study hopes to fill the gaps in understanding the migration process in Lithuanian sport. Therefore, this master's thesis will aim to study the causes and circumstances that led to the migration of both Lithuanian male and female swimmers. Statement of the Problem
Today, sport migration has gained tremendous momentum. In the last thirty years, it shifted global from the local movement, every single continent is affected by this phenomenon, and the scale of sports migration is growing every year (Agergaard, 2018). Therefore, the importance and consequences of this phenomenon are worthy of scientific research. However, most scientific research is executed in the sport migration context of most commercially successful team sports like football (Darby et al., 2007; Elliott & Gusterud, 2018; Lanfranchi & Taylor, 2001; Magee & Sugden, 2002; Poli, 2014; Taylor, 2006), handball (Agergaard, 2008; Bon et al., 2016; Samuel et al., 2021), basketball (Book Jr et al., 2021; Butler & Dzikus, 2015; Cho et al., 2018; Evans & Piggott, 2016), and ice hockey (Maguire, 1996).
9 By examining Lithuanian swimmers' migration, the study presented a close view of athletes' experiences in a non-revenue individual sport. Lithuanian sports society has transformed from a closed cycle to open to the whole world, and this phenomenon has not been studied in scientific discourse. Sports migration is influenced by governmental, cultural, and economic factors when political decisions significantly impact a sports migrant's decision to go abroad to develop a sports career. Athletes choose to migrate for various reasons, including a better competitive environment, access to better training conditions and coach services, for financial earnings, a safer living environment, and better overall living prospects. Purpose of the Study
This study aimed to investigate the motivational factors and migration experience of Lithuanian swimmers to the United States. This master's study examined why swimmers were motivated to leave their country. The study of Lithuanian swimmer migration gave more insight into the practice of non-revenue sports migration as sports migrants and the motivating factors influencing international migration. Maguire (1999); Magee & Sugdan (2002) used world-systems theory to developed a tool for exploring and explaining the image of a migrant athlete according to one's motives. Migrant athletes are categorized according to their motivational ambitions to move. However, this list of sports migrant typologies provided by the authors essentially intended to study team sports representatives. This master's study seeks to determine whether these typologies and world-systems theory is appropriate for explaining non-revenue sports athletes' migration to the United States. Research Question
The main research question is: Why did Lithuanian swimmers migrate to the United States after Lithuania regained independence? The research question enabled me to inquire why some Lithuanian swimmers decided to go abroad to develop their swimming careers while others remained to grow their talents at home. By doing this, I understood how swimming development differed between Lithuania and the United States. Furthermore, to answer this question, I need to investigate the whole process of athlete migration. In order to migrate, athletes require to follow several requirements. To be recruited by the university swimming coach. Pass several standardized test exams for college admissions in the United States, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT)
10 and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). And finally, to obtain an F-1 academic student visa from the local U.S embassy (NCSA, 2021). Furthermore, to answer this research question, it is important to investigate why not all swimmers migrated to the United States because other swimmers stayed to develop their sports careers in Lithuania. The semi-structured interview technique allowed me to ask respondents about their sporting careers in Lithuania and after leaving for the United States. The research question provided a holistic perception of how swimmers experienced sport in two countries and how their departure influenced their future careers.
11 Chapter 2: Literature Review
A comprehensive literature review was conducted before the study. The literature review is a synthesis of previous literature related to the research topic and research question. The literature review systematizes the research to indicate to readers how previous research relates to the research topic (Rowe, 2014). The purpose of this literature review is to analyze existing research literature on international athlete migration. To provide a framework for this area of research using application methods and previous research findings and help develop the current research framework to the international athlete’s migration to the NCAA. According to Agergaard (2017), the literature on global sports labor migration began to evolve from a book edited by (Bale & Maguire, 2013) on the migration of athletes in the free world. They provided detailed links between sports labor migration and talent development. Maguire (2004) argued that research on the migration of athletes and coaches does not receive much attention and lacks the progress that has been made in other areas of sociology of sport. Many years after this statement, research on this topic is still relevant and ongoing. As Foo (2015); Love & Kim (2011) claims, there is still a lack of research that delves into the causes of sports migration regarding international students in NCAA collegiate sports. These researchers emphasized not only the importance of understanding the critical structures of sports migration but also of the experience and adaptation of migrant athletes to new environments. This chapter presents four main subgroups of literature review: sports migration overview, globalization of sport, Lithuanian sports migration background, and international migration to NCAA collegiate system. Sport Migration Overview
Sport migration consists of athletes, coaches, managers, and other sport-related individuals who migrate due to sport-related activities. It is necessary to emphasize that when the literature review scholars utilize the word migration, the term migration does not mean acquiring new citizenship. According to Carter (2011), sport migration is a complex global issue that many scientists worldwide have studied before. However, most research is done in the sport migration context of most commercially successful sports like football (Darby et al., 2007; Elliott & Gusterud, 2018; Lanfranchi & Taylor, 2001;
12 Magee & Sugden, 2002; Poli, 2014; Taylor, 2006), handball (Agergaard, 2017; Bon et al., 2016; Samuel et al., 2021), basketball (Book Jr et al., 2021; Butler & Dzikus, 2015; Cho et al., 2018; Evans & Piggott, 2016; Maguire, 2013) or running sports (Simiyu Njororai, 2012). Numerous sports migration literature states that sports migrants are a free moving cosmopolitan group who strategically engaged in capitalizing on their sports careers. In the most popular sports like professional football and basketball all around the world, a large proportion of athletes migrate from their home country to other countries to participate in sports labor (Maguire, 2013; Maguire & Stead, 1998; Sage, 2015). The increase in the number of sports migrants worldwide is also influenced by global changes in the labor market, in particular increasingly flexible employment methods. A striking example is the case of Bosman rule in 1995 in European football. According to (Magee & Sugden, 2002; Taylor, 2006), the European Union's policy on the free labor movement has fundamentally formed migration of football, basketball, handball, and other team sports in the E.U. countries. In 1999, more than 500 foreign players competed in English football leagues. In the English Premier League, foreign players are estimated for as much as 45% of all players (Morgan, 1999; cited in Magee & Sugden, 2002). In Italy, Spain, France, and Germany, the number of foreign players increased substantially as well. In the year 2000, 33% of Italian Serie A players were foreigners, contrasted to around 40% in Spain and Germany. Also, 23% of French first division players were foreigners (Massarella, 2000; cited in Magee & Sugden, 2002). Besides, in 2008, foreign players accounted for more than 50 percent of all players in the strongest professional football leagues in six European countries - Belgium, England, Germany, Greece, Portugal, and Russia (Besson, Poli, & Ravenel, 2008; cited in (Love & Kim, 2011). Butler & Dzikus (2015) points out-migration from the United States to Europe in men’s basketball. They state that as many as 6717 American male players played in European basketball leagues in the five years period before 2014. With only 1.2% of basketball players from the NCAA entering the National Basketball League (NBA) each year (NCAA, 2020), the rest of college basketball players who want to continue to play basketball professionally choose other countries to further their athletic careers. Currently, there are no restrictions to limit the number of international student-athletes who participate in NCAA colligate competitions. There are more than 20,000 international student-athletes out of 480,000 who are enrolled and competing at NCAA Division I universities all around the United States (NCAA, 2021). As the NCAA data
13 states, athletes from outside the United States accounted for 5.5% of all males and 6.9% of all female athletes in Division I in 2007-2008 (Popp et al., 2010). In some NCAA collegiate sports, the number of migrant foreign athletes is incredibly noble. For example, in 2019, according to NCAA data, 62 percent of women’s tennis teams and 63 percent of men’s tennis teams consisted of athletes from abroad (NCAA, 2019). Nevertheless, according to Ridinger & Pastore (2001), there have always been attempts to limit the number of foreign athletes in the U.S. NCAA colligate sports system. However, all attempts were ruled out by the American courts. It’s also important to note that with the growing popularity of basketball in Europe, private basketball clubs may begin to entice young American basketball players to turn their professional paths and not participate in the NCAA educational and sports system but come to play professionally in European basketball clubs. Lastly, this mentioned above ever-increasing number of international athletes in Europe, the United States, and worldwide, and the remarkably high concentration in certain sports or countries raises many unanswered questions for sports sociologists to explore. Globalization of Sports
The explanation of globalization is usually associated with a new process of international labour migration. In the last few decades, globalization has been one of the leading causes of change in contemporary society. According to Maguire & Stead (1998), globalization significantly impacted labour mobility, making labour migration a dominant phenomenon worldwide. And sport, as an integral part of society, has succumbed to the effects of globalization. As the sport gained a growing commercial base, athletes and coaches began to migrate through the borders in search of better conditions for the development of their talents. Consequently, over the past fifty years, the sport has shifted into business during the process of commercialization (McAllister, 1998; Slack, 2004; Stokvis, 2000). Elliott & Maguire (2008) discovered overlaps between athletes and highly skilled laborers in the migration process. However, they argue that more research on this category is needed to allow a broader comparison of these two different types of migration. And having more research material would lead to a better understanding of the vicious migration phenomenon. Additionally, according to Sage (2015), global sport depends on professional laborers who are not equally widespread worldwide. He also stressed that international migration depends on supply and demand factors and that wealthy developed countries often lack high-class local athletes and foreign athletes replace them.
14 Global sport migration typically occurs on two primary levels, between countries on the same continent and between countries from different continents (Elliott & Maguire, 2008; Sage, 2015). The processes of globalization have led many occupations to become more mobile as the pace of migration increased. This process has also affected the field of sport, making athletes and coaches part of a market economy affected by rapid changes in the global economy. Carter (2011) argues that it is impossible to investigate the complexity of global athlete migration by narrowing the phenomenon to several causal factors. International athletes' migration is often an individual case that seeks to recognize both unique and sometimes the collective effects of multiple path processes. Furthermore, as Bon et al. (2016) states, the reasons, motives, and patterns of migration in sport are not universal. They vary depending on the sport, age, gender, nation, or even the continent. Sports migration patterns vary across various sports. The most talented baseball players from Central and Latin America complement the professional Major Baseball League (MLB) league and other minor leagues. In basketball, for example, the strongest league in the world is the NBA, which attracts the most talented players from around the world. Additionally, NCAA basketball programs also attract young talent to play basketball in the U.S. However, NBA teams can fill in only 529 spots (Basketballnoise, 2021). Consequently, American basketball players who are not drafted to the NBA will pursue professional careers in Europe, Asia, South America, and Oceania after graduating from NCAA universities. There is also a two-way migration in ice hockey. The most talented players from Eastern Europe and the Nordic countries go to the USA and Canada to the National Hockey League (NHL). And vice-versa, second-tier local north American players who don’t play in the NHL go to Russia and other professional European leagues to pursue a professional career. According to Houlihan (2008), globalization and internationalization have become dominant research concepts in sports science. Globalization, internationalization, the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Bosman ruling, and the European Union expansion have affected the scale of sports migration both in Europe and worldwide. According to Elliott & Gusterud (2018), studies in sports labour migration have increased drastically over the last three decades. However, Lithuanian sports migration is not a thoroughly researched field. I have found only the study (Evans & Piggott, 2016) which studied amateur basketball activity among Lithuanian male migrants in the eastern part of England. Consequently, my master thesis study will be one of the first attempts to investigate the Lithuanian sports context's migration phenomenon. In other words, since sport migration
15 varies depending on the sport and the level of competition, e.g., amateur recreational sports, Olympic sports development, or professional sports, there is no single universal model that can confidently describe the migration processes in sports. This ever-increasing number of international athletes in Europe, the United States, and around the world, and the remarkably high concentration in certain sports or countries, raises many unanswered questions for sports sociologists to explore. International Migration to NCAA Collegiate System
As Vanover & DeBowes (2013) argue, no other country outside the United States has a collegiate sports structure, where the sport is an integral part of academic life. This system attracts athletes worldwide through top-class sports infrastructure, high-class education, and access to sports scholarships that cover educational and living costs. Consequently, academic research on international student-athletes and the reasons for their migration has grown as the number of them in the NCAA has increased dramatically over the past few decades (Love & Kim, 2011b; Popp et al., 2009). Bale (1991) was one of the first scholars to study sports migration and the impact of foreign athletes on the NCAA. Using qualitative and quantitative research methods and document analysis, he was the first scholar. He determined the number of international student-athletes in U.S universities, their nationalities, what strategies coaches used to recruit them, and how successful the adaptation was in the U.S university environment. Bale (1991) states that NCAA allowed universities to provide sports scholarships to students from abroad during the fifth decade of the last century. From that period onwards, a gradual increase in the number of international student-athletes began. Since then, NCAA competitions have become world-class competitions where participants are the best American athletes and international world-class athletes and Olympians. Bale (1991) illustrates this through globalization and the three-tier American sports model. Sport is a globally practiced activity in every country. Secondly, sport in the United States is used as an ideological tool. And finally, an open colligate sports model, where everyone who eligible can compete. This model occurs when local students necessitate competing against international athletes to receive scholarships, but this is justified by ideologic vision, as winning is the end goal. Bale (1991) surveyed more than two hundred swimmers from Western Europe. He found out that poor opportunities for improvement, insufficient coaching competence, little
16 sports competition, and lack of swim meets were the main determinants that led respondents to choose sports and studies in the United States. Ridinger & Pastore (2001) stated that almost all post-Bale research focused on the motivation of international students to come to study in the United States, and practically no research was done on the experience and adaptation of international student-athletes. Their research filled this gap. This study by (Ridinger & Pastore, 2001) compared the adaptation and experience of international athletes-students at U.S. universities in contrast to international students who studied in the United States without competing in the NCAA. Later (Popp et al., 2009) conducted a similar qualitative study to compare the motives and motivation of international student-athletes in contrast to local American student-athletes in the NCAA. They discovered that international students rate their athletic experience at university differently from local U.S. student-athletes. The study involved student-athletes from 16 different sports and 49 foreign countries and the United States. The study results showed that U.S. athletes prioritize sports, while international students value sports and academics equally. Love & Kim's (2011) article identified several main motivational factors that drive students from abroad to come to study and compete in the NCAA. They singled out that they were motivated by new surroundings and cultural experiences, the wish to enhance English language skills, free scholarships that cover the costs of education, better perspectives with high-class American education to help them build better well-being, and finally to get a higher education diploma and compete at the top in sports simultaneously, which was impossible in their home country. Foo (2015) researched male soccer players' migration to the U.S. universities from Trinidad and Tobago. He states that athletes come to study and compete in sports in the U.S. because they get access to better coaching services access to world-class sports infrastructure that is not available in their home country. Also, to secure financial benefits in the future after graduating from the university in America. McWha (1998) analyzed Canadian sports policy's shortcomings as to why Canada's best young swimmers migrate to the U.S. universities. Canadian swimming clubs and coaches invest resources in preparing swimmers, but there is no clear path to further swimming career after high school. According to Green & Houlihan (2005), the lack of high-level competition and sports scholarships is the most common reason young Canadian swimmers choose to swim at American universities. The Canadian education system does not guarantee scholarships, so it is almost impossible to continue a swimmer's career
17 without financial support. McWha (1998) also adds that the NCAA competition level is the best in the world, as many foreign swimmers apply for sports scholarships at American universities increasingly every year. The talent drain problem exists not only in Canada but in other countries as well. Olympians from all over the world come to the United States to proceed with their swimming careers, where they are given the best possible conditions to develop.
Recruitment Process
International athletes begin their migration process from recruitment to start higher education and sports in the United States. American universities’ coaches are looking for talented athletes locally and outside of the country to achieve high athletic success in their program. The process when coaches try to invite international athletes is called international talent recruitment (Bale, 1991). Ridinger & Pastore (2001) argued that U.S. collegiate coaches started looking for talented athletes outside of America in order to achieve high results and maintain a competitive work environment. Generally speaking, the coach’s goal is to have the best athletes, regardless of their nationality. Ridinger & Pastore (2001) noted that smaller-sized and less famous universities cannot compete for the best local athletes, so they started offering scholarships to foreigners to remain competitive against their rivals. There is no single reason why American university coaches invite talented foreign athletes. The simplest explanation is that attracting international student-athletes allows coaches to choose from a more significant number of candidates to run their athletic programs. The recruitment process for domestic and international students is an entirely different experience. During the recruitment process, athletic coaches invite local students to visit university campuses, libraries, athletic facilities and meet teachers. However, potential international student-athletes often cannot take a long-distance trip from their country to get acquainted with the university environment, so they often choose their place of study and sports without visiting it (Weston, 2006). Lithuanian Sports Migration Background
The Period of 1900-1940
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Lithuania, then a part of the Russian empire, paid little attention to sports. Jonas Narbutas, a diaspora sports historian, reveals society's attitude towards sports at that time. According to him, Lithuania was an agricultural state,
18 and its youth exercised sport by doing agricultural work (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). After Lithuania declared its independence in 1918, many youths of Lithuanian descent migrated from abroad (mainly for the U.S.) to Lithuania, where they were already engaged in organized sports. The most significant contribution to the popularity of sports goes to Lithuanian-Americans who returned to their parent's homeland. Lithuanian-Americans were responsible for introducing football, basketball, baseball, and other sports to Lithuanian society. They formed voluntary sports organizations and translated official sport rules. Lithuanian emigrants significantly contributed to the popularity of basketball, which is relevant to this day. Taking advantage of dual citizenship status, the best basketball players of Lithuanian origin were invited to their parents' homeland. They formed the Lithuanian national team's roster at the 1937 European Basketball Championship in Riga, where they became champions (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006).
The Period of 1940-1950
In 1945 at the end of the war, the fear of repression by the Bolsheviks was the main reason for Lithuanians to migrate to the West. After the second world war, most of the sports athletes emigrated back to the U.S. or got stuck in refugee camps in Germany. At that time, over 70,000 Lithuanians found themselves in the controlled zone of the allied states - England, the USA, and France - in Germany (Gecas, 2012). There were many basketball players among the refugees, including five European champions (Cerkeliunas, 1997; 60– 62, cited in Gecas, 2012). The achievements of Lithuanian basketball players in the European basketball championships in 1937 and 1939 undoubtedly influenced the fact that many athletes who left to the West were invited to play in German clubs. In 1948 International Committee for Political Refugees (INCORP) organized the refugee Olympics in Nurnberg, Germany, where Lithuanian refugees participated in athletics and basketball competition (Gecas, 2012).
The Period of 1945-1989
The situation of Lithuanian sports in society during the years of Soviet occupation was slightly different from Western Europe. The Soviet Union inherited an emerging sports movement from Tsarist Russia. In Russia, sports clubs developed on a military basis before the revolution (Baumann, 1988). It had one significant advantage to the Soviets as it was already centrally controlled (Riordan, 1990). Moscow Central Army Sports Club
19 (CASK) was the most prestigious sports organization in the Soviet Union (Baumann, 1988). CASK maintained a central position and controlled most of the best athletes. Moreover, this sports club is the central figure controlling other army sports clubs (ASKs) in each of the sixteen military districts of the Soviet Union in cities such as Leningrad, Riga, or Minsk (Baumann, 1988). In the Soviet Union, the sport was transformed into a mass phenomenon. It was not voluntarily offered activity but compulsory to everyone. Initially, the Soviet sports structure in Lithuania was considered a foreign institution imposed by the Communist Party (Riordan, 2007), but gradually it was forcibly adopted. Professional sports in the Soviet Union were hidden under the army sports clubs (Baumann, 1988), the secret police managed Dinamo sports society (Keys, 2003), and various individual labor union organizations (Keys, 2003). The Soviets claimed that professional sports had been abolished in their country since the 1930s (Edelman, 1990). The so-called professional sports movement was not clearly separated from physical culture or sports for all. This has led to active public participation in sporting activities. However, like all public life fields, the sport was closed to outside participation and competition. Helsinki Olympics in 1952 was the first time when Soviet athletes participated on the world stage (Parks, 2007). The migration of foreign athletes to the Soviet Union did not occur, just as Soviet athletes were forbidden to play sports in Western countries. However, the strongest athletes from various Soviet republics were forced to join Central Army Sports Club (CASK) or Dynamo sports society’s clubs, where they did not have to perform compulsory military service. Top athletes who already served military service were attracted to the strongest clubs with gifts, apartments, and cars. According to Butautas & Cepaitiene (2006), basketball player Rimas Kurtinaitis, instead of two years of compulsory service in the Soviet army, he had to transfer to the CASK Moscow basketball team. He was tempted to stay after military service, where he was offered much better household and financial conditions than his native Kaunas Žalgiris could provide. However, Kurtinaitis categorically refused and returned to the hometown team. Similarly, Baumann (1988) states that in Ice Hockey, CASK has consistently acquired a disproportionate share of the Soviet Union's most talented athletes, often organizing the transfer of talented athletes from other clubs training systems. No official rules regulated the transfer of players, and CASK cleverly used its vast resources and the leverage provided by the universal military service system to get the best athletes.
20 During the Soviet era, Lithuanian sports teams did not try to attract foreign athletes from other Soviet republics, as did Kazakh sports teams, where only about 30% of sports teams' members were local athletes (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). There were several reasons for this. First of all, Lithuanian sports teams, even by the Lithuanian Center Committee's local authorities, were considered national teams (Butautas & Cepaitiene, 2006). Another reason, it was cheaper to develop local athletes than to invite the best players from other Soviet republics.
The Period of Perestroika
Perestroika is defined as the acceptance of economic, political, and social change in the Soviet union’s society (Duke, 1990). The Perestroika period brought many changes, volatility, and even chaos into the Soviet sports system. In 1989, Soviet Lithuanian sports found themselves in the face of a crisis (Senn, 1990). Lithuanian sport has been affected not only by the political transformation of the system but also by economic problems. Lithuanian sports teams faced financial problems paying athletes and competing in the soviet sports tournaments. However, Perestroika gave athletes hope to migrate to Western Europe in 1989 to search for better training and living conditions. In the autumn of 1989, five basketball players were the first athletes to migrate to the West. Sarunas Marciulionis was the first athlete from the Soviet Union who went to play professional basketball in the NBA (Senn, 1990). Arturas Karnisovas left for NCAA collegiate sport; he joined Seton Hall University. Valdemaras Chomicius and Arvydas Sabonis went to. Play basketball in Spain, and Rimas Kurtinaitis went to Germany (Senn, 1990). After the successful departure of basketball players to play sports abroad, their example has reached other male and female sports athletes: footballers, handball players, ice hockey players, and even swimmers. In 1988 November Latvians, in December Lithuanians, and 1989 January - Estonians rebuilt their national Olympic Committees, surprisingly all Baltic states were recognized by International Olympic Committee while being a part of the Soviet Union. According to Senn (1999), the Baltic states' silent diplomacy in sport has accelerated the disintegration and downfall of the Soviet Union. On March 11, 1990, Lithuania announced its independence from the Soviet Union, all its sports organizations and federations separated ties with the Soviet sports system. Newly restored country's athletes refused to participate in the Soviet national teams and its sports championships. A new chapter was written in independent Lithuania's sports history.
21 Chapter 3: Theoretical Justification
Shortcomings of Migration Theories
For half a century, in Lithuania, migration took place only within the Soviet Union territory, and external migration crossing the "iron border" did not exist. Globalization and the restoration of Lithuania's independence have affected the changes in the country's migration processes. Since the restoration of Lithuania's independence in 1990, more than half a million people left the country, and an average of 30,000 people emigrated from the country every year (Sipaviciene & Stankuniene, 2013). Researchers of migration practices pay a lot of attention to research on outbound migration, while people's motivation to stay and work in their country receives less attention. To answer the main question of this study, it is necessary to define migration to understand and explain why some athletes chose migration out of the country after Lithuania restored its independence while others stayed to perform sports in their home country. A highly skilled elite athletes' migration poses new possible challenges to the state and society and raises many unanswered questions for the scientific community as migration is a complex, multifaceted, and rapidly changing social phenomenon that is difficult to describe and measure. The concept of migration is used in various scientific disciplines: sociology, anthropology, demography, geography, criminology, law (O’Reilly, 2013), and sports science (Agergaard, 2018). After examining the definitions of migration by different authors Hughes et al., (2019); Castles (2011); Kielyte & Kancs, (2002); I noticed that the authors emphasize that migration is relocating a person from his place of residence to another location, crossing state borders. Migration can be local and global, long-term and short-term, voluntary and forced, legal or illegal, based on family reunification, job search, academic pursuit, or in other words, to change the political, social, economic, or cultural environment. Migration research is an under-theorized field in social science, and the current trend is theoretical regression than development (de Haas, 2021). The beginning of the theoretical interpretation of international migration is related to the principles of migration published by Ravenstein (1885, cited in Lee, 1966), which assumes the economic nature of migration. According to Ravenstein (1885), employment and employability were the main reasons for migration. He found out that people have left their homes searching for
22 work because they could not get one in their places of birth. These ideas became the basis for concepts analysing migration from an economic base. Lee (1966) defines that migration as a movement in which people move from their country of origin to another country. Migration occurred during all human life periods but developed as a socially important and constant event only during the industrialization and urbanization stage (Hirschman & Mogford, 2009; Hughes et al., 2019). As Castles (2011); Hughes et al., (2019); Kielyte & Kancs, (2002); O’Reilly (2013); King (2012) argue, there is no particular universal theory in the scientific discourse of migration that could describe migration's multifaceted phenomenon. Castles (2011) explains that a single migration theory common to all types of migratory mobility is impossible and not worth creating. Such a universal theory would be too broad and with many exceptions. He proposes a much more productive path, where migration research is linked into a more generalized understanding of modern society and links it to social change theories across many social science disciplines. Analyzing the causes of emigration seems simple at first glance. People move to places where they can earn more money and feel secure. But when researchers study what causes people in specific countries to migrate, there is no clear explanation. Furthermore, for example, why do people leave countries with good living standards and move to other places? According to Mikhaylov, (2014), this is influenced by globalization and free choice to the movement (Sen, 1999; cited in de Haas, 2021). Consequently, it is challenging to analyze individual decisions to emigrate based only on migration theories of economic reason. If economical migration theories and structural forces explained everything, all people would migrate where they can earn more money, but know for sure that this is not the case. Some people need clear reasons to leave, while others need casual circumstances. Therefore, this study will carry on based on world- systems theory. World Systems Theory
The theoretical framework utilized in this study was world system theory. According to Immanuel Wallerstein’s (1974) world system theory, migration flows are determined by labour movement from the periphery to the centre. World-systems theory (Maguire & Bale, 1994; Ward, 1993) argues that international migration is a by-product of global capitalism and a natural consequence of globalization. The periphery is considered developing post-communist nations without market economy, and the centre is a capitalist
23 post-industrial state. Wallerstein (1999) argues that economic and social inequalities related to work are the product of this one global system. The relationship between the two regions is essential, with central states engaging in capital-intensive production and peripheral states with a large workforce. According to Wallerstein's theory of regionalization of countries according to its role in the global division of labour, Lithuania could be classified as a semi peripheral zone due to low wages but a large amount of inexpensive but skilled athletic labour. In 1995, the minimum wage in Lithuania was $ 25, and in 1999 it was still relatively low at $ 107.5 (EUROSTAT, 2021). Globalization is a process of economic, political, technological, and cultural integration characterized by free trade, free flow of capital, and demand for labour from cheaper foreign markets (Al-Rodhan & Stoudmann, 2006). U.S. private companies and organizations are global leaders and perform an essential part in globalization. NCAA collegiate sports competitions are a world-class athletic stage. Athletic results define the success of NCAA universities, and athletes' talent (i.e., workers) is an integral part of that. In other words, the globalization of sport is helping universities to attract best athletes from the periphery (all around the world) to the center (the U.S). This relationship has been shaped by uneven exchanges between powerful state with weak ones in peripheral areas (Wallerstein, 1974). This study concentrates on the migration of high-performance athletes from Lithuania to America, applying the principles of world system theory. NCAA university sports programs in the United States benefit from an influx of international athletes from peripheral and semi peripheral countries. Poli, (2014) argues that sports migration creates systemic inequality among nations at the center and periphery and that these unequal relationships are the basis for use as an analytical framework. Consequently, this study's primary goal to better understand the factors influencing high-performance swimmers' migration flows in a particular country rather than individual migration decisions of high- performance athletes. The theory of world-systems has several shortcomings. First, it does not take into account structural restrictions. Not all athletes have equal access to resources. In other words, not all athletes are recruited by American Universities and receive offers to receive athletic scholarship, although they are highly skilled elite athletes and are in high demand. Secondly, it does not take into account the societal intermixture and internal stratification
24 of society. The exact circumstances can lead some athletes to move while others to stay in their home country. Nevertheless, world-systems theory has been applied in previous sports research contexts (Chepyator-Thomson et al., 2016; Magee & Sugden, 2002; Parrish et al., 2020; Poli, 2008). This study will use the world system theory, as it allows to conduct a study of migration factors, which will help to understand why some swimmers left to perform sports and study in the United States after the declaration of independence, while others stayed in Lithuania. Secondly, it will examine factors in how athletes have been recruited by U.S universities and how they managed to move to the United States to perform sports. Typologies of Athletes' Migration
The first theoretical model of sports migration highlighted the motivations of individual athletes. Maguire (1996) developed a synchronic typology of sports migration, which Magee & Sugden (2002) extended by applying world-systems theory to the study of football migration. The authors argued that global economics, politics, and culture intertwine and influence the migration of athletes from the periphery to the center. Maguire (1996) explored various sports and developed a typology of sports migrants consisting of five categories. A "Mercenary" is highly motivated by financial reward, and it is the reason for relocating. Migrant athletes of this type are motivated by short-term benefits and return to their country after a temporary emigration. A "Settler" is a migrant athlete who stays in that country after finishing a sports career. "Nomadic Cosmopolitan" is an athlete who wants to explore a new culture and society. "Pioneer" is an athlete who migrates due to the development of sports. "Returnee" is an athlete who voluntarily returns to his home country at any stage of his sports career. In the following study, Magee & Sugden (2002) elaborated the Maguire typology by identifying seven types of sports migrations. These include a Mercenary, Settler, and a Nomadic Cosmopolitan, as suggested by Maguire and added Exile, Expelled, Superstar and Ambitionist. For political reasons, an "Exiled" athlete has left his country to continue his professional career abroad. The "Expelled" athlete, who, due to behavioral issues and media attention, migrates to another country, continues to develop his career professionally. "Superstar" athlete migrates for commercial success, media attention, and capabilities to attract many fans to follow the sport. The "Ambitionist" category is divided into three possible types—first, a player who wants to further his professional athlete's
25 career abroad. Second, the athlete who migrated to a particular club or country. Third, the athlete moves to a country or club where he has a greater chance of winning. Poli, 2000 reveals the shortcomings of world-systems theory. His critique argues that these types of sports migrants do not explain the structural constraint on athletes aspiring to emigrate. The types presented by the authors allow grouping the reasons for sports migration, noting the causality, but in fact, the athlete's migration motives are often not unambiguous, they include several types of migration. The typology does not explain why the reasons for such migration prevail. Assigning an athlete to a particular type can be simplified by ignoring all the reasons for the athlete's migration, possibly missing important information. Athlete migration is influenced not only by aspects of sports development but also by motivation, social relations, better sports infrastructure and coaching, and other aspects that are not mentioned.
26 Chapter 4: Methodology
Research Design
This master's thesis aims to thoroughly explore and describe the experiences and incentives of research participants. To this end, I utilize a qualitative case study method to gather detailed data on the personal experiences of Lithuanian swimmers who have moved to the United States and those Lithuanian swimmers who have remained in their place of residence. The focus was on obtaining data that would provide depth and knowledge about the migration of Lithuanian swimmers, rather than focusing on the number of interviews conducted. Faegin, Orum, & Sjoberg (1991) mentions: "The case study seeks to capture people as they experience their natural, everyday circumstances, it can offer a researcher empirical and theoretical gains in understanding larger social complexes of actors, actions and motives." Qualitative methodology in migration research can be advantageous and appropriate due to the nature of migration itself. Migration is such a multidimensional phenomenon that some aspects of it can only be revealed through qualitative access. For example, how a decision to migrate or to remain in the home country is made, what factors shape intentions to migrate or stay, what it means to be a migrant, etc. Case Study
The qualitative case study is the most suitable due to the dependence on real-life experience and aims to understand the social phenomenon. The research is based on the case study of sports migration in one particular country. The main focus was investigating the causes of Lithuanian swimming migration after the declaration of Lithuania's independence in 1990 until 2004 when the country joined European Union. This case study uses the most appropriate method to collect research data - semi-structured interviews. The main goal is to understand that particular case thoroughly. Case studies provide a better understanding of the complexity of a case: a person, a group, a process, an event, a community, or an organization (Hodge & Sharp, 2016). However, the case study has one drawback: it is limited by time and place, such as one specific event or circumstance.
27 Sample
The research sample consisted of twelve Lithuanian elite high-performance swimmers. Seven out of twelve participants were female and five males. Eight participants migrated to the United States, while four remained to develop their swimming talents in Lithuania. All study participants were swimmers – no divers, water polo players, or synchronized swimmers participated in this study. Yin (1994), argues that 3–6 participants are the most appropriate size to apply in case studies, while Tetnowski (2015) explained that the proper sample size is one that reaches the theoretical saturation that occurs when topics and categories are fully developed and not new data appears. Rule & John (2011) argues that the correct sample size occurs when proper saturation is achieved and a comprehensive analysis emerges from the collected data. Therefore, it would be challenging to conduct a comprehensive study with less than six respondents. Oppositely, it would be difficult for a researcher to manage a study with more than 12 participants. I followed a homogenous purposeful sampling method to identify participants with the given required characteristics. It is a method in which individuals in a particular environment are selected deliberately to obtain important information from them that cannot be reached in any other way (Feagin et al., 1991). The list of respondents included people who are the only possible sources of information because they are experts in the field or witnesses of certain events. Two benefits I see with utilizing this sampling method: 1) I believe that twelve respondents sample size is best served by this sampling method. 2) As mentioned above, the shared characteristics of the participants are of particular interest to the study. A total amount of 14 individuals were contacted to participate in the study. They were provided with the research agenda and a request to be interviewed at their convenience. I returned a response rate of 12 who agreed to participate in the study, a breakdown of the sample and their information is provided in Table 1.
28 Table 1 Breakdown of athletes interviewed for the study. Name Age Sport Country of Development
Male 1 49 Swimming USA
Male 2 46 Swimming USA
Female 1 39 Swimming USA
Female 2 44 Swimming USA
Female 3 38 Swimming USA
Female 4 39 Swimming USA
Female 5 38 Swimming USA
Female 6 38 Swimming USA
Male 3 40 Swimming Lithuanian
Male 4 40 Swimming Lithuanian
Male 5 46 Swimming Lithuanian
Female 7 36 Swimming Lithuanian
Data Collection
Prior to the study, each participant was contacted by phone, Facebook Messenger app, or e-mail. As soon as participants showed interest in joining the study, a convenient time and date were agreed upon with each participant. Just before the interview, I also sent information via e-mail. This letter presented a study, explained voluntary participation and promised complete confidentiality. King et al. (2018) explains that researchers who perform qualitative research under three circumstances can perform it distantly: because of the geographical distance that separates the researcher and the research participant; for better access to study participants; due to the nature of the research topic. Consequently, due to geographical distance and Covid-19 restrictions, nine interviews were conducted using my personal computer, utilizing the Zoom platform, two utilizing the Skype app, and two using the
29 FaceTime app. My cell phone was also used to record the interview process to guarantee no error in the data recording and storing. Semi-structured qualitative interviews with study participants were conducted this year during the months of April and May. In-depth video interviews with study participants extended from 37 to 52 minutes. All interviews, regardless of the medium used, were audiotaped, and stored only at my personal computer. Once all the interviews were collected, I transcribed them and translated into English where is necessary. Interviews were conducted in Lithuanian, the native language of the study participants. In this language the participants indicate they are comfortable with; this is done to make sure they could fully express themselves and grasp the questions being asked. Thoughts, emotions, and language expressed by respondents during the interviews were not corrected or modified. I carried out further interviews over Skype and Zoom with the participants two weeks later. The purpose is two-fold. First, the effort will be undertaken to correctly understand and present the information obtained in the first interview. The second is to request additional elaboration on specific points of interest in my transcribed notes that I deem noteworthy. The data gathered through the semi-structured interview method will serve to reveal the assessment of athletes' migration, the reasons, and attitudes towards global and local sports. An examination of theoretical insights will complement the interview analysis. Only interview data and no other forms of data, such as policy documents or observation, were used to achieve the purpose of the study. The study aimed to identify the respondents' experiences, identify what motivated them, and encourage them to migrate from their viewpoint. Challenges Conducting a Qualitative Interview via Online
The online data collection method did not have a significant influence on the quality of the collected data. Still, the experience of its application has a few flaws in contrast to a regular in-person data collection model. First, I experienced limited nonverbal communication. While using online video platforms, live video interview helps to create a similar environment as in a regular in-person interview, but only partially. While a person's facial expressions can be seen, but other parts of the body do not fit into the computer screen. Another significant challenge in conducting distance interviews is technical interference and the quality of the internet connection during the interview.
30 Communication disruption is an uncontrollable force that the researcher cannot influence. Therefore, it is essential to discuss the possibility of internet connection interference and the possible repetition of questions or answers before starting the interview. Data Analysis
The semi-structured interview data was analyzed utilizing the thematic analysis method, which helps to distinguish the opinions of the interviewees, its and behavioral reasons, their similarities and differences on the theme of athlete migration. This analysis method provides an opportunity to receive answers to the research question. I chose the thematic analysis for several fundamental reasons. First, this method helps to detect certain regularities or topics in the available material, indicates clear steps in the analysis, and can be applied to various theoretical paradigms (Braun et al., 2016). Using a thematic method, the researcher can identify the themes that crop up repeatedly within the data by reviewing the data. Consequently, thematic analysis can help find out about people's experiences, views, and opinions (Braun et al., 2016). I will search the transcripts for categorical ideas and themes present in the participants' experiences and opinions, after which I will conduct an interpretation of these themes. Transcription
Immediately after each interview was completed, the necessary parts of each conversation were transcribed by myself. Thirty-two pages of data were transcribed and used in this study. I was trying to convey the verbal content of the conversation as accurately as possible, indicating pauses, voice tone changes, and nonverbal reactions as frustration or irony. This transcription style helps to reveal and interpret the experiences of the study participants, not only through the content of oral interviews but also through non-verbal reactions (Azevedo et al., 2017). Member Checking
To ensure the validity and accuracy of the methodology, I will utilize member checking. This will ensure the ideas shared in their interviews are congruent with the themes I identified. Member checking also serves the dual purpose of obtaining ideas that I might miss in my initial interpretation of the transcripts. According to Birt et al. (2016), the reliability of the obtained data is the basis of qualitative research. Member checking, which is confirmation of a participant, is a method of examining results' reliability. Data
31 is returned to respondents to check accuracy with their own experience. Member checking is frequently discussed as one of the best validation methods (Birt et al., 2016). Ethical Considerations
This master's study complied with the ethical requirements for social science research. Participants who meet the criteria defined in this master's thesis were invited to participate in the study. Former student-athletes who emigrated to study and improve in sports in the USA, and former swimmers, who remained to develop a swimming career in Lithuania. The ethical aspects of this study are focused on the confidentiality of each respondent. When the selected candidate athletes showed interest in participating in the study, they were pre-arranged interview dates and specific times. Consent to participate in the study was obtained before the study and at the beginning of each interview. Each respondent understood that this study is voluntary, and the participant has the opportunity to opt out and terminate their participation at any time. Respondents may not have answered the questions I asked, which would make them feel uncomfortable. Participants were asked for their permission to audio record the interview. According to Tolich (2004), case studies run the risk of inadvertently disclosing participants' identities without their consent if preventive measures are not taken; that is why the respondents' identities were changed and coded. Confidentiality was ensured by removing respondents' credentials (names, locations, educational institutions, and years of study), thus achieving more objective data from the respondents and providing their protection. Furthermore, to ensure additional confidentiality of study participants, publicly available excerpts from interviews depersonalize all names of locations, cities, and universities, coaches' names, all of which could allow information to be linked to a specific person. Efforts are made to present the obtained data as widely as possible to ensure objectivity and clearly distinguish where actual empirical data are obtained and where the researcher's interpretation is. The collected research material is saved following the principle of ethics. Therefore, the records and research notes will be stored on the researcher's computer with password security. In this study, respondents did not take any risk to their mental or physical health. I have been a swimmer, but I have never reached the elite level, and I have not participated in competitions at the highest level. In my work experience, I have accumulated experience working as a coach and managerial work in swimming projects. Social factors
32 related to swimming have always interested me. However, I don’t think my experience in swimming has influenced the results of this work. Scientific Considerations
The findings of this master's thesis are essential to several groups of interest. First and foremost, swimmers will consider whether it's worth going abroad to study and perform sports. They will be able to take advantage of research data and make informed decisions that are best for their future careers. Secondly, researchers, sports federation officers, and sports policymakers will be able to understand better the reasons for non-revenue sports athletes' migration and the motivation of athletes to pursue a sports career abroad. And finally, the general public will learn more about the relatively little-studied phenomenon of sports migration. This master's study provides new information in undeveloped research on sports-related migration to NCAA in the context of swimming. In the twenty-first century, sports activity is open and global, leaving fewer and fewer barriers to the free movement of athletes. It is important to investigate why and how Lithuanian swimmers' emigration took place after the country declared independence. Lithuania has a specific history, a small country, several times occupied, now a post-Soviet European country. It is essential to deepen the understanding of the migration process of its athletes. Sport migration reflects the free and global mobility of athletes from the periphery to the center. It shows that one-way migration is often an indication of the shortcomings of sport policy in the expelled country. The researched extent and causes of sports migration can help to reveal the gaps in Lithuanian sports policy and indicate the directions for its future improvement.
33 Chapter 5: Results
Reasons for Migration
The chapter bellow will discuss the findings of this master's thesis. The interview questions were structured to answer the research question. RQ: why did Lithuanian swimmers decide to migrate to the United States after Lithuania regained independence? In the scientific literature on sports migration and based on the world systems theory, athletes from the periphery are attracted to migrate to the centers of capitalism, especially the United States and Western European countries. An analysis of the data collected from the study revealed that the experience of the study's sample was exceptional compared to other studies of sports migration in the previous scientific literature. Previous research has mainly looked at athletes’ sample consisting of different sports (Love & Kim, 2011) or team sports athletes (Agergaard, 2008; Maguire & Stead, 1998). The chosen sample size allowed me to understand and explain the reasons why Lithuanian swimmers migrated to the USA. Participants' answers were translated from Lithuanian and presented verbatim, using accurate quotes. Not all respondents had the same motives and experience, but there are also similarities in the situation. Regarding swimmers' decision to migrate, the analysis of the collected research data revealed five main themes: 1). Recruitment process, 2.) In the U.S. sports system, universities provide suitable conditions for studying and advancing sports, 3.) political and policy causes for migration, 4.) economic reasons, and 5.) personal motivation for migration. A detailed discussion of the research results is provided in this chapter below. Recruitment Process
The remaining swimmers in Lithuania desired to swim overseas and did not migrate abroad simply because of family reasons "when we returned from the Olympic Games, a few months after, I received an offer to go to study and swim in the U.S, but then I was planning a wedding, life was already here, I was no longer like leaving, so I stayed in Lithuania" (Male 5), or they were recruited but failed to enroll into the university program "I received an offer to leave. I was connected with a university coach. I guess we were all in agreement, but then I didn't score enough points in an exam, so in the end, I didn't go." (Male, 3) or had no offer to relocate "I really wanted to leave, I was scanning for contacts with coaches in the U.S., I wrote some letters back and forth, but no one offered me a full
34 scholarship" (Male, 4). Although a few study respondents had a concrete proposal to leave Lithuania, they remained in Lithuania only because they failed to pass the required SAT or TOEFL scores. Their presence in Lithuania was likened to circumstances, but not to a personal desire to stay in Lithuania to continue a sports career here. All respondents indicated that they were inclined to migrate from Lithuania if they had no family issues, received the offer to move with a full scholarship, and if they could deliver all requirements set by the invited institution. This position of the respondents allowed to link the two groups of respondents into one. Like those left to the United States, Swimmers who remained in Lithuania agreed that conditions to excel swimming development and have better future prospects would be if one migrates to the United States. The recruitment process directly influenced and made possible the migration of swimmers to take place. In order to go and compete in sports and study in the U.S., they needed the help of intermediaries or direct contact with the coaches of the U.S. university swimming teams. However, one respondent went to compete and train in the United States not as a student-athlete but as a professional swimmer. Male 1:
“During the Barcelona Olympics, I met an employee of the U.S. Swimming Federation. He was of Lithuanian origin and spoke fluently Lithuanian. We talked, I told him that there were no conditions in Lithuania to swim, so he was the mediator who helped me to leave... I was recruited by a swimming club [respondent names the state where he was located], they sent an invitation letter to the Lithuanian Swimming Federation.... …no e-mail...or even fax... I got an invitation via FedEx or something. Everything else is history. I bought a ticket and traveled to the U.S. knowing only one English word, "hello" ... I represented the club in commercial tournaments in various states, I won numerous competitions and earned money, and thus supported myself financially, so the benefits were not only for me but also for the swimming club." The respondent later admitted that the professional path in the United States was a disadvantage because he received a reward for winning and participating in the competitions. Consequently, he could no longer qualify for a US university scholarship. NCAA rules states: An athlete is no longer eligible for participation in a sport if he has ever: (1) Taken pay, or the promise of compensation, for competing in that sport. [Bylaw 12.1.2] or (2) Agreed (orally or in writing) to compete professionally in that sport (NCAA, 2011). “Since I was already swimming here at the club level and received prize money, I couldn’t apply or receive a university scholarship, this road in America was closed to me” (Male 1).
35 Other respondent's experience migrating to the U.S. was relatively similar to the previous one because of the similar period and circumstances. He gained necessary contacts during the training camp prior to the Olympic games. But his transition from club level in the U.S. to university was possible, because he never took part in commercial tournaments and never gained financial benefits. Male 2:
“When we went to training camp in the U.S. before the games [Olympic], university and club coaches showed interest in recruiting us right away. After the games [Olympic], I was like eighteen years old, and I received an invitation to come to swim at one of the swimming clubs. That’s how I went. I lived with a local family they kept supporting me financially. I learned English, passed the necessary exams, and I was preparing myself to go to university to obtain a full scholarship and to be able to swim and study.” When asked if it was challenging or stressful process to get into the university, the respondent replied. Male 2:
“Now when I think about it, it was not a difficult decision, but then there was a situation of either proceeding to university or going back home to Lithuania. Which was not an option to me. As far as I remember, I chose maybe from three or four universities that offered the best conditions with a full scholarship. I wanted to go to California, but they didn't seem to give me a full scholarship. So, I finally chose to go to [names a university] where I both studied and participated in swimming for four years.” Another female respondent also went to the U.S. in the early '90s when the internet not existed. She was a very young age, and she knew nothing about the country she was going to. The phone connection was the only possible way to communicate over the Atlantic. Personal computers, email, video, and audio connections did not exist at that time. She was the first recorded example who migrated because she had a network connection with one of the previous respondents who went to the U.S. before her. She received an unexpected phone call with the proposal to come to swim at the same swimming club. Female 2:
“My decision to go [to the U.S.] was not so easy, as I did not speak English at all. I was only 17 years old. It was a little scary to fly to the U.S. all by myself. I went swimming at the same club as [previous respondent]. The first three months were brutal to me because I didn't speak English and didn't have any friends or someone to talk to. Good thing I was busy with swimming. When I started to understand English a little bit more, it eased. After a few tough months, I met the Lithuanian family, and they helped me a lot. With their help and support, I went to private English lessons, which helped me a lot. Oh, and then I applied to a few universities. It was hard to pass
36 the SAT because I still struggled with my English. Most of the points from SAT came from knowing the mathematics. The English part of the exam was relatively poor... no surprise. Anyway, I chose [university] because it was around the corner from where I was located. I wasn't pleased to relocate somewhere else. The state I live in is sunny all year round. They offered me a full scholarship, I knew a few girls from the university swim team, so the choice was easy for me.” Similarly, to Female 2, another respondent went to the U.S. in the late '90s, and her recruiting process with university coach went through telephone. She recalls that the central point for her desire to move to the U.S. was because of networking with the swimmer who was attending U.S. university at that time. She met [male,2] during the Lithuanian swimming championship in the summer season when he returned home for the summer holidays. He promised to introduce her to his university head coach for a potential spot on the swimming team. "Everything I did, I introduced her to the head coach and gave my recommendation, then everything was in her hands. A few more swimmers asked me for advice and contacts, but as far as I know, they failed to go" (Male 2). Female 1 was the first swimmer that I interviewed who went to study and compete in sports directly into the university. She described her personal experience: Female 1:
“As far as I can remember, I was already in the 11th grade, during the summer, I was competing in the Lithuanian Swimming Championship. And there I met [male 2] ... he visually looked so different, very different from all the other swimmers. He told me that he was doing sports and studying in the U.S., I was impressed so much and wanted to get out too ... We kept in touch with [Male 2], he brought me together with his university team coach, who called me on a simple landline phone that's how it all started.” The answers of many respondents reflected difficulties in preparing for and taking the SAT and TOEFL exams. Especially for swimmers who went to universities directly from Lithuania. They lacked exam preparing textbooks and other materials on how to prepare and succeed for these exams. Failure to pass these exams at an early step prevented further stages of the recruitment process. Female 1:
“Later I learned that I needed to pass the SAT and TOEFL exams. I didn't know anything about them. I didn't remember exactly, but to take one of them, I even had to go to Warsaw [Poland] because there were no possibilities to take it in Lithuania. Anyway, we had no books, no information on taking those exams or preparing for them. When I think now, it was wild how I passed them with no preparation. A good thing that I knew math pretty well, which helped me in the SAT… Long story short, I passed those exams, I don't know-how, but somehow, I did ... then was a long silence period, a month or two, no phone calls or anything. I had no one to ask if this usual
37 process or is it over for me… Later, I was told that the head coach of the swimming team was fired, and all the rest was settled with the assistant coach. A few months later, with a few phone calls here and there, they offered me a full scholarship, and I accepted [laughs].” The following three respondents went to study in the USA in the first part of the '00s. Their departure process was already significantly different from that of previous swimmers. The Internet in Lithuania was already used as a means of communication and information gathering, so it was easier for them to gather information about the country they were going to and find out more about university programs. The SAT and TOEFL textbooks were available to them. Without being aware of each other's efforts, all three respondents mentioned that they decided to try to study in the U.S. because they saw a successful [Female 1] case. This success story led both of them to look for ways to go to study in the United States. Female respondents 3, 5, and 6 were competitors against each other in Lithuania. However, they all three attempted to study in the U.S. without knowing about each other's efforts. Female 3 respondent stood out because she was the first to tell that she had no outside help or connections. In a way, she was not recruited, but she found a spot on a team by presenting herself by communicating directly with the coaches. Female 3:
“I knew that [Female 1] went to study in the U.S... Her story was quite prominent among the swimming community. At that time, I was maybe in the 11th high school class. To be honest, my path was either to study in the U.S. and continue swimming or quit sports and go to study at the university in Lithuania. So, when I finished grade 11, I started preparing myself for my path towards going to the U.S. I had a very clear strategy and plan, and I stick to it. I prepared responsibly for the SAT and TOEFL exams. I had textbooks, so I was aware of what things will be in exams. Simultaneously I searched online for the contacts of university coaches and wrote letters to them about myself, presented my swimming results and the like. I did everything from a to z by myself... I got three full athletic scholarship offers, and in the end, I chose the best overall program, which was academically and competitive on the sports side.”
Female 5 stood out because she was highly influenced to go to the U.S. by her Lithuanian coach, who did almost all the work contacting U.S. coaches and looking for contacts with them. Secondly, she got not enough points from the TOEFL exam but was still admitted to the university program. Female 5:
“First of all, I have to thank my coach, who helped me a lot. I was already studying in Lithuania, and I was not swimming for a few months, but he persuaded me to come back to swimming and encouraged me to study in the USA. He even paid the fees for my exams ... He made all the communication with coaches and found the spot for me.
38 He knew a few coaches in America who eventually somehow helped me to gain a place in the swim team. Two universities offered me a full scholarship, and one university provided me 80% scholarship ... I don't remember preparing for SAT or TOEFL exams. I think I took them without any additional preparation. The interesting part that I was admitted to the university even with an insufficient TOEFL score. When I went to the states, I had to retake the exam twice ... I guess it was a common thing because three other girls were in the same "shoes" as I did.” U.S Sports System
The composition of the U.S. sports development system is different compared to the rest of the world. Even before becoming commercialized, sport always played an essential role in American social life, both through active participation in sports and following as spectators. The most distinctive part of the American sports system is its close connection with academic institutions, such as schools and universities (Van Bottenburg, 2019). University coaches are searching for foreign student-athletes to make their programs more competitive in the closed domestic market. Some universities find it difficult to attract the best local student-athletes who choose the most prestigious top tear programs in a highly competitive environment, so other universities try to find competitive athletes from abroad. Female 5, who studied at a university in Lithuania for half a year, noted that Lithuania does not have a university sports system. Meanwhile, in Europe and other parts of the world, the development of athletes is not linked to academic institutions. Athletes' development is a duty of a sports school or sports club. These institutions, clubs, or sports schools relate to national and international sports governing bodies, which organize all-level local and international competitions for different age groups (Van Bottenburg, 2011). Outside the U.S., there are no more countries that offer a similar university sports system. After graduating from high school, athletes have to choose between pursuing the path of a professional athlete or pursuing higher education at universities in their home countries where there are no athletic conditions and scholarships. In many European countries, including Lithuania, higher education is free for the best students. However, athletes are often not the most advanced students to get this benefit of free education. And even if they qualify for free education, they are not having other benefits as it is possible in the Unites States. According to Love & Kim (2011), the scientific discourse of sports migration is dominated by two categories of research. The first direction focuses on the adaptation, experience, barriers and difficulties of international athletes in American universities. In
39 contrast, the second direction explores the reasons that led international athletes to go to American universities. Respondents mentioned four main topics of advantages of the American sports system compared to one in Lithuania: financial support, sports facilities, competitive environment, and education. All but one of the respondents (Male, 1) pointed out that the compatibility of sports with education was one of the most important factors why they considered to migrate from Lithuania. Male 2:
“At the time when I was swimming, there was not much information about the American universities education and sports system. We had no clue about it. I didn't know anything about it while living in Lithuania. But in the run-up to the Olympics, we went to a training camp in [names a state]. We trained and competed with teams from several universities. When we noticed how American swimmers compete in sports and study... You know, universities are held responsible for everything there. They provide free education, free apparel, and swimming equipment. They act in a way like professional teams, and they manage the whole process. This entire experience in the U.S at that time was like eye-popping to us. We all wanted this kind of condition for every one of us, we were Olympians, but we had 100 times worse conditions back home, no money, no decent swimming pools, no equipment, and I could not get into any Lithuanian University, because we trained for six hours a day, we had no conditions for this.” Another respondent took a similar approach and argued for the benefits of the American system, which allowed her to continue competing in sports and studying at the same time. Female 6:
“Back home, I studied at an excellent school, and my level of education was very high. After graduating from gymnasium, I could go to a good university in Lithuania or Europe, but I would have to finish my sports career in that case. Exiting to America allowed me to fulfill two of my desires, get a good education and continue to perform sports. I have been swimming since the age of seven, and I was not ready to finish sports, but if I had stayed in Lithuania or left to study in Europe, I would not have been able to combine education and sports. In this case, the non-revenue sports system in the U.S is better than in Lithuania. Because at home You have two distinct possibilities. Either after high school, you complete swimming and go to study and work, or you swim professionally but don’t have the opportunity to combine studies and sports.” Respondents paid a lot of attention to the athletic side. The conditions for sports development were essential to them, as were the resources provided to student-athletes, such as clothing, footwear, and swimming equipment. These factors had a considerable influence on the decision of the respondents. Almost all study participants compared the differences between Lithuanian and United States sports systems. No participant mentioned any aspect in which the Lithuanian sports system has an advantage over the
40 U.S. On the contrary, everyone named the benefits of the American system: the combination of education and sports, “the best thing about America is if You are an athlete, you get free education” (Female 6) high level of competition "the level of competition here is very high ... a lot of solid competitors ... the level of competition in the NCAA is very comparable to the European Championship" (Female 2), living and training conditions "in Lithuania, top Olympians don't have training conditions as I had here ... small university town here provides top-class infrastructure, which in Lithuania we will never have" (Male 2), university campus facilities, and sports equipment. Female 6:
“I really liked in America that you get everything that is necessary for sports (apparel, sneakers, goggles, caps, shirts, swimwear, shorts, etc.) and new ones every year [laughs]. This was brand new for me because we didn't get anything in Lithuania ... Of course, I also received all the books for my education for free ... Every winter we went to swimming camps in the mountains or by the sea. I don't even count, and I can't even compare the difference between the two countries. They're not comparable.” Female 3:
“I haven’t heard that at least one swimmer from America trained abroad because their sports system works excellent for those who want to combine sports and studies and compete at a high level in the NCAA tournaments. Those who are motivated to earn money exploit their talent by becoming professionals and swim in commercial tournaments. We don’t have a system like that in Lithuania. Just a handful of swimmers who get Olympic scholarships and compete in commercial tournaments ... they can support themselves. Everyone else either ends sports or goes to America.” This respondent noted a fascinating fact between the recruitment process of American students and international students. She says American students visit universities, examine campuses and sports facilities before committing to the university, and only after this process decide in which university to study. Meanwhile, international students do not have such opportunities, so their choice carries a lot of risks. Female 3:
“I was able to choose from three universities that offered me a full scholarship. I think I selected the best place, but my choice was a pure guess. While Americans choose universities very diligently, they visit multiple university campuses and meet the head and assistant coaches and even professors. We international students do not have such luxury. Usually, international students are recruited without meeting in person with the coach. Therefore, there is a lot of risk in this process. I had a team member from Sweden one year. She came home for a summer vacation and didn't return that year without saying anything to the coach. She just quit.”
41 Bale (1991) argues that in some cases for specific international athletes, the U.S. university sports system is the only way to extend an athlete’s career professionally, and respondents’ responses confirmed this statement. Female 4:
“The most important thing to me back then was that America offered better conditions to swim. That was all I was thinking. When I left Lithuania, I was already 21 years old. Lithuania had nothing to offer. I was swimming but earning no money. I was considering either I am leaving or I am quitting. In the beginning, I was not thinking about university education or anything like that. To be honest, in my first two years of college, sports were the most important priority. Still, later, after my second year there, I realized that education could be my winning lottery ticket to future life after swimming is over.” Understanding that an athlete’s career is not eternal has encouraged swimmers to focus on academic and future work careers. Therefore, even if student-athletes were not giving high initial priority to academics, eventually, they understood the importance of getting a good education and how it will benefit them in the future. Political and Policy Reasons for Athletes Migration
Political migration reasons are related to the political system in the departure country and the implementation of its sports policy. In practice, the implementation of sports policy is directly related to the extent of sports migration. Although the political reasons were not reflected in the interview questions, the respondents who migrated in the '90s mentioned poor political situations in the country and swimming situations in general when they were leaving the country. Also, they provided harsh words regarding sports policymakers, such as Olympic Committee and the Swimming Federation, as dissatisfied with their activities. The respondents presented the political situation in which they found their self in their sports career when Lithuania regained its independence from the Soviet Union. Male 1:
“When I grew up, Lithuania belonged to the Soviet Union. I have moved from Lithuania since the age of thirteen. I have trained in Moscow and in training camps all over the world. During the Olympics, I was 15 years old, and I won a medal. The future looked very bright. But then political changes forced me to end my career. When Lithuania regained independence, I was no longer able to train in Moscow, nobody could pay for my training there. There were no conditions to train or compete in Lithuania, there was no warm water in the pools, so I discontinued swimming for a year and a half.”
42 Female 2:
“I was very young girl; I was around 14 or15 years old. Suddenly we had nowhere to swim ... The situation with swimming pools was terrible. Swimming pools closed one after the other, it was costly to maintain them, so sometimes only cold water was available.” Male 1 respondent further presents the reasons that led to his departure only after Lithuania regained its independence. Male 1:
“At the end of 1991, the Lithuanian Olympic Committee was admitted to the international Olympic movement. There was an opportunity to represent Lithuania at the Barcelona Games and prepare for competitions abroad. So, I decided to come back to sports again. After two months of training, I won an Olympic ticket. After the Olympics, the political situation did not change. The country stood on its feet, the national currency appeared, but the pools did not work, there was no finance for developing swimming. National Olympic Committee demanded medals but never provided the necessary conditions. The only way out was emigration.” Another respondent pointed to the shortcomings of the swimming federation policy that led to his decision to go to the United States to perform sports. Male 2:
“Before and after Olympics, I was disappointed with the work of the federation, the work of the Lithuanian Swimming Federation. I was poorly treated at certain moments. As a professional athlete, I was not considered a professional. The conditions for improvement were very poor. And I realized that I was needed today and tomorrow, maybe not, and I realized that I was a master of my own destiny. I had to take care of my own destiny and career, and I decided to study in the US, go swim, and train and study there. And I will lay the foundation for my future there. I still was returning to Lithuania during the summer seasons, participated in the European and World Championship. I could still participate in the next Olympics. Still, in 98 or 99, I was completely convinced that I don't want to do anything with the Lithuanian Swimming Federation, and I did not compete for Lithuania anymore.” All respondents noted the shortcomings of sports policy and funding in Lithuania, which impacted their decision to leave Lithuania. According them to this day, Lithuanian sports policy is concentrated on supporting athletes who are Olympic Games candidates in their sports, while for the rest NCAA sports system is still a desirable path to extend their sports careers at high level.
43 Dual Citizenship
Four out of twelve respondents remained in the United States after they finished their swimming careers. Male 1 respondent states the reasons why he cut all ties with Lithuania and settled down in the United States for good. Male 1:
“I have been a victim of circumstances my whole life ... politics, life situations, or something else. After the [Olympic] games, the Olympic Committee was not satisfied with my performance. They accused me of not winning that I wasn't preparing [for Olympic games], spreading nonsense in the press. But they were silent about the fact that I swam with a broken leg during the Olympics. My injury occurred about half a year before the Olympics when in one race here in the U.S., my foot slipped on the starting tower. I didn't have health insurance, I couldn't have medical tests, and I hoped the leg would heal on its own. Lithuanian Olympic Committee could not care less. After the games, I learned that I need surgery because the foot bone was cracked and tucked into the tendon. Instead of taking care of my health, they [policy makers] made accusations. I was so angry that my agent immediately wrote an official letter to the International Swimming Federation announcing that I would seek U.S. citizenship. And from now on, I would represent my new country in all competitions. Although I managed to win the U.S. Open swimming tournament and wanted to participate in my fourth Olympics with the U.S. national team, citizenship issues took too much time. I had no choice but to end my career.” Female 1, 2 and 4 respondents stated that, that they saw huge potential of American education and the possibilities it offers if they remain in the United States. Later in life all three respondents got married and now lives a family life in the United States. They all emphasized that they believed being in the U.S. gave better possibilities for their future carrier than living in Lithuania. Economic Reasons
Male 1 was the only respondent in this study who explained that the financial aspect was an important factor for him for moving to the U.S. Male 1:
“I won a medal [names an event] during my first Olympics, even though I was only 15 years old. Since then, I have been financially self-sufficient. I was well known in Lithuania, as a celebrity, I was already earning a good living, I got a new car from government. In my second Olympics, I failed to win a medal. The sports scholarship in Lithuania was a joke, like 200 U.S. dollars, While in the U.S. I could earn pretty good money in commercial competitions.” While finance in sports and financial support are noted as significant factors. The financial aspect was a factor for the remaining respondents, but it was not necessarily the
44 primary or principal motivating factor for the further stage of their careers. More critical was sports development, achievement of set goals and results, self-realization, future prospects, which in the case of respondents was impossible according to the conditions in Lithuania at that time. Respondents steered for better economic conditions and future prospects in the U.S, but this was only an additional factor to everything else that comes with moving to the United States. Male 4:
“Let me tell you … Lithuanian athletes migrate to the U.S., not for money. You will not earn it directly there. But you get the tools there to serve yourself to grow better- living conditions in the future. First of all, an athlete’s career will come to an end eventually, right? But you will always have a diploma and skills that will benefit you in life. Second, studying there costs you nothing, only a plane ticket is from your pocket. The living accommodation is for free, and food is free, training conditions are fantastic, if you are ambitious and want to improve, you will not get this in Lithuania, while there it is possible.” Male 2:
“I was young, and I didn’t think much about the financial side. The most important thing was to support and sustain myself. When I think about it now, my departure and studies have given me a lot in life, more than money. I gained an experience there that I would never have had here. I am now fluent in English, and I can speak or relate to any person around me … At the university, sports teams have a strong culture of progress. Everything needs to be done precisely: you need to study in good grades, and at the same time show perform great sports results. I think I learned this discipline there, and now it is helpful for me in business. All of these qualities now help me in business, and I am teaching my employees all the same qualities I have gained; achieving the set goals, what you begin, you should always complete.” The last thoughts of the respondents confirm the interpretation of world-systems theory. Sport has inevitably become inseparable from financial support. The sports industry has evolved into a multi-billion-dollar industry dominated by the global capitalist economy. The world systems theory states that the behavior of an individual sport’s migrant cannot be explained without understanding how the society works and influence that society imposes on the individual. Therefore, it is vital to understand how the U.S. sports system works. Being a rich attraction center, the U.S. sports system has managed to recruit the most talented foreign athletes, making the NCAA a commercially successful project that generates high revenue. In other words, financial revenue of NCAA sports programs, media outreach resources, the ability to hire the best coaches, and service staff allow creating a competitive environment that draws the best athletic talent from the periphery. According to world-systems theory, peripheral states have invested their finance and
45 resources in training and developing their athletes. Still, they cannot sustain them, so the United States uses its dominant position to attract them for its financial purposes. One respondent perceived their study and sports experience as a work experience. In fact, student-athletes sign strict contracts, which are often reminiscent of employment contracts, and failure to fulfill the requirements can resulting in losing an athletic scholarship. This respondent specified that full scholarship covers all costs that would occur during her studies in the U.S. and this is a substitute of a salary. Female 5:
“With a student scholarship, you feel like at work, if you study poorly, there will be bad grades, the coach will not allow you to train. You may lose the athletic scholarship ... Competition on the team is very high and demanding. In Lithuania, I was the best, the champion, here if you are lazy and will not give your best, you will be replaced by another swimmer next year, and you will not even be remembered. In addition to your effort, you receive full support for your representation, so I have always considered studies and sports as the job. The university rewarded me for my efforts and dedication. … When I think about it now, a swimming team sports environment is also like a real work environment, with common goals and everything. Each team member has clear tasks, and the coach is like the CEO of a company that takes care of a smooth work process and employee development.” Previous research has shown that the reasons that contributed to student-athletes decision to move to the United States were not limited to the opportunity to participate in high- level sports competitions. Bale (1991) observed that international student-athletes were equally motivated to receive the world-class education and future prospects offered by an American university diploma. Free studies tuition was an essential factor for the respondents, and the level of funding conditions in the USA is not available in Lithuania. Athletes who play sports in Lithuania do not have the possibility to combine sports and education. Respondents emphasized what athletic scholarship provides: free education, meals, training and coaching services, transport, books, sports equipment - everything they could never afford from their pocket in Lithuania. The respondents' answers showed that the main factor in choosing the university they studied was a full scholarship, which covers all their expenses. The choice was not influenced by either the location of the university or the time zone in which the university was located. If respondents had multiple full scholarship offerings, they assessed which university could offer the best resources to provide in the best combination of education and sports.
46 Individual Reasons for Migration: Personal Development
For respondents who went to the U.S., migration was seen as a means of personal advancement. Before leaving, they firmly believed that they had more opportunities in America than if they stayed in Lithuania. According to them, opportunities for improvement at home in both sports and education were limited. Female 5:
“Before leaving to America, after high school graduation I studied at a pedagogical university in Lithuania for one semester. I passed the high school exams quite moderately, so I only got into a pedagogical university. In Lithuania, I could only dream of economics, which I studied in America. Here in Lithuania, at that time, only the best students studied economics at Vilnius University, passing exams 95 percent out of 100. But when I received athletic scholarship and went to my university in the pacific northwest of the U.S, I had an opportunity to choose any major I desired.”
A qualitative study by Popp et al., (2009) showed that sports programs at American universities provide better conditions for the development of international student- athletes than organizations located in their home countries. Several respondents mentioned that sports competitions and competitors at U.S. universities were at a significantly higher level than in Lithuania. They also noted the training process in the U.S. helped them improve their personal records. Like the previous respondent, Female 1, had similar ambitions to leave. She wanted to advance to a higher sports level than she was in Lithuania. And one of her motivations to go overseas was because she wanted to participate in the Olympic Games, and she saw no opportunity to achieve this goal in Lithuania. Female 1:
“When I engaged in sports in Lithuania, I was the Lithuanian champion in my distance, and I was slightly short le to reach the Olympic qualification. But in Lithuania, I trained in poor conditions; it was far to commute to the swimming pool, my pool was 25 meters long, and all significant competitions occur in the 50-meter swimming pool. Our gym was so bad that not a single exercise machine worked there. I didn't see how I could continue to improve by working in such conditions.” Language Barrier
According to (Love & Kim, 2011) for many athletes coming from countries where English is not their first language, an essential aspect of coming to the United States was the English language in particular. Only a few respondents were confident with their
47 English language skills before migrating to the U.S. However, multiple respondents mentioned that when they arrived in America, they struggled in communicating with swimming team members and coaches, “when I arrived to U.S, “hello” was the only word I knew” (Male 1), other responded adds “the first three months were brutal to me because I didn't speak English and didn't have any friends or someone to talk to”. Other respondents encountered an English language barrier while taking the TOEFL and SAT exams. During the interviews, all respondents who migrated to the U.S. admitted that they overcame the English language barrier and are currently fluent in English. One respondent even mentioned that being fluent in English was always her aspiration, which came true only when studying in the US. Female 4:
“I was not a very good student at school in Lithuania. I was moderately successful in English. But thanks to swimming, I was able to get a sports scholarship and study in the US. Communicating with those around me helped me learn English, which I currently speak without problems.” Male 2:
“It was the perfect time for me to see the world and sit on my own butt. I went straight forward, not looking back. I didn’t hesitate for a second. It was a moment when I was just running from Lithuania. And when I received an offer from the swimming club in [names a state], it was the same club I was before the Olympics. They sent me the invitation, they said: look, came back to train here, learn English, take tests [TOEFL and SAT] and go study and compete at university. That is what I did.”
48 Chapter 6: Discussion and Conclusion
In this chapter, I present discussions, conclusions, limitations, reflexivity and recommendations for future research in the field of sports migration Discussion
The main finding in this research that the experience of Lithuanian swimmers' migration did not correspond at all to the already established typologies of sports labor migration studies presented by Magee & Sugden (2002); Maguire (1996). Maguire (1996) presented five types of sports labor migrants: pioneers, mercenaries, settlers, nomadic cosmopolitans, and returnees in addition Magee & Sugden (2002) added three additional categories ambitionist, exile and expelled. I could not directly link the data to these typologies when trying to interpret the obtained data on what influenced and motivated Lithuanian swimmers to migrate. Some motivations for migration were similar, but migration by Lithuanian swimmers depended on an intertwined typology. The typologies of athlete migration developed by these authors do not provide an accurate typology to explain swimmers' migration decisions in this study. The presented typology of athlete migration allows to group the causes of athlete migration to monitor the prevalence of specific causality. However, in reality, athletes' motives for migration are often intertwined with several typologies and encompass several different aspects. One specific typology does not explain the predominant causes of migration. The direct assignment of a swimmer to a particular type can be simplified without considering all the reasons for the athlete's migration. For example, Male 1, can be placed into several typologies. First mercenary, because he was the only respondent motivated by financial incentives. However, he can be placed to the settler and exile typologies as well, because he was a swimmer who has spent overseas for several consecutive seasons and remained in the United States after his career ended. This athlete also migrated because of political reasons, as he became in conflict with Lithuanian sports policymakers and refused to continue to represent Lithuania in international competitions. The same adaptations and intertwining of typologies of sports labor migration occurred in the analysis of other study participants. The only sports labor migration typology that was not evident in this study was the pioneer.
49 Conclusion
This master's research was the first research of this kind, during which I attempted to delve into the motives and experience of Lithuanian swimmers who migrated to the United States. I hope that my work has contributed to the expansion of sports migration research. Although the study provided insight into the very narrow context of sports migration, it is crucial to understand better what factors led to the wave of swimmer migration in the Lithuanian context. This study revealed that Lithuanian swimmers have to overcome numerous challenges in order to go to study in the U.S. First of all, there must be a high elite level athlete because the American NCAA level of sports competitions is very high. Second, successfully pass all required exams such as TOEFL and SAT. And finally, receive a full athletic scholarship that guarantees free tuition and excellent sports conditions. None of the respondents studied and exercised sports with their own funds. All swimmers were on a full athletic scholarship. I identified that all respondents, even those who did not go to America, stated that they saw migration as a better prospect for their future sports careers. Lithuanian swimmers were more inclined to perform sports abroad than to stay in Lithuania. For most respondents, the quality of life, education, and sports were significantly better in the United States than in Lithuania. The data collected in this study show that Lithuanian swimmers appreciate better sports development conditions in the United States. By receiving free education, they prefer its sports system benefits, where high-performance sports can coexist with the acquisition of higher education. The two most significant determinants mentioned by respondents had the most evident differences between the Lithuanian and the United States sports system, namely sports infrastructure and the competence of coaches. Most athletes stated that training conditions, swimming pool infrastructure, coach competence, and quantity of assistant coaches were better in the American sports system. Respondents rated the sports infrastructure in the United States as clearly better and incomparable than that in Lithuania. Due to various reasons, U.S. universities primarily invest in sports infrastructure to attract the best local and foreign athletes. Respondents mentioned the impeccable quality of the sports infrastructure and the functionality and accessibility of the entire student campus. These luxury conditions are primarily possible due to high tuition fees for a large proportion of regular students and the fact that U.S.
50 university sports generate high revenues from TV and licensing deals for public universities, which operate on a non-profit basis and invest all their profits in improving science and sports conditions. Overall conclusion, sports development opportunities were better in the United States. Finally, based on the findings of this master's study, I would advise prospective students to become more familiar with the American sports system, the recruiting process, and exam requirements to enter universities in the United States. I believe that future students who intend to study in the United States should consult with Lithuanian athletes who have already gone to study in the United States. The interview data revealed that future student- athletes lacked close cooperation with those who left to the United States before them. Limitations
This master’s study was conducted using one particular case study in which competitive athletes from one country and one sports sport was invited to participate. Therefore, the study results reflect only this context and do not provide broad insights into sports migration. Furthermore, in this study, I used only semi-structured interview data from study participants, and this data was not linked to other kinds of data, such as observations or policy documents. This study focused on the respondents' experience and motivation in the migration process from their perspectives. However, in future studies, I would suggest conducting additional data from coaches who recruit these athletes. Policy documents, newspapers achieves and student athletes' environment observations would benefit the more vital understanding of single case athletes' migration process. It is essential to mention that I had very limited time (10 weeks) to write this master's thesis and to collect research data. I was unable to communicate with all respondents I was planning. Even with the short time available for data collection, I do not think that the outcomes of this study have suffered as a result. However, I would prefer to have more time to collect and analyze research data for future research. Even considering all these circumstances, I think I could obtain valuable data from respondents about their migration experience and motives. Future Research
Sports sociologists and sports science researchers have focused their attention on migration research in football, basketball, handball, hockey, rugby, and other team sports, as these are the most popular sports worldwide. Even researchers who delve into the
51 migration of international athletes to the NCAA, are paying significantly more attention to the team sports as mentioned above. There is a lack of individual case studies of sports such as swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, tennis, and rowing in the scientific sports literature. More empirical research is needed in the context of individual sports to understand the motivations and experiences of athletes who migrate internationally. Reflexivity
Conducting this research was a very magnificent experience for me. The choice of the master's thesis topic required a lot of effort, and it was difficult to decide which areas to focus on and which case to choose. I have always been interested in the sports development systems of various countries, the conditions for the development of high- level athletes, so it turned out that this interest dictated the topic for my master's thesis. My motivation to choose this topic had two main reasons. First, I wanted to investigate swimming because I was a swimmer myself. And secondly, I witnessed the period when Lithuanian regained its independence and opened its borders. Consequently, athletes were able to migrate to develop their talents abroad. I believe that interviews with respondents succeeded in finding answers to a research question related to the migration and globalization of athletes. I am very grateful to the respondents who agreed to share their impressions and experiences about the stages of their sports careers when they left Lithuania for the United States. Researching this topic gave me a lot of new knowledge about the complex phenomenon that sports migration is and what diverse motives encouraged athletes to migrate from Lithuania.
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61 Appendixes
Appendix A: The Interview Questions Guide with Swimmers Who Went to the U.S (Lithuanian Version)
1. Papasakokite, koks buvo Jūsų gyvenimas kai plaukėte Lietuvoje? Kada ir kaip pradėjote sportuoti plaukimą? 2. Kokios buvo treniruočių ir tobulėjimo sąlygos Lietuvoje ir kokios Amerikoje? Prašau palygink. 3. Kada atsirado pirma mintis išvažiuoti iš Lietuvos? 4. Kokios tavo manymu buvo pagrindines priežastys išvykti studijuoti į JAV? 5. Ar lengva buvo priimti sprendimą išvykti? 6. Kaip į tavo išvykimą reagavo artimieji, draugai, treneriai? 7. Kaip pavyko įstoti į universitetą? Kaip pavyko išlaikyti TOEFL/SAT egzaminus? 8. Kaip įvyko išvykimas ar tu pati ieškojai ar tave „rekrutino“ per varžybas užsienyje? Ar rinkaisi iš kelių universitetų? 9. Kas nulėmė pasirinkimą vykti į konkretų universitetą? Ar rinkaisi iš kelių? 10. Kas buvo svarbiausia Amerikoje? Tik sportas? Ar mokslai, gyvenimo sąlygos? 11. Ar susidūrei su sunkumais norint išvykti? 12. Ar buvo kalbos barjeras? 13. Kokios mintys sukosi prieš išvažiuojant? 14. Kaip pavyko tau prisitaikyti, kas buvo sunkiausia, o gal buvo lengva? 15. Kokia tau buvo Amerika prieš išvažiuojant ir po to pagyvenus kurį laika? 16. Kokius lūkesčius buvai užsibrėžus prieš išvažiuojant? 17. Ar radai tai, ko tikėjaisi prieš išvažiuodama(s)? 18. Ką gali papasakoti apie savo aplinka studijuojant? Komandą, trenerius, studentus, dėstytojus, varžybas? 19. Kokios priežastys nulėmė, kad grįžai arba negrįžai į Lietuva? 20. Kokias svarbiausias pamokas išmokai JAV, kaip ši patirtis tave pakeitė?
62 Appendix B: The Interview Questions Guide with Swimmers Who Went to the U.S (English Version)
1. Tell me please, what was like your life when you competed in Lithuania? When and how did you start swimming? 2. Describe please the conditions for training and development in Lithuania and U.S.? Please compare. 3. When the first idea to leave Lithuania come about? 4. What do you think were the main reasons for moving to study in the U.S.? 5. Was it easy to decide to leave? 6. How did your relatives, friends, and coaches react to your departure? 7. How did you manage to enroll at the university? What was the experience passing TOEFL / SAT exams? 8. Tell me more about the recruitment process. Did you choose from multiple universities? 9. What determined the choice to go to a particular university? Did you choose from several? 10. What was Your main focus in America? Just a sport? Education? Living conditions? 11. Did you have any difficulties leaving? 12. Was there a language barrier? 13. What were Your thoughts before you left? 14. How did you manage to adjust to the new environment? What was most difficult, or maybe everything was easy? 15. How did You imagine America before you left and after you were there for a while? 16. What were Your expectations before You left? 17. Did you find in the U.S what you anticipated before you left? 18. What can you tell me about Your environment while studying? Team, coaches, students, teachers, competitions? 19. What were the reasons for returning to Lithuania or remaining in the U.S? 20. What are the critical lessons learned in the U.S.? How has this experience changed you?
63 Appendix C: The Interview Questions Guide with Swimmers Who Remained to Swim in Lithuania (Lithuanian Version)
1. Papasakokite, koks buvo Jūsų sportinis kelias Lietuvoje? Kada ir kaip pradėjote sportuoti plaukimą? 2. Kokios buvo treniruočių ir tobulėjimo sąlygos Lietuvoje kai Jūs sportavote? 3. Ko labiausiai trūko arba kokie buvo privalumai sportuojant Lietuvoje? 4. Ar turėjote minčių išvažiuoti sportuoti už Lietuvos ribų? Jei, taip, kokios tavo manymu buvo pagrindines priežastys išvykti? 5. Kaip manote kokie privalumai ar trūkumai būtų buvę išvykus sportuoti į užsienį? 6. Ar bendravote su į užsienį išvykusiais plaukikais? 7. Kodėl pasilikote sportuoti Lietuvoje? 8. Kaip pavyko suderinti mokslą ir sportą Lietuvoje? Ar susidūrei su sunkumais derinant sportą ir mokslą? 9. Ar užteko finansavimo, kurį turėjote Lietuvoje? 10. Kas buvo svarbiausia tavo sportinėje karjeroje? Tik sportas? Ar mokslai, gyvenimo sąlygos 11. Ar pavyko Lietuvoje įgyvendinti savo sportinius tikslus? 12. Ką gali papasakoti apie savo aplinką sportuojant Lietuvoje? Komandą, trenerius, varžybas?
64 Appendix D: The Interview Questions Guide with Swimmers Who Remained to Swim in Lithuania (English Version)
1. Could You describe your sports path in Lithuania? For example, when and how did you start swimming? 2. What were the training and development conditions in Lithuania when you competed in sports? 3. What was lacking, or what were the advantages of competing and developing sports in Lithuania? 4. Did you have any thoughts about going to compete and develop outside Lithuania? If so, what do you think were the main reasons for leaving? 5. What do you think would be the advantages or disadvantages of going abroad to compete in swimming? 6. Have you interacted with swimmers who went abroad? 7. Why did you stay to develop Your swimming career in Lithuania? 8. How did you manage to coordinate education and sports in Lithuania? Have you encountered difficulties in combining sports and science? 9. Tell me more about the funding while You were developing Your sports career in Lithuania? Was it sufficient? 10. What was most essential in your sports career? Just a sport? Or education, living conditions? 11. Did you manage to achieve your sports goals in Lithuania? 12. What can you say about your environment while competing in sports in Lithuania? The training environment, coach, competition?
65 Appendix E: Consent Form (Lithuanian Version)
Malmės universitetas Sporto mokslo katedra Tyrimo sutikimo forma
Mano vardas Ignas Vaicaitis, aš esu Švedijos Malmės universiteto sporto mokslo studijų magistrantas. Šiuo metu rašau magistro darbą apie sporto migraciją. Gerbiamas dalyvi, esate kviečiamas dalyvauti šiame magistro tyrime. Šiame tyrime bus tiriama į JAV persikėlusių Lietuvos plaukikų patirtys. Šiuo tyrimu siekiama išmokti: • Lietuvos plaukikų, persikėlusių studijuoti ir sportuoti į JAV patirtis. • Kodėl Lietuvos plaukikai rinkosi išvykti studijuoti ir sportuoti į JAV.
Prieš nuspręsdami dalyvauti šiame tyrime, atidžiai perskaitykite šią sutikimo formą. Jūsų dalyvavimas šiame tyrime yra pilnai savanoriškas. Jūsų paprašysiu dalyvauti interviu du skirtingus kartus su vienos savaitės pertrauka ir po antrojo pokalbio susisieksiu, kad peržiūrėtumėte surinktų duomenų tikslumą. Tikimasi, kad internetinis pokalbis truks maždaug 30–40 minučių. Diskusija bus įrašyta garsu ir perrašyta į tekstą. Aš būsiu vienintelis asmuo, turintis prieigą prie interviu duomenų, ir jis bus saugiai saugomas mano kompiuteryje ir užrakintas bylų spintelėje, kol bus baigtas magistro darbas, o tada bus sunaikinti. Lygiai taip pat visas transkripcijas atliksiu aš asmeniškai ir vienintelis turėsiu prieigą prie jų. Jūs galite bet kada atšaukti interviu ir pasitraukti iš tyrimo, ir jokie surinkti duomenys nebus panaudoti. Jūs neprivalote atsakyti į klausimus, į kuriuos nenorite atsakyti. Šis tyrimas nekelia jokios žinomos rizikos jūsų sveikatai ir jūsų vardas nebus susietas su tyrimo rezultatais su išvadomis.
Sutikimo pareiškimas: Perskaičiau aukščiau pateiktus komentarus ir sutinku dalyvauti šiame tyrime. Aš duodu leidimą pokalbį įrašyti aukščiau išdėstytomis sąlygomis. Suprantu, kad jei man kyla klausimų dėl šio tyrimo, aš galiu susisiekti su tyrėju šiuo adresu: [email protected]
______(Dalyvio vardas ir pavardė, parašas) (data)
66 Appendix F: Consent Form (English Version)
Malmö University Department of sport science Research Study Consent Form
My name is Ignas Vaicaitis, and I am a Master’s student in Sports Science at the University of Malmö in Sweden. I am currently writing my master's thesis about sports migration. Dear participant, you are invited to participate in a master's research study. This research investigates the experiences of Lithuanian swimmers who have migrated to the United States. This study aims to learn: • The experiences of Lithuanian swimmers who migrated to study and participate in sports in the United States. • Why Lithuanian swimmers choose to migrate to study and compete in the United States.
Please read this consent form thoroughly before you choose to engage in this study. Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. You will be asked to participate in interviews at two separate times one week apart and might be reached after the second conversation to review the accuracy of the collected data. The online conversation is expected to last approximately 30-40 minutes. The discussion will be audio-recorded and transcribed. I will be the only individual who will have access to the interview data, and it will be locked up securely in my computer and a file cabinet until the research is finished and then will be destroyed. Likewise, all transcriptions will be done by me personally and only seen by me. You have full right to cancel the interview and withdraw from the study at any time without an outcome. You are not obligated to answer any questions you do not wish to reply to. This research poses no known risks to your health and your name will not be associated with the findings.
Consent statement: I have read the above comments and agree to participate in this study. I give my permission to be tape recorded under the terms outlined above. I understand that if I have any questions or concerns regarding this study, I can contact the researcher at [email protected]
______(Participant’s name and surname, signature) (date)
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