THE ACQUISITION OF PEDAGOGICAL CONTENT KNOWLEDGE

BY VOCAL JAZZ EDUCATORS

by

CHRISTOPHER JOHN VENESILE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Dissertation advisor: Dr. William I. Bauer

Department of Music Education

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

August, 2010 ii

CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

We hereby approve the thesis/dissertation of

______Christopher J. Venesile______

candidate for the ______Ph.D.______degree *.

(signed)______William I. Bauer______(chair of the committee)

______Lisa Huisman Koops______

______Kathleen A. Horvath______

______Richard S. Varga______

______

______

(date) ______May 11, 2010______

*We also certify that written approval has been obtained for any proprietary material contained therein. iii

Copyright © 2010 by Christopher John Venesile

All rights reserved iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iv LIST OF TABLES...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... ix ABSTRACT ...... x CHAPTER ONE...... 1 Introduction...... 1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) ...... 3 Pedagogical Content Knowledge of the Music Educator...... 5 Pedagogical Content Knowledge of the Vocal Jazz Educator...... 8 Professional Development for Music Educators ...... 11 Professional Development for Vocal Jazz Educators...... 14 Summary...... 17 Need for the Study...... 19 Purpose of the Study...... 20 Research Questions...... 20 Delimitations...... 21 Definition of Terms ...... 21 CHAPTER TWO...... 24 Review of the Literature ...... 24 Introduction...... 24 Jazz Education Research...... 24 Jazz Curricula Research...... 27 Summary of Jazz Education and Curricula Research...... 32 Improvisation Research ...... 33 Vocal Jazz Improvisation ...... 35 Summary of Improvisation...... 40 Vocal Jazz Teacher Education and Pedagogy ...... 41 Vocal Pedagogy...... 41 Summary of Vocal Jazz Teacher Education and Pedagogy ...... 46 Choral Teaching Knowledge and Skills ...... 47 Vocal Jazz Education...... 51 Journal Articles and Dissertations ...... 52 Vocal Jazz Ensemble Texts and Literature...... 55 Summary of Vocal Jazz Education...... 60 Summary of the Chapter...... 61 CHAPTER THREE ...... 63 Methodology...... 63 Preliminary Study ...... 63 v

Present Study ...... 64 Participants ...... 64 Measurement Instrument ...... 66 Procedure ...... 69 Data Analysis...... 70 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 71 Results...... 71 Introduction...... 71 Participants ...... 71 Research Question 1 ...... 74 Research Question 2 ...... 75 Personal Musicianship Sources ...... 78 Ensemble Components Sources...... 78 Historical and Cultural Sources...... 81 Summary of Research Question 2 ...... 83 Research Question 3 ...... 85 Research Question 4 ...... 87 Traditional and Jazz Vocal Pedagogy...... 87 Warm-ups/Ear-Training...... 88 Rhythm Section/Rhythmic Concepts...... 90 Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts...... 91 Sound Reinforcement ...... 94 Summary of Research Question 4 ...... 96 Research Question 5 ...... 97 Research Question 6 ...... 99 Open-ended Questions...... 100 Open-ended Question 1 ...... 101 Open-ended Question 2 ...... 101 Open-ended Question 3 ...... 101 Chapter Summary ...... 102 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 105 Discussion...... 105 Vocal Jazz Subject Matter Knowledge: Research Question 1...... 105 Sources of Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Research Question 2...... 106 Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills: Research Question 3...... 112 Sources of Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Research Question 4...... 115 Professional Development Topics: Research Question 5...... 119 Preferred Professional Development Formats and Approaches: Research Question 6 ...... 123 Open-ended Questions...... 125 Implications of Pedagogical Content Knowledge ...... 128 Conclusions...... 130 Limitations of the Study ...... 130 Suggestions for Further Research...... 130 Conclusion ...... 132 vi

APPENDIX A...... 134 VJEKSI Survey ………………………………………………………………………...134 APPENDIX B...... 162 Survey Cover Letter...... 162 APPENDIX C...... 163 Second Survey Request ...... 163 APPENDIX D...... 164 Reminder Request...... 164 REFERENCES ...... 165

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Skills for Vocal Jazz Directors…………………………………………..74

Table 4.1 Participants by MENC Region…………………………………………...83

Table 4.2 Educational Levels of Vocal Jazz Ensembles Directed by Participants……………………………………………………………….84

Table 4.3 Importance of Jazz Content Subject Matter Knowledge and Skill to Success as a Vocal Jazz Education………………………………………86

Table 4.4 Abbreviations for Sources Used to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills ………………………………………………………………...87

Table 4.5 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Personal Musicianship……………...89

Table 4.6 Sources of Knowledge and Skills: Ensemble Components……………...91

Table 4.7 Sources of Knowledge and Skills: Historical and Cultural……………...93

Table 4.8 Importance of Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills To Success as a Vocal Jazz Educator……………………………………96

Table 4.9 Sources Utilized to Acquire Vocal Pedagogy: Traditional and Jazz………………………………………………………………….99

Table 4.10 Sources Utilized to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Warm-ups and Ear-Training……………………………………………100

Table 4.11 Sources Utilized to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Rhythm Section/Rhythmic Concepts…………………………………..102

Table 4.12 Sources Utilized to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts………………………………………104

Table 4.13 Sources Utilized to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Sound Reinforcement………………………………………………….106

Table 4.14 Mean Results of Professional Development Topic Areas……………..108

Table 4.15 Mean Results of Professional Development Formats/Activities………110

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge………………………………………...14

Figure 3.1 Sequential Explanatory Design…………………………………………..80

Figure 4.1 Sources of Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills Summary………………...94

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have been important sources of support in my endeavor to complete this document. First, my family: my wife Amy, who supported me when I decided to pursue this goal and for the numerous sacrifices she made; my children – Nathan, Paige,

Sydney, and Noah, for their sacrifices and willingness to allow dad to do his homework. I am so very proud of each of you. I want to thank my Dad, John, for inspiring me to pursue this dream and for showing me how to live life with grace and dignity. And to my

Mom, Nina, for her constant encouragement, prayers, and for helping me to look at the big picture. To my sisters, Meredith and Heather, for their love and support; and my brothers Joel and Jon for being the best friends a brother could ask for and for knowing I can count on you for anything.

Second, I would like to thank the scores of education professionals and students with which I have interacted with over the years; those experiences have helped shape me into a better and more effective teacher. It is particularly humbling to have many former students as friends and colleagues. I would also like to thank my dissertation advisors for their input, time, and energy in helping to make this a stronger document. And lastly, I would like to thank my dissertation advisor for his friendship and for his remarkable abilities as a researcher in helping me to clarify my ideas, thoughts, and words in this document. You are truly the model of integrity, class, and grace and I am blessed to have been able to learn from you.

x

The Acquisition of Pedagogical Content Knowledge

by Vocal Jazz Educators

Abstract by

CHRISTOPHER J. VENESILE

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the forms of pedagogical content knowledge needed by vocal jazz educators. A secondary purpose was to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators.Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is the specialized type of knowledge teachers possess that is characterized by an overlapping and interaction of subject matter content and pedagogical understandings (Shulman, 1986). Using PCK as a theoretical construct, the researcher designed the Vocal Jazz Educator Knowledge and

Skill Inventory (VJEKSI), a survey that contained primarily quantitative, closed-ended items, with a few open-ended responses also solicited. The survey was delivered online to 271 purposefully selected secondary and post-secondary vocal jazz educators. Ninety- three respondents returned completed surveys, representing a return rate of 34.3%. Data analysis prioritized the statistical examination of the quantitative data, but also employed qualitative data analysis in a sequential explanatory strategy to highlight conclusions and illuminate broad points with a personal perspective (Creswell, 2003). Respondents rated all 15 subject matter knowledge and 14 pedagogical skill items between “4” (moderately important) and “5” (important) on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The knowledge and skill xi data was further delineated into eight categories for additional analysis. Study participants indicated that they acquired their PCK from a variety of sources, with regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz, attending jazz festivals as a member or director of an ensemble, self-study on various topics related to jazz, and participation in jazz workshops most frequently utilized. The top topics that participants indicated interest in for future professional development included vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques, new literature sources, and opportunities for networking with other vocal jazz educators. Sessions at professional music education conferences and participation in vocal jazz festivals were among the most preferred approaches to future professional development. Suggestions for further research include utilizing the PCK model as a theoretical lens in case studies of exemplary vocal jazz educators. 1

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

The number of vocal jazz ensembles at the secondary and post-secondary levels has been growing steadily in the United States, Canada, and even Europe since the early

1980’s (Weir, 2002; Zegree, 2002; Fredrickson, 2004). This increase may be traced, in part, to changes in the collective attitude of music educators toward the value of contemporary forms of music in the curriculum (Isbell, 2007). The growth may also be related to some vocal music educators’ advocacy for jazz to be recognized as America’s classical music (Robinson, 1994; Spradling, 1987; Grier, 1977b). In any case, jazz has been a part of school curricula for over 60 years and its place as a legitimate stand-alone music is widely accepted (Scimonelli, 1999: Kuzmich, 1991). While scholarly activity has been increasing in certain areas of vocal jazz education in the past few decades, until recently the most neglected aspect of the subject has been the teacher/director.

In the report of the Tanglewood Symposium the authors proposed initiatives for the study of music beyond the Western canon in the American classroom. Included were calls to “involve music of our time in its rich variety, including currently popular teenage music and avant-garde music, American folk music, and the music of other cultures”

(Choate, 1968, p.139). Many choral music educators have embraced this appeal for inclusion of contemporary forms of music.

Choral directors have the obligation to allow students to experience excellence in

all types of choral music. To deny them Bacharach, Brubeck, or Basie, in honor

of three other time-respected B’s, is to close the door on a large portion of the

future’s musical history (Fredrickson, 2004, p. 20). 2

While the debate continues on the place of pop and rock music, jazz’ credibility in the vocal curriculum appears to have been gradually accepted due, in part, to the acceptance of instrumental jazz a generation earlier (Spradling, 2000; Prouty, 2002).

The vocal jazz ensemble is a highly specialized musical group. Teaching such an ensemble requires teachers to have expertise in a wide range of musical and pedagogical areas, including: (a) choral singing and vocal pedagogy, (b) the interpretation of the jazz style and other contemporary styles, (c) instrumental direction, (d) improvisation and (e) technology (Grier, 1977a; Zegree, 2002; Fredrickson, 2004; Rutherford, 2008). These disparate requirements can be daunting for music educators, given that choral directors frequently have no meaningful training in jazz and band directors often have little experience in vocal and choral pedagogy (Cappello, 1999). The result is a vacuum in the profession that has often been addressed through a self-initiated, patchwork curriculum.

Unless an undergraduate or graduate student attends one of a very small number of colleges or universities that have a dedicated faculty experienced in vocal jazz, pre- service choral music education majors are generally not trained in jazz (Grier, 1991;

Monkelien, 2002). Historically and culturally, there seems to be a greater likelihood that instrumental majors will eventually cross paths with jazz pedagogy in secondary instrumental methods courses than will vocal majors in the curriculum (Day, 1992;

Kennedy, 2005). One author stated:

Many of us were never trained in jazz pedagogy. Those with a small amount of

training use the “hit and miss” philosophy in putting together a choral curriculum

that includes jazz education. Others of us are so unsure of all the many

components that go into performing vocal jazz that it is just avoided altogether 3

(Cappello, p.1).

The necessity of additional, specialized, idiomatic training may be discouraging to pre- service teachers in view of the seemingly overwhelming knowledge and skill requirements. Some teachers already in the profession also may have difficulty coming to terms with the prospect of further training.

It’s difficult when you’ve spent all of your college training investigating traditional

choral literature and style to have someone say, “Why don’t you try vocal jazz?

Here are some inflections that you are going to have to incorporate such as a ‘fall

off’ and a ‘shake’ and you’re going to have to work with a drummer and bass

player. They’re just going to throw up their hands and say, ‘I don’t want to do that!

I have hundreds of years of quality choral literature I can draw upon and you’re

saying I should take time away from this to spend on vocal jazz?’ (Kraintz, 1990, as

cited in Pisciotta, 1992, p. 132)

In-service vocal music educators interested in incorporating jazz into the curriculum may not only lack an understanding of the specialized knowledge and skills required, but they may also not have had the opportunity to develop their abilities in this area.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)

The mid-1980s saw a transformation in approaches to understanding teacher knowledge. Lee Shulman’s (1986, 1987) essays on pedagogical content knowledge proposed new ideas about what educators needed to know for successful teaching. His writings focused on the necessity of teachers having both a thorough understanding of their subject matter and the capacity to deliver the course content to students in ways most accessible to learners. Shulman discovered gaps in the literature, pointing out that 4 there is a specialized type of knowledge that teachers possess as they build a strategy for learning in a discipline that results from an intersection of subject matter and pedagogical knowledge. Shulman addressed the intersection of the two knowledge types, calling this overlap pedagogical content knowledge or PCK (see Figure 1.1).

Pedagogical Content Content Knowledge Knowledge Pedagogical Knowledge (A) (C) (B)

Figure 1.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge is multi-dimensional, allowing teachers to find unique ways of representing material to students (Barrett, 2006). Teachers design instruction in a holistic manner to accommodate students’ prior knowledge and unique learning needs, as well as the unique attributes of the content area and teaching/learning context (Shulman, 1986). The nature of pedagogical content knowledge differs by teaching discipline – the science teacher, English teacher, physical education teacher, and music teacher all will have a different type of pedagogical content knowledge due to the specific nature of the subject matter and particular pedagogical approaches appropriate for the learning environment in question (Shulman, 1987). Even within music, the pedagogical content knowledge of the instrumental, vocal, and general music teacher, 5 while having commonalities, will differ in various ways. Shulman’s ideas have been gradually accepted in the profession and incorporated into teacher testing and research projects designed to authenticate PCK (Shulman, 2009).

Pedagogical Content Knowledge of the Music Educator

Music education researchers have utilized Schulman’s conceptual framework in studies investigating the PCK required for music teaching. Three published studies brought the acquisition of PCK within undergraduate methods courses under scrutiny. In Conway’s

(2002) investigation, data was compiled from cooperating teachers, administrators, and recent graduates of a large U. S. university. The participants rated observations of teaching, teacher education courses, and college methods courses as less valuable parts of the program than student teaching, pre-service fieldwork, participation in ensembles and applied study. The findings appear to indicate that PCK drawn from active personal experiences were stronger than more passive teacher education courses and observation.

Ballantyne and Packer (2004) blended elements of pedagogical content knowledge with competencies required of Australian classroom music teachers to create a survey instrument that included four categories of 24 skills and competencies needed by music educators. The categories were (a) music knowledge and skills, (b) non-pedagogical professional knowledge and skills, (c) general pedagogical knowledge and skills, and (d)

PCK and skills. Data was gathered from music educators with less than three years experience. Respondents indicated a need for more training in pedagogical content knowledge during pre-service methods courses.

Gohlke (1994) used a qualitative field and case study approach to investigate pre- service elementary music teachers’ acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge. 6

College music education undergraduates (n = 8) were observed and interviewed at the beginning, middle, and the end of a fourteen-week elementary music methods course.

The researcher wanted to know how pre-service teachers (a) learned to make pedagogical and curricular decisions, (b) the source and organization of the knowledge learned, and

(c) the effects the students’ previous experiences had on the decisions they made. The data analysis revealed that the subjects’ PCK was accumulated primarily from their own ensemble participation and teacher observation, knowledge that they used and applied to current teaching situations. Gohlke believed that music methods courses might be a source of PCK that pre-service teachers integrate with other forms of pre-existing PCK from teacher observation and personal ensemble experience. In addition, methods courses may also be effective in overcoming students’ prior beliefs about elementary music teaching. This set of studies (Gohlke, 1994; Conway, 2002; Ballantyne and Packer, 2004) indicates methods courses, although not a primary source, may supply limited additional knowledge.

Snow’s (1998) qualitative study investigated an alternative model of choral director preparation and planning in the choir classroom. The researcher observed a class of undergraduates through a variety of experiences, including written lessons and conducting. Data was collected through field notes and videotape of the conducting lessons. Results supported an immersion into score study for the purpose of rehearsal planning. An alternative model of preparation called brainstorming allowed the subjects

(n = 6) to use score study and analysis to fuel their rehearsal planning and reflected a link of musical content knowledge to a growing pedagogical knowledge base. Using pedagogical content knowledge as a theoretical framework, Duling (1992) examined the 7 practices of exemplary general music teachers for the study of pedagogical content knowledge in general music teaching. The professional profiles of two model middle- school general music teachers revealed sources of PCK and personal qualities that paralleled a Shulman-created Model of Pedagogical Reasoning and Action, an outgrowth of the PCK concept.

Haston and Guerrero (2008) utilized Shulman’s framework in their study of the development of undergraduate instrumental music majors’ pedagogical content knowledge. To delineate the sources of PCK, student teachers were videotaped during rehearsals and analyzed for PCK evidence. Results from this limited qualitative study indicated that PCK sources included the cooperating teacher, methods classes, apprenticeship of observation, and intuition. The researchers believed that consideration of these sources could assist in methods course design. The researchers were aware of previous criticisms of music methods and their reputation as unreliable sources of PCK.

The inclusion of music methods classes and intuition – “unattributable PCK or independent creative thought” (p. 51) – as primary sources of PCK seem to contradict the findings of Gohlke (1994), Conway (2002) and Ballantyne and Packer (2004). Haston and Guerrero did caution that their conclusions were restricted to this present study and that improved methodology in future case studies might reveal a more complete picture of sources of PCK in teacher training.

Millican (2007) investigated practicing secondary instrumental music teachers’ (n =

214) perceptions of the importance of PCK to successful teaching. The researcher developed a Shulman-inspired framework for secondary instrumental music teachers by compiling information from music education textbooks, research studies, and 8 certification guidelines, from which he developed a survey that was administered to the study participants. Results indicated that Pedagogical Content Knowledge, defined as

“providing multiple explanations and instructional strategies” (p. 31), Content

Knowledge, defined as “demonstrating their knowledge through inquiry, critical analysis, and synthesis of the subject” (p. 31), and General Pedagogical Skills, defined as teachers

“developing meaningful learning experiences to facilitate learning” (p. 32), were the three sources of knowledge that factored most highly in to the success of the secondary instrumental teachers. Other areas rated lower included Knowledge of Learners and Their

Characteristics, Curriculum Knowledge, Knowledge of Educational Contexts, and

Administrative Knowledge. The researcher called for replication in other areas of music education and the use of other research designs.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge of the Vocal Jazz Educator

Sources of PCK for vocal jazz educators might begin though an apprenticeship of observation during experiences as a high school or college student (Haston & Guerrero,

2008; Jenson-Hole, 2005). Various professional development activities throughout a teaching career could continue growth in this area. However obscure and limited, any involvement or immersion in jazz-related activities could provide a foundational knowledge base for future training. While extant research in this area is extremely limited, there are a few applicable studies.

Venesile (2005) surveyed public secondary school choral teachers from a

Midwestern state (N = 147) regarding their attitudes toward vocal jazz. Only 10.2% (n =

49) reported receiving any instruction related to jazz in choral music during their undergraduate education. In a descriptive study on the status of vocal jazz in Texas, 9

Cruse (1999) reported a similar percentage of teachers (11%, n = 24) as indicating they had the benefit of vocal jazz training in their pre-service curriculum. Other researchers have reported similar findings in studies spanning more than thirty years, from the time when vocal jazz ensembles were initially part of school curricula in the Pacific Northwest

(Anderson, 1976; Balfour, 1988; Marks, 1994; Weir, 1994; Avery, 2002; Wadsworth-

Walker, 2005). With this lack of pre-service training, many teachers faced with directing a vocal jazz ensemble would seem to be in a disadvantageous position.

Venesile (2004) examined the perceptions of vocal jazz education experts (n = 15) regarding the knowledge and skills crucial for the vocal jazz ensemble director. The experts, from the states of California, Illinois, Michigan, Texas, and Washington, were selected based on their national reputations for excellence by having presented or performed at national professional music education organization meetings and conferences, or by serving in a leadership position on the vocal jazz board of the

American Choral Directors Association (ACDA) and/or the International Association for

Jazz Education (IAJE). Respondents rated the importance of various skills identified in the literature on a five-point scale with 1 = ‘no importance’ to 5 = ‘extremely important.’

Several areas were identified as being ‘important’ or greater (M = 3.93 or above) including (a) keyboard skills (M = 4.65), (b) jazz theory knowledge (M = 4.50), (c) directing a rhythm section (M = 4.46), (d) networking in the jazz education community

(M = 4.37), (e) knowledge of sound reinforcement (M = 4.06), (f) teaching improvisation

(M = 3.93), and (g) rehearsal techniques (M = 3.93).

Over half of Venesile’s (2004) respondents elected to add comments on other important elements, such as listening to jazz music “Make listening to definitive 10 recordings a daily exercise – steal what you hear – emulate the pros,” said one. Another wrote, “A vocal jazz educator must listen to vocal and instrumental jazz constantly” ( p.

11). Still another stated,

I believe that one of the most important elements that contributes to the success

of a V.J. educator is something that you touched on, but only briefly, and that is

LISTENING!!! The director who wants to excel in this area mustbe committed to

listening extensively to both instrumental and vocal jazz to learn the style and

repertoire in the same way that he or she had been exposed to live and recorded

music in the classical realm. I believe that that is the thing that is lacking MOST

in educators who would like to pursue this path. Even if and when they are

committed to it themselves, they must extend that commitment to listening with

their students, and provide extensive opportunities for those students to hear,

discuss, analyze, feel, and emulateprofessional examples themselves (p. 12).

Understanding the jazz idiom was also mentioned multiple times by participants.

The successful jazz ensemble director must know the jazz idiom. Jazz rhythms

and harmonies are different than other idioms and must be understood to some

degree – the more understanding, the more success” (p. 12).

It seems apparent that pedagogues generally agree that the vocal jazz educator has multiple competencies to master with some degree of depth. It is understandable then, that many music educators faced with learning a new idiom, skills, and concepts are overwhelmed at the prospect. Instrumental or choral methods courses are unlikely to impact jazz teaching, as researchers have shown that they are generally not providing much background training in the area of vocal jazz (Leonard, 1985; Kennedy, 2005). 11

Outside of the teachers that have extensive post-secondary training in jazz, most vocal jazz ensemble directors obtain knowledge and skills through an assortment of individually initiated professional development experiences (Cruse, 1999). The obstacle in the way of progress may not be so much a lack of professional development opportunities, but rather confusion about the types of professional learning necessary for success as a vocal jazz educator (Pisciotta, 1992).

Professional Development for Music Educators

Even the most talented and prepared teachers require ongoing professional development experiences to deal with unique situations and changing times. Pedagogical content knowledge begins accruing and maturing during a teaching career, and quality professional development experiences deepen and strengthen the quality of PCK.

Therefore, it is necessary to examine the literature on professional development in music education to develop an understanding of how these experiences equip teachers to help their students learn.

The research on the preparation of teachers receives less attention in the literature than do other areas, such as perception and performance (Kratus, 1992; Schmidt &

Zdzinski, 1993). In addition, there is scant research on the effect of in-service teachers application of new knowledge (Scribner, 1999). Even though states and local schools require professional development, the task of designing and funding most meaningful professional development experiences are largely the responsibility of the educator

(Bowles, 2003). A factor in professional development choices by educators is the ever- changing educational environment:

Concurrent with the national arts education reform, many school districts are 12

reexamining curricula and are reshaping content to meet what is believed to be the

needs of students living and working in the twenty-first century. Teachers are

assuming major roles in shaping curriculum, and are making important decisions

concerning what to teach and how to teach it. Following this trend, music teachers

are challenged to select musical experiences that their students will enjoy, find

relevant, and which will allow them to integrate their critical thinking and problem

solving skills with their expressive skills (Gohlke, 1994, p. 7).

The authors of the National Standards for Arts Education (MENC, 1994) wrote

“bringing the Standards to life in students will require professional development for many teachers and changes in teacher preparation programs” (p. 17). As jazz is an indigenous

American musical art form with a distinct history, culture, and idiomatic improvisation, harmonic, and rhythmic structures, it would appear that vocal jazz would make an educationally worthy addition to a music educator’s portfolio. To do so, however, may require professional development in several areas. Shortly after Shulman’s original essay on pedagogical content knowledge, reform-minded policy groups and teachers began implementing PCK into professional development models representing teaching as the consequence of an array of interconnected skills and competencies (Barrett, 2006).

Before sources of additional knowledge in vocal jazz are identified it may be appropriate to examine the status of research on the professional development for music educators.

Conway (2008) interviewed music teachers (N = 19) with varying years of teaching experience regarding their perceptions of professional development. The educators disclosed that informal interaction with peers was their most valued form of professional development, regardless of their career stage. Findings also indicated that professional 13 development needs for music educators may change throughout a career.

Bowles (2003) reported a large percentage (82%, n = 456) of experienced music educators from a Midwestern state music education association indicated an interest in increasing their skills and knowledge as motivation for seeking professional development. While most respondents indicated a reluctance to incur large travel and lodging costs, 72% preferred a summer, multi-day workshop design. The author suggested that program providers could collaborate with post-secondary institutions to reduce travel-related expenses.

Bauer, Reese, and McAllister (2003) used a questionnaire in a study on the use of technology by music teachers – once before a week-long summer workshop, once post- workshop, and again toward the end of the school year. Though the teachers reported significant increases in the knowledge, comfort, and frequency of use of technology after the workshop, there was a drop in the end-of-year reporting in the same three areas.

However, the levels in knowledge, comfort, and frequency of use were still significantly higher than before the workshop began. The researchers suggested that additional support following the workshop might mitigate the drop in the assessed outcomes. Though in this particular study the topic was technology, it would seem logical that professional development in any new area may have similarities.

Other researchers have suggested that professional development for newer teachers may also benefit the mentor (Conway and Holcomb, 2006; Robinson, 2005).

Smith (1994) examined a two-year mentoring program for beginning music teachers to describe the vital elements of the program. Fourteen first and second year teachers, along with seven mentor teachers established a relationship through informal and structured 14 meetings. All participants reported valuable experiences in several areas, including classroom management and knowledge of teaching materials. Indications are that research in professional development for music educators is in the early stages of development (Conway, 2007).

Bauer’s (2007) summary and analysis of a set of studies examining the professional development preferences and needs of experienced music teachers suggest that teachers regularly participate in professional development through (a) professional conferences,

(b) university-sponsored workshops, and (c) professional collaboration. Examining the effectiveness and the experiences and practices of professional development in the same article, Bauer cited the lack of research in the important relationship of teacher professional development to student achievement. Additionally, Bauer calls attention to the role of teacher professional development in the retention of teachers in music and the professional development needs of teachers at different career stages. There appears to be support for the idea that certain types of professional development are favored that allow colleagues to learn from one another in formats allowing for a greater, more intense interaction. The analysis also offered that music educators might require professional development experiences different from other classroom teachers, as well as experiences appropriate to their area of expertise and level of experience. All of these observations may provide insight into the ways vocal jazz educators obtain much needed professional development to solidify their knowledge and skills.

Professional Development for Vocal Jazz Educators

Music teachers may require professional development that is not only targeted at different stages of the educators’ career, but also in their area of expertise (Bauer, 2007; 15

Hammel, 2007). There appear to be several professional development approaches to which a novice vocal jazz teacher can turn. Vocal jazz workshops in numerous formats, as well as clinic sessions at state, regional, and national conferences are available across the country (Mattson, 2009; UNT, 2009; Voicentral, 2009; WMU, 2009; Wisconsin

Choral Directors Association, 2009). Early in the development of the vocal jazz ensemble movement, a number of extended workshops were offered to interested students and teachers in the same region, including the Frank DeMiero Jazz Camp, Doug Anderson

Jazz West Contemporary Choral Workshops, and the Phil Mattson Vocal Jazz Workshops

(Pisciotta, 1992). These workshops were, at the grassroots level, partially responsible for the advancement and promotion of the contemporary vocal jazz ensemble model developed from the professional vocal groups of the 1950’s to the 1970’s, including the

Hi-Lo’s, Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross, Singers Unlimited, Manhattan Transfer, and

Four Freshmen, among others (DeWeese, 1997). These groups would have members and arrangers who embraced jazz education by contributing arrangements, both published and unpublished to the repertoire, including Gene Puerling, founder of the Hi-Lo’s and

Singers Unlimited, Jon Hendricks, Phil Mattson, and others. The practice has continued to the present day with the success of Bobby McFerrin, New York Voices, The Real

Group, and Take 6. By obtaining recordings and an arrangement, ensembles were able to listen to definitive interpretations, utilizing them as a blueprint for crafting authentic performances of the literature.

For nearly forty years, the principal organization behind many of these types of offerings in jazz education was the International Association For Jazz Education (IAJE).

IAJE began in 1968 as the National Association of Jazz Educators (NAJE), as an 16 organization initially founded for jazz band directors (IAJE, 2007). Gradually, the vocal jazz community developed a track in the association with college program chapters and prominent vocal jazz educators as members and assuming leadership positions. The organization’s centerpiece was an annual conference hosted in major north American cities, attended at its peak by as many as 8,000 educators, musicians, enthusiasts, and industry representatives from as many as 35 countries. Among important conference events were hosting the National Endowment for the Arts Jazz Masters Awards ceremony, performances by major jazz artists and top school ensembles, presentations by clinicians, and an industry track that brought in jazz greats, record companies, agents, and radio professionals for roundtable discussion sessions. Jazz education, teacher-training, and networking were the focus of each conference with an average of over 100 clinic sessions on virtually every major jazz topic, including vocal jazz.

Additional major initiatives by IAJE included publications and summer workshops.

The IAJE Jazz Curriculum Guide (1996); Teaching Jazz: A Course of Study (1996), an

IAJE/MENC partnership published by the Music Educators National Conference; and the

Jazz Educators Journal, which featured refereed, research-based articles; all contributed to the development of teachers’ understanding of the medium. The Teacher –Training

Institute (TTI), a two-day summer workshop intended for teachers with no prior jazz experience held at various sites across the U.S., was offered on an annual basis. In addition to a vocal track, there were tracks for classroom general music educators, instrumental music, piano, and improvisation (IAJE, 2007). One distinctive asset of IAJE was its close affiliation with premiere jazz artists and international jazz festivals. This helped to foster a trend toward collaborative, non-competitive festivals with a clinic 17 component (Fowler, 2008).

In April of 2008, the IAJE board voted to file for bankruptcy, due in part to decreased revenue from the annual conference, among other financial difficulties

(DeBarros, 2008). However, even though the demise of IAJE left an immediate void, the music education community was quick to fill it through the Jazz Education Network

(JEN), with former IAJE board members leading the organization (Papich, 2009). In addition, MENC initiated the Society for Jazz Education, a support group that joins other societies under the MENC umbrella (MENC, 2008). Disappointing though it may have been, the collapse of IAJE has not been met with indifference. There appears to have been an immediate positive reaction to continue the sponsorship and advocacy for jazz.

There also continue to be journal articles and handbooks available – even publishing companies continue to upgrade their catalogs in vocal jazz.

How then, can a knowledge base with systematically codified individual skills and competencies be organized for a prospective teacher of vocal jazz? Professional music education organization conferences and university-sponsored workshops in a multi-day, summer format appear to be available, as well as numerous organized festivals at high schools and colleges across the country (JazzEd, 2009). Nevertheless, there appear to be an abundant number of music educators seeking guidance in organizing their professional development in vocal jazz. While there seem to be available professional development opportunities, identifying the appropriate experiences to match educators’ requirements and tastes are what need to be answered.

Summary

The teaching of vocal jazz is growing in secondary and post-secondary education. 18

Because a vocal jazz ensemble is a highly specialized area in music education, diverse musical skills and knowledge are required. Despite the fact that vocal/choral musicians are frequently lacking pre-service training in vocal jazz, there appear to be an ample number of music educators that are interested in this contemporary genre, viewing it as a significant music, worthy of serious study. However, the means for these individuals to systematically acquire the necessary knowledge and skill for success as a vocal jazz educator is not transparent.

Shulman’s theory of PCK brought new thinking about the way teachers process the knowledge necessary to teach the content matter of a subject to students. Several music education studies have attempted to synthesize and adapt the concepts to music teaching, and in the process, address potential reform to the undergraduate music education methods curriculum. Research on the teaching/learning process, once mostly focused on the student component has now been balanced with studies examining the role of teacher knowledge and skills.

A vocal jazz educator’s PCK begins accruing in early experiences, possible as a singer in a vocal jazz ensemble or thorough study of the genre in a variety of other ways.

Since only a small fraction of choral directors obtain any information on vocal jazz during their undergraduate careers, professional development is where educators turn to for knowledge and skills. Experts have identified important areas of vocal jazz ensemble knowledge, including jazz theory knowledge, instrumental music, sound reinforcement, improvisation, and rehearsal techniques.

Several researchers have explored the topic of professional development for music teachers to ascertain music teacher needs, preferences, practices, and the 19 effectiveness of various kinds of teacher training. In an analysis of music education professional development studies, it appears that a sizable number of teachers participate in professional development and that intensive and sustained experiences may yield a higher quality experience. There seem to be a number of professional development opportunities that educators can choose from including, workshops, camps, university- sponsored programs, and professional music education conferences in a variety of formats. The vacuum created by the demise of IAJE, once the primary organizational advocate for jazz education, has been filled by new and existing professional music organizations. Questions, however, remain about how improvements in professional development methodology will impact student achievement and the quality of teaching.

Need for the Study

It has been more than 40 years since the Tanglewood report called for the inclusion of more contemporary forms of music, including jazz, in the American classroom. While vocal jazz has been growing in popularity over the past several decades, the myriad of challenging musical and pedagogical understandings essential to effectively teach vocal jazz ensembles can be difficult for individuals to determine. Most vocal/choral music educators have a very limited amount of exposure to vocal jazz and relevant teaching strategies during their undergraduate curriculum. Once in the profession, those educators that seek growth in this area often settle for a patchwork set of experiences to develop basic skills.

Pedagogical content knowledge has been identified for several teaching disciplines, but so far has not been empirically defined for vocal jazz educators. Doing so would allow the development of a framework for pre- and in-service education in this area. It 20 would assist individuals seeking to develop their knowledge and skill in vocal jazz with a roadmap for doing so. For those charged with designing appropriate and effective professional development experiences, a clear picture of what comprises pedagogical content knowledge for vocal jazz educators would be extremely beneficial. Clearly there is a need for a critical examination of this phenomenon.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to identify and describe the forms of pedagogical content knowledge needed by vocal jazz ensemble educators. A secondary purpose is to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators.

Research Questions

Research Question 1. What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill to success as a vocal jazz teacher?

Research Question 2. How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired their vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill?

Research Question 3. What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of jazz pedagogical knowledge and skill to success as a vocal jazz educator?

Research Question 4. How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired the vocal jazz pedagogical knowledge and skills?

Research Question 5. What are the professional development topics of interest to in- service vocal jazz educators? 21

Research Questions 6. What are in-service vocal jazz educators preferred formats and approaches to professional development?

Delimitations

Pre- and in-service music teacher education unrelated to vocal jazz will not be examined in this study. In addition, this investigation is not an evaluation of vocal jazz educators, but rather, an attempt to identify the necessary understandings for success as a high school vocal jazz educator. Finally, this study is not designed to validate previous studies involved in pedagogical content knowledge or college and university music methods courses.

Definition of Terms

Content Knowledge. Content knowledge refers to concepts, principles, ideas, and applications a teacher should know in a given subject. In the case of the vocal jazz educator, content knowledge would be the fundamental knowledge of both the musical elements and vocal jazz.

Pedagogical Knowledge. Jazz pedagogy knowledge can be defined as the strategies, techniques, and approaches to teaching genre-specific style, improvisation, literature, knowledge of sound reinforcement, etc.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge. The specialized kind of knowledge formed at the intersection of content and pedagogy. Also, the ways of representing and formulating vocal jazz concepts to allow students to understand and comprehend their meaning,

Professional Development. Professional development is the formal and informal learning experiences teachers engage in to improve their knowledge and skill as educators.

Sound Reinforcement. In the case of a vocal jazz ensemble, sound reinforcement is 22 an amplification system consisting of: (a) individual hand-held cardioid microphones for singers and similar for instruments, (b) speaker monitors for the benefit of the singers aural support, (c) main speakers, (d) mixing console, and (e) miscellaneous components that contribute to provide a satisfactory listening experience for the audience. Sound reinforcement is a necessary element for rehearsal and performance, in that it allows the vocalists to perform without excessive projection above the instrumental ensemble and over long distances in large performance space. Vocal Improvisation. Vocal improvisation is the spontaneous invention of melody, rhythm and syllables over a given chord progression . . .developing the ability for creative expression in the basic language of modern jazz: bebop (Weir, 2001, p. 27).

Vocal Jazz. A concise definition by Wadsworth-Walker (2005) is “a choral art form using extended tertian harmonies, idiomatic jazz rhythms, and/or improvisation” (p. 11).

Cruse (1999) defines it as

a high form of choral art . . .the primary goal of which is aesthetic in nature, using

melodic and lyric material from the popular and Broadway cultures with the highest

quality of rhythmic, harmonic and stylistic integrity possible, incorporating the

essential element of improvisation, and using live rhythm section accompaniment

for most rehearsals and all performances. (Cruse, 1999, p. 11-12)

Vocal Jazz Ensemble. Zegree (2002) defines a vocal jazz ensemble as “of 10-24 singers . . . choral ensemble that specializes in jazz” with rhythm section. (p. 2)

Vocal Jazz Ensemble Educator. A vocal jazz educator is a music teacher who directs an ensemble of singers and instrumentalists in the art of jazz and contemporary literature. The director’s responsibilities include: (a) auditioning and selecting all members, (b) teaching the proper idiomatic vocal and choral techniques appropriate for the style and for potential application to a sound system, (c) selecting and programming 23 appropriate literature for the ensemble for performances, and (d) the direction of an instrumental ensemble that collaborates with the choral ensemble.

Vocal Jazz Pedagogy. Vocal jazz pedagogy can be define as the knowledge, instruction or study that deals with principles of singing in the idiomatic styles of contemporary music, usually vernacular speech and electronic amplification (Spradling,

2007). 24

CHAPTER TWO

Review of the Literature

Introduction

The purpose of this study is to identify and describe the sources of pedagogical content knowledge for experienced vocal jazz ensemble directors. A secondary purpose is to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators. While there have been several research studies involving vocal jazz, there is little empirical evidence regarding the unique blend and depth of pedagogical content knowledge and skill for the director of vocal jazz ensembles. The related research and pedagogical literature provides a foundation and context for the present study. This literature can be divided into five categories: (a) jazz education research and curricula, (b) vocal improvisation, (c) vocal jazz teacher education and pedagogy, (d) choral teaching knowledge and skills, and (e) vocal jazz education.

Jazz Education Research

Before World War II, there was a mentor-apprenticeship approach to jazz education (Caswell & Smith, 2000). Because jazz was the popular music of the day in the

1930’s and 40’s, there were ample opportunities for young musicians to listen, and ultimately, play in jam sessions and amateur groups. “Such vernacular apprenticeship was appropriate and effective at training practitioners in both the musical and the fiscal logistical and interpersonal skills required by traveling musicians” (p. 101).

Gradually, a societal shift took place as a result of the end of the war, changing musical tastes, resulting in a reduction in the number of players needed for smaller clubs. 25

As a result, the university setting became the new training ground for jazz musicians.

These events coincided with the return of a large number of veterans who, after receiving musical training while enlisted, enrolled in colleges and universities on the G. I. Bill

(Wheaton, 1970). Jazz received credibility in college programs in the late 1950’s as a result of several institutions offering courses in instrumental jazz, the first granted degree program in jazz studies, and a discussion of jazz education at the National Conference of

Music Educators in 1956 (Jones, 2005; Rhodes, 2005). It should be noted that until the mid-1950’s jazz was less accepted in academia due to cultural (racial) opposition and dubious past association with vices—alcohol, drugs, and brothels (Spencer, 2002).

Snyder (1999) obtained data from primary and secondary sources to piece together a compelling account of college jazz education during the decade of the 1960’s.

The historical study investigated several facets, including (a) the evolution and acceptance of jazz study as a serious art, (b) perceptions of jazz inside and outside of academia, (c) cultural changes and influences, and (d) important college jazz programs.

Snyder places jazz education within an expansive historical background and describes possible causes and effects. The acceptance of jazz as a musical art and the credibility it attained as a noble academic pursuit would influence the development of vocal jazz programs decades later (Snyder, 1999).

Prouty (2002) identified the two contrasting and sometimes contentious influences on jazz education: the jazz community and academia. Jazz education has been simultaneously supported and critiqued by both entities:

Music education in America has seen as its mission the advancement of an

essentially Europeanized musical world-view, with western art music established 26

as the norm against which other musical genres are judged. Although this was

probably more forceful prior to the 1970s, such “anti-jazz” attitudes still persist in

many academic quarters (p. 71).

Historical arguments have been made about jazz’ legitimacy as a serious educational pursuit (hence the term legit music) and the “lack of standardization in learning methodologies (breaking) with the established traditions of higher musical study”

(Prouty, 2002, p. 74). From a more pragmatic view, Prouty quotes Dr. David Baker, creator of the Indiana University jazz program, in an interview on resistance from colleagues in his early college teaching career:

. . . it wasn’t from a cultural standpoint. It was more from a standpoint

of trying to protect what was their turf. And so all of a sudden I’m taking

saxophones that might normally play in concert band. . .then those people fought

me on turf battles . . . They might disguise it by saying it’s because it’s jazz, but

more often it’s about turf (p. 77).

As an example in the vocal/choral sector of higher education, studio vocal instructors and ensemble directors have long been suspect of jazz singing for its potential harm to the voice, despite evidence to the contrary (Archambeault, 2006; Spradling,

2000). Nearly all institutions have battlefronts over ensembles and resources, and while it might be unseemly to demand that students not participate in other ensembles because of personal or turf issues, it seems plausible and may be more acceptable to do so over real or perceived philosophical or pedagogical reservations.

The jazz community’s opposition to the study of jazz in colleges and universities usually comes as a comparison of Western art versus African/European-fused music. The 27 jazz community contends that jazz is an African-based oral tradition passed on in an apprentice-mentor relationship that cannot be duplicated in higher education due to its commitment to a Eurocentric written and classroom-based paradigm (Prouty, 2002;

Snyder, 1999). Another argument is that jazz, once institutionalized, begins to lose its essence as an art form, as a result of a preoccupation with technique. “This mode of criticism advances the argument that jazz educators rely upon western-oriented pedagogical techniques and philosophies at the expense of those that emerged with the music in its traditional settings” (Prouty, 2002, p.80) There appears to be an inherent ethnographic dilemma of delivering musical content largely from an orally based, mentor-apprentice context to a western-oriented program, replete with advanced theory, history, notation etc.

Jazz Curricula Research

There are several scholarly writings involving the structure of jazz curricula and pedagogy. Music education philosopher David Elliott (1983), in his dissertation from

Case Western Reserve University, studied Canadian jazz curricula at 76 institutions. Part

I was a descriptive survey of music administrators responses to questions regarding jazz courses in music education programs. He concluded that while jazz was seen as vital and positive, there were needs in the curricula regarding jazz in general music and improvisation. The respondents saw a jazz education philosophy for jazz undergraduates as a need. Part II presented a model philosophical rationale for jazz education using

Reimer’s ideal of aesthetic education.

Barr’s (1974) study surveyed music educators and performers regarding their perceived needs in the profession. Ninety-one percent of jazz educators admitted to little 28 or no training in college. After examining jazz curricula at American colleges Barr concluded that music education majors should receive instruction in an educators ensemble and a course in jazz pedagogy. The study’s results led to the development of a model of a jazz studies curriculum. Hinkle (1977) and Balfour (1988) both used Barr’s curricular model to measure the effectiveness of jazz preparation in colleges and universities in two states. Hinkle reported that in the state of Florida, no university met the standards presented in Barr’s model curriculum and that only one university required a course in jazz for all music education majors. Balfour’s investigation into the California university system found only one institution requiring a jazz course for music education majors. Both researchers recommended more attention to jazz preparation for music education majors.

Shires (1990) investigated the perceived levels of preparedness in jazz pedagogy of choral music education graduates from Northern Arizona University. A majority of the

23 teachers surveyed perceived a need for further experiences in jazz to better prepare them for the popularity of jazz choirs in that region. Ninety-five percent indicated the need for a choir pedagogy class that incorporated vocal jazz rehearsal techniques.

Recommendations included a pedagogy class for instrumental and vocal teachers, particularly necessary when a school has only a single music teacher whose assigned responsibilities include both instrumental and vocal instruction.

Several descriptive research studies were concerned with identifying the status of various music education programs and obtaining perceptions and opinions from various population samples. An investigation into the status of jazz education in eight educational regions of North Carolina led Wiggens (1997) to conclude that statewide universities 29 needed to increase their electives in jazz music education, as well as to add jazz music courses to the music education curriculum. Similarly, Jones (2006) studied Oklahoma’s university system via each music education program administrator’s views on several items pertaining to jazz education. Several administrators revealed that they themselves had received insufficient training in jazz and that they also perceived there to be an inconsistent level of jazz activity in the Oklahoma public schools. Jazz vocal technique was among the 12 areas of jazz study the administrators rated as ranging from ‘important’ to ‘very important.’ More than half of the administrators expressed regret that even though they agreed strongly that music education majors should take one jazz studies course, degree programs were already at their maximum credit hour limits, preventing further additions.

Research studies investigating jazz training for instrumental and vocal music education graduates were conducted in the states of Texas, California, New York,

Alabama, and Ohio. All of the researchers reported varying degrees of dissatisfaction with training in jazz for music education graduates (Venesile, 2004; Avery, 2002; Cruse,

1999; Knox, 1996; Marks, 1996). Cruse (1999) sampled 92 Texas jazz choir directors to understand facets of jazz choir direction including auditioning, competitions, rehearsal techniques, sound equipment, improvisation and repertoire. Among Cruse’s recommendations was a call for a minimum of one semester of jazz pedagogy for choral music education majors. Venesile’s (2004) survey of Ohio high school choral educators

(n = 49) revealed that most directors felt strongly that jazz styles should be a part of a high school choral program. However, the majority of the teachers reported receiving little or no jazz training in their undergraduate programs (Venesile, 2004). 30

Marks (1994) surveyed California college and university teacher training institutions to discover the process of training, certification, and in-service mentoring of music teachers. The researcher found that only 25% of the colleges required a jazz methods/improvisation course despite the need being voiced from in-service teachers in the study. Marks’ suggestions included a redesigned curriculum to better meet the needs of current and future students. Using latent and manifest content analysis methods, Avery

(2002) examined the state of New York’s status in relation to MENC’s Vision 20/20 document on what an excellent music program should be by the year 2020. Based on a comparison of the state’s offerings and the expected needs of the profession, Avery suggested that to better address the Vision 20/20 goals, conference and workshop offerings in jazz and popular music techniques be increased, while simultaneously decreasing the sessions in traditional areas.

Day (1992) sought information from ‘experts’ in identifying the top college jazz programs in the U. S. After having identified13 programs as ‘outstanding,’ Day surveyed a random sample of representatives from International Association for Jazz Education member schools (n = 34), and representatives of the identified ‘outstanding’ schools (n =

13), using the same instrument with both populations. The researcher-designed questionnaire obtained data on the (a) teachers of jazz courses in the institutions, (b) the self-reported organizational strengths and weaknesses of the institutions, along with budget allocations, (c) performance history and practices that included professional playing and recording opportunities for students, and (d) curriculum. Results indicated that the ‘outstanding’ schools were significantly (statistically) stronger in the areas of (a) the number of dedicated staff, (b) the number of big bands and jazz choirs, and (c) in the 31 number of undergraduate and graduate music majors at the institution. Additionally, outstanding schools were more likely to have a vocal jazz program and a jazz requirement for music education graduates than the randomly selected schools. It appears that the ‘outstanding’ schools were more ambitious in allowing for growth and allocating resources for scholarships and infrastructure.

Kennedy’s (2005) study provides additional context to Day’s findings. Kennedy singles out American higher music education curricula as following the traditions of a structure that traces to the 19th century:

The struggle for legitimacy gives rise to tensions between conformity and

innovation, particularly in music and other art forms. Society and music schools

desire innovators for their leadership and vision, but often tend to resist change

and opt for conformity . . . An institution’s desires for predictability and

maintaining tradition, stronger politics, and resistance to change often overwhelm

the institution’s penchant for and acceptance of change (p. 90-91).

Kennedy chose exemplar schools from the U. S. News and World Report top 15 masters of music programs. Other schools included were selected on the basis of an

“outstanding reputation.” Ninety-four percent of the schools studied offer a traditional curriculum in the Western classical tradition, even though many catalogues and websites indicated that contemporary music was emphasized. Kennedy explains:

Postsecondary music education now exists in a period of great stylistic diversity

and eclecticism. There is a much wider range of musical practice and much larger

and more diverse group of those practicing it. . . the data from the 12 music

institutions in the respondent group indicate scant (or no) movement toward 32

implementing new curriculum specializations, which is a trend not confined to

just those institutions (p. 180).

Curricular changes only occur on average every decade, and university course registration catalogues reflect little change in the core curriculum over a period of 30-35 years. Kennedy acknowledges that the core curriculum may not change due to the unwavering institutional support for the “absolute bedrock of immutable musical concepts and skills” (p. 187) necessary for all students, not to mention the pressure of maintaining the institution’s image. However, Kennedy posits a familiar explanation: popular music drains “cultural capital,” (p. 189) the power wielded by institutions that value the high arts to maintain status and legitimacy. Not surprisingly, Kennedy delivers a strong message to postsecondary schools of music: preparing students for the real world requires serious change in the curriculum to reflect real world music—multi-ethnic music, technology, popular genres, and music business.

Summary of Jazz Education and Curricula Research

Jazz in higher education had a shaky and difficult start due to opposition from many corners. However, once accepted, society’s shift in attitudes allowed for the composite elements to be studied and nurtured. Curricular research reveals that jazz education is widespread in institutions throughout the United States and Canada.

However, there have been several independent examinations critical of the evolution of curricular structure and the inclusion of jazz pedagogy courses for music education students. Similar studies examining undergraduate curriculum from virtually every region of the country and Canada reveal a need for an updated curricular structure to accommodate the needs of today’s students. Despite persistent recommendations for 33 more training from teachers, colleges administrators, and music education professional organizations, vocal jazz education appears to be absent or marginalized at most institutions, available only where a relatively small number of professionals practice.

Improvisation Research

Since the inception of the National Standards (National Association For Music

Education, 1994), improvisation has moved to the mainstream in music education for its ability to engender creativity in the music learner and performer. Improvisation has been elevated as a musical experience to the level of performance and critical listening skills

(Wadsworth-Walker, 2005). Because of infinite possibilities as a creative expression, improvisation has attracted music researchers to the psychological process associated with the phenomenon. Both Elliott (1995) and Reimer (2003), advocates for increased opportunities for improvisation in music education, point to its capacity to communicate musical ideas and knowledge in real time. As Reimer (2003) stated:

It is this astonishing capacity to think-in-the-moment, in all the discriminatory,

interconnected ways music requires, and to produce the thinkings bodily as they

are being thought, that accounts for the unique excitement—the risks at the edges

of human capacity—that improvisers engender. (p. 223)

Because of the intricate interplay of multiple musical experiences and skills during spontaneous music-making, attention has been focused on the observation of the approaches of beginning and advanced improvisers, Kratus (1996, 1991) presented the seven developmental stages for clues into the improvisational process – exploration, process-oriented improvisation, product-oriented improvisation, fluid improvisation, structural improvisation, stylistic improvisation, and personal improvisation. Kratus 34 noted that the gradual development skills parallel the development of other musical skills and knowledge. His analysis led the development of a theory of a sequential progression that is shared by other researchers (Brophy, 1998; Sloboda, 1988).

Researchers in music psychology position improvisation as a distinct and unique form of music making, generated from a model that must work within temporal limits as well as constraints;that is, restricted influences that effect performance. The two most important constraints are the internal knowledge base, those things that a performer brings to the performance, and the external referents, acquired cultural ideas that guide decision-making in the improvisational process (Kenny & Gellrich, 2002). For example, in the case of vocal jazz improvisation the knowledge base would be the performer’s previous learning of theory and vocal technique, and referents would be cultural elements like Ella Fitzgerald transcriptions, recordings, and favorite ornamentations (Pressing,

1998; Sloboda, 1991). These two constraints then, are responsible for the generation of future musical material, and in the case of referents, are subject to causing expansion in the knowledge base due to the addition of more information (Kenny & Gellrich, 2002).

The musical skill that is most closely associated with improvisation is the concept of audiation. Coined by Edwin Gordon, it is commonly described as the ability to mentally hear and understand musical events without any sound being physically present

(Gordon, 1997). Simply recalling or replicating is not audiation—the critical step seems to be the reflection and thought-process, giving musical events meaning. As audiation skills mature, the internal reflection of musical patterns causes a listener to anticipate future patterns. In addition, it can be developed sequentially progressing from hearing and producing short patterns to more complex ones (Gordon, 1999). Implications for 35 teaching vocal improvisation are significant, since memory, imitation, and recognition all play a part in the improvisational process. Jazz pedagogues often discuss hearing the changes, and have long valued the capability for an improviser to anticipate future musical events (Baker, 1997, Gillespie, 1996).

The research into audiation has enabled jazz improvisation researchers to recommend certain activities designed to improve these skills. Stoloff (2003) used the blues to craft exercises and etudes that ease students into the experience of improvising,

Weir (2002) used a call and response format, and Madura (1999, 1997) noted that improvisational skills are not generally taught in secondary classrooms and suggested that teachers utilize basic exercises incorporating several familiar contemporary song styles, such as gospel, swing, and blues.

Vocal Jazz Improvisation

Improvisation in the jazz domain is as essential to jazz as the blues (Baker, 1996).

Because of the unique history and status, and evolution of instrumental relative to vocal jazz, more materials are available for rhythm section instrumentalists and wind instrument players than singers. Since jazz evolves from an aural tradition, many approaches to teaching jazz improvisation have come from analyzing the approaches by legendary professional musicians that revealed several important musical elements in need of concentrated study, that include modal scales and various song forms (Azzara,

2002). Dr. Willie Hill, past president of MENC: The National Association for Music

Education and the International Association for Jazz Education (IAJE) believes strongly that improvisation is central to jazz itself. 36

If you were to ask me what is the essence of jazz as a musical genre, I would have

to say it is improvisation. In the National Standards for Music Education,

improvisation is Content Standard Three described as “Improvising melodies,

variations, and accompaniment.” . . . Somewhere along the line in the process of

promoting literacy, we stopped teaching improvisation. In many programs, it is

the single most neglected area of music instruction. (p. 11)

Coker (1964) and Baker (1983) have been two of the earliest university-trained researchers in jazz education and have written many of the research-based guides on the practice of teaching improvisation. They emphasize a comprehensive sequential process with imitative and harmonic listening exercises designed to develop a vocabulary of pitch materials. The sequential approach to jazz performance is supported by researchers for its ability to lay the foundation in theoretical, harmonic, and instrumental-specific skill techniques. Understanding in these elements of music may enable students to produce more cogent solos due to greater aural perception (Coy, 1989; Snyder, 2004). Perhaps the most prolific and commercially viable source of jazz improvisational materials is Jamey

Aebersold (2009), author of the Play-A-Long series of improvisation methods that provides a recording of a professional rhythm section to accompany the practicing improviser. Aebersold has been successful for decades with the slogan, and one of the titles of his educational DVD’s, “anyone can improvise.”

Including improvisation in a vocal ensemble setting is a natural progression when studying the genre. Weir (2001) states “vocal improvisation is the spontaneous invention of melody, rhythm, and syllables over a chord progression . . .also called scat singing (p.

27). The anecdote is that Louis Armstrong, while not truly inventing the idiom, brought it 37 to prominence by forgetting the words during a song and making up syllables to imitate the sound of a horn, presumably a trumpet (Martin & Waters, 2006; Hayes, 2002). The aesthetics of scat-singing have developed from those rather accidental beginnings to include vocal approximations of a jazz wind instrument, usually a saxophone, trumpet, or trombone (Stoloff, 2003). The appropriate performance practice correlates to the extent that the nonsense syllables imitate the idiomatic articulation of the instrument, in the style of Armstrong, Ella Fitzgerald, Mel Torme, Chet Baker, Mark Murphy and others

(Fredrickson, 1993).

Vocal jazz improvisation has been the most widely studied aspect of vocal jazz.

Dr. Patrice Madura Ward-Steinman is the most prolific researcher in vocal jazz improvisation, with more than a dozen scholarly writings on the topic. Dr. Ward-

Steinman (1992) should be credited for establishing the first evaluation instrument to measure vocal jazz improvisation predictors for achievement, modifying the instrument from Baker (1989), with input from Pfenninger (1991) and Horowitz (1995) (Azzara,

2002). The ten dimensions measured ranged from tone and time to melodic construction and style. The results from Madura Ward-Steinman’s (1992) study found strong associations between vocal jazz improvisation success and previous music theory knowledge, both traditional and jazz, imitative ability, and prior jazz experience. It appears that the most cogent solos support the notion that knowledge of chord progressions gives the student access to more information to assist in improvisation

(Weir, 2002). Theory knowledge would ostensibly strengthen musical skills to affect improvement in other areas of study, including keyboard skills, music reading, applied voice study, and composition and arranging (Walker, 2005). Results of Madura’s (1992) 38 work, supported by subsequent studies (Greenagel, 1995), led to the development of published materials for music teachers by MENC: Getting Started With Vocal

Improvisation (Madura, 1999).

Madura Ward-Steinman (2007) examined vocal jazz workshop participants’ (N =

213) confidence in teaching improvisation according to the K-12 National Standard For

Music Education (1994). Findings included a decrease in the confidence of teaching improvisation as the grade levels rose (K-4, 5-8, 9-12), however, respondents seemed to indicate a desire to explore more opportunities for training. A secondary study in the same document found that 13 undergraduates involved in a six-week course in vocal jazz experienced an increase in future teaching confidence in improvisation. Both studies suggested a need for more courses in improvisation for music educators.

Walker (2005) developed a mixed methods study to investigate pedagogical techniques in the teaching of vocal jazz improvisation. In the first part of the study, the researcher surveyed ensemble directors and performers who expressed an interest in vocal jazz through the now-defunct International Association for Jazz Education, to attempt to identify activities useful in improvisational development. In addition, respondents were asked to identify persons that they felt made significant contributions to the teaching of vocal jazz. The survey results indicated that (a) critical listening to jazz, both vocal and instrumental, (b) the practice of transcribing, and (c) the study of jazz theory are particularly effective activities for developing improvisation skills.

The second part of the study was devoted to interviews of seven prominent master pedagogues, as identified through the survey instrument, six of who had extensive experience teaching ensembles. Predictably, the master teachers supported most of the 39 previously mentioned findings in the survey. Particularly informative were excerpts of narratives from the master teachers: the commentary provided rich detail and an insightful context into many of the findings. For example, when discussing the practice of listening to recordings, the researcher pointed out that some interviewees favored more listening to instrumentalists than vocalists for improvisational information.

For the most part, in learning to improvise, it’s probably best to de-emphasize

listening to singers. . . It’s more important to listen to players, improvising

players. I don’t mean to get on a soap-box, but truthfully, when you listen to

singers, sometimes you’re listening to a second or third abstraction of the real

thing. (Lapin, as cited in Wadsworth-Walker, 2005, p. 109)

Indeed, all of the major studies of vocal jazz improvisation contain similar calls for more thorough training in these areas to develop comprehensive musicianship and a foundation for improvisation (Greenagel, 1995; Madura, 1997; Walker; 2005). It seems that critical listening is a skill that is particularly important in the acquisition of jazz style and technique, and is frequently cited as the most important facet of musical preparation for activities, including composing and improvising (Reimer, 2003). The research on vocal jazz improvisation provides empirical support for what jazz performers and pedagogues have been advocating for decades (Baker, 1983, Coker, 1964, Dobbins,

1988).

The practice of transcribing improvised jazz solos from great artists is a time- honored tradition that enables the student to magnify the phrasing, inflections, style, and rhythmic feel in a way not duplicated by another method. Transcribing also reinforces aural, notation, and musicianship skills, leaving a document where the student can see 40 patterns, shapes, and contours (Baker, 1983; Weir, 2002). In a study where master- pedagogues were interviewed, transcriptions of instrumental and vocal solos were favored for their ability to transmit all of the important aspects of jazz language and vocabulary through repeated listenings (Walker, 2005).

Brent (2008) proposed designing a college course in ear-training to be used for vocal improvisation. After a series of interviews with university professors, the researcher created a two-semester course sequence incorporating a variety of musical and jazz elements (improvisation, transcription, the blues, and guide-tones) to systematize jazz ear training. Included is a proposal to implement this approach into pre-existing jazz or new ear-training courses. Because of the multi-sensory nature of improvisation and the culture-specific qualities of jazz, training and experiences in several areas appear necessary for advanced proficiency. Summary of Improvisation

Music education has recognized and promoted improvisation as a valuable creative form of musical expression that is unique and multidimensional. The construction of pedagogy for vocal jazz improvisation has been built on philosophical, psychological, historical, and cultural investigations, research that provides a model for further inquiry into other areas of vocal jazz education. Gordon (1997, 1999) and others

(e.g., Kratus, 1991, 1996) have investigated audiation and improvisation in young children. Their research and publications have assisted teachers in developing children’s understanding of harmonic, rhythmic, and tonal improvisation. Research-based instructional materials for the vocal jazz classroom have been created by Weir (2001,

2006) and Ward-Steinman (1997), while others have contributed research-based materials, building on the previously aforementioned areas of improvisation. Several 41 skills, including critical listening, transcribing solos, and the study of jazz theory

(Walker, 2005), have been identified as critical to the development of proficiency in vocal jazz.

Vocal Jazz Teacher Education and Pedagogy

Vocal Pedagogy

One primary feature of vocal jazz ensemble direction that overlaps with traditional choral methodology is the attention given to vocal pedagogy. Vocal pedagogues recently have been researching and writing about the connection between traditional vocal pedagogy and a pedagogy for contemporary styles of singing (LeBon,

1999; Spradling, 2000, 2007; Archambeault, 2006). Vocal pedagogy is a vast topic, both scientific and artistic, that has a long history of research related to traditional and classical forms of singing (Smith & Sataloff, 1999; Haaseman & Jordan, 1991; Miller,

1986). Vocal pedagogy deals with the principles and methods of singing instruction that include (a) techniques of breathing, (b) diction and enunciation (c) tone production and registration, (d) vowel modification, and (e) resonance. It would appear that for vocal jazz to be included as a viable, educationally appropriate, and legitimate medium, pedagogically sound vocal technique would be vital to its continuance.

Although the profession is rife with tales of tension between studio voice professionals and choral directors who share students (Goodwin, 1980), both groups of teachers would seem to share a concern with structurally sound vocal technique. Choral directors who employ the basics of vocal pedagogy find that generally there are positive residual benefits in the ensemble setting (Corbin, 1982; Slusher, 1991; Lamartine, 2003)

Moreover, with an open line of communication and cooperation, singers, their private 42 teachers, and choral directors have been shown to be successful when the basics of vocal health are of paramount concern (Smith & Sataloff, 2003; Walders, 2005; Webb, 2007).

Classically trained studio voice instructors who also have training in jazz have addressed the issue of the perception that jazz singing and proper voice technique need not be mutually exclusive. The results of a study published by the Jazz Educators Journal confirmed a long-held belief that “classical voice teachers that dominate the voice teaching profession are responsible for the slow acceptance of vocal jazz in the academy”(Jensen, 2005). Anecdotal articles on the art of jazz singing with quasi- pedagogical information for vocal ensembles appeared in the 1970’s, but exclusive attention to the individual singer is scant and does not appear until later in the 1980’s

(Borla, 1985; Shapiro, 1986; Spradling, 1986).

As more jazz singers moved into academia and became classical/jazz studio/ensemble teachers and researchers, additional pedagogically oriented data began to appear with regularity (Barber, 1996, Hicks, 1997, Kteily-O’Sullivan, 1998, Weir, 1998).

In late 1998, LeBon (1999a) presented a paper at the NASM (National

Association of Schools of Music) conference, challenging the status quo at the post- secondary level. LeBon argued that by not teaching more contemporary styles, colleges and universities were not addressing the needs of students and the profession.

Simultaneously, the author published a book (LeBon, 1999b) offering pedagogical wisdom for aspiring professional contemporary vocalists. A considerable portion of the text is devoted to techniques for commercial singing, vocal health and hygiene.

Shortly thereafter, a similar article advocated for the legitimacy and techniques of commercial singing styles (Spradling, 2000). As the momentum continued, new texts 43 became available from professional singers (Clayton, 2001) and vocal jazz pedagogues

(Weir, 2006). In addition, texts and research studies on jazz vocal improvisation also started to appear (Madura, 1997, Weir, 2001, Reid, 2003, Walker, 2005).

The impact of the growing literature over the past two decades has produced collegial exchanges in various publications. Representative of those exchanges is Robert Edwin, associate editor for the Journal of Singing, the official publication of the National

Association of the Teachers of Singing (NATS). Several decades before, Richard Miller, arguably one of the prolific classical voice teachers and researchers in the past century, had invited Edwin to contribute a continuing column on non-classical vocal technique for the publication. In a 2007 editorial article, Edwin commented on the gradual acceptance of non-traditional styles within the conservative body of (NATS).

In the academic community there is a growing recognition of the need for

systematic voice pedagogy courses that will train teachers in techniques and styles

other than classical so that they, in turn, can better serve the aforementioned voice

students in those music theater, jazz, pop, and rock majors. (p. 326)

Even at Miller’s request of Edwin, there may have been some eyebrows raised within the traditional voice pedagogy community at the suggestion of a serious dialogue on pedagogy for contemporary singers. However, with pedagogy for non-classical singing being discussed in a more open forum, a thaw developed as more contemporary pedagogues raised the issue (American Academy of Teachers of Singing, 2008).

One of the problems for proponents of jazz singing and other popular styles was that pedagogical studies simply had not been conducted and there was very little research-based information available for the teacher or the student. Technical 44 innovations, however, have become more widely available, reliable, and affordable.

Recent studies and programs are using a variety of technological tools to assist in the pedagogical analysis of how the voice functions, particularly when singing jazz.

In a multi-institutional pilot study, with two studio voice instructors and a speech pathologist (Archambeault, 2006), 17 classical singers performing in the jazz and classical style were studied for (a) formant center frequencies (including fluctuation of pitch associated with vibrato), (b) intensity (associated with resonance), and (c) harmonic to noise ratio (quantifies breathiness in the tone). Using a voice lab to record and measure each component, the researchers findings included some unexpected results. Most of the subjects pitch accuracy (center frequencies) improved when singing in the jazz style. The overall breathiness factor (harmonic to noise ratio) was reduced in the jazz samples compared to the classical samples. As for the intensification (amplification) of samples, while the majority of the subjects produced much lower ratings when singing in the jazz style, the two highest rated female singers produced equal amounts of intensity. The researchers’ interpreted this result to indicate that the two highest rated female singers retained the classical voice technique in register placement, while other singers’ approach to jazz style weakened the intensity. The implication was that many classical singers incorrectly perceived jazz singing as requiring less intensity, so their approach was to use less intensity.

Jazz vocal pedagogy was strengthened with the publication of Jazz Singing:

Developing Artistry and Authenticity (2007). Vocal pedagogue Dr.Diana Spradling wrote the book as a result of an introduction to a book by a voice professor. The professor had obtained experience in a voice studio that utilized computers and helped develop a 45 software product called VoceVista (1997). With the use of VoceVista,teachers and students could visually analyze components of the singing process. In real time, concepts such as legato, resonance in the tone, vowels, and vibrato speeds can be examined. For the first time, Spradling attempted to use this state-of-the-art technology to support the notion that non-classical singing could be observed, examined, and documented to frame an extensive description of artistic jazz singing.

The first part of Spradling’s book details the analysis of 20 recordings of jazz greats including Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra, Sarah Vaughn, and others conducted in the Applied Studio Technology Laboratory at Western Michigan University. The recordings were subjected to spectrographic analysis using digital imagery software capable of producing a visual display of (a) pitch stability, (b) resonance consistency, (c) precision of attacks and releases of tone, (d) presence of vibrato, (e) vowel clarity and definition, and other characteristics. As Spradling recounts:

An important feature of this tool is that spectrographic analysis of recorded

examples of developing singers and artist singers can be evaluated and/or

diagnosed in the same way live performances can be evaluated and/or diagnosed,

even when an artist is no longer performing or living. (p. 13)

The value of spectrographic analysis of jazz singing may be the extra dimension it provides that goes beyond mere study of key choices, phrasing, etc., allowing subtle nuances and idiosyncrasies, inherent in the genre to be studied. With the information such an analysis affords, users can utilize the results to develop personal profiles, allowing comparison over time. In addition, correction of inconsistencies and sensitization to 46 various aspects of vocal production for both teachers and students makes possible more discriminate listening (Spradling, 2007).

The second portion of the book is devoted to using the findings of the recorded jazz greats to build a definition of the craft of jazz singing. Spradling combines it with traditional vocal pedagogy practices while also presenting new vocabulary terms in the genre, along with technical advice. The information is extremely detailed, providing the reader with pedagogical information specifically for vernacular idioms. Particularly valuable in this section are the ongoing identification of commonalities and differences in tone production with respect to traditional bel canto technique.

Summary of Vocal Jazz Teacher Education and Pedagogy

A systematic pedagogy for jazz and other contemporary styles of singing was not available a little more than a generation ago in post-secondary institutions. Because of the popularity and upswing in contemporary forms of music, along with secondary and post- secondary ensembles, a need for a pedagogically appropriate approach was created. Out of classical vocal pedagogy and stylization of popular genres emerged a pedagogy that is congruent to both factions. However, multiple researchers have suggested that a majority of post-secondary institutions have not gone far enough in providing pedagogical information about popular vocal styles. A look at current registration catalogues reveals a similar conclusion. If the trend of vernacular styles of music in our culture continues, it would seem that there is and will continue to be, a pressing need for training in contemporary styles.

Early on in the debate, authors seemingly were trying to build bridges with and to classical singing, establishing common ground. It would appear that with the newest 47 technological research, jazz vocal pedagogues are moving forward with confidence, no longer needing to sell the vocal community on the technically sound aspects, instead concentrating on the characteristic idiomatic differences that distinguish jazz singing as an art form. Choral ensembles have benefited from both traditional pedagogy and appear ready to apply the emerging new pedagogies surrounding jazz singing and other popular styles.

Choral Teaching Knowledge and Skills

In the identification of the specific skills and content knowledge for a vocal jazz educator, it becomes necessary at some point to establish common areas of expertise for all vocal music educators. An examination of an accredited music school or department of music in higher education will reveal the widely accepted skills and knowledge that all music teachers must acquire for preparedness in the classroom (e.g., CWRU, 2008, OSU,

2008). The National Association of Schools of Music (NASM) founded in 1924, not only accredits music programs in colleges and universities, it also publishes documents, reports, and studies that are available to the public concerning educational programs in music. In becoming accredited in the United States, an institution must demonstrate to peer reviewers that it meets and maintains basic threshold standards outlined in the

NASM Handbook (NASM, 2008). Thus, a student graduating from an accredited institution can be reasonably assured that they have been prepared using a curriculum that meets standards that are generally accepted in the profession.

The NASM Handbook does, however, allow for the creation of a combination of areas such as specialization competencies: 48

Institutions and other educational authorities make decisions about the extent to

which music teachers will be prepared in one or more specializations. The

following competencies apply singly or in combination consistent with the

specialization objectives of each teacher preparation program in music. (p. 96)

In addition to the specialty type of programs – general, vocal/choral, and instrumental, the handbook allows for music teaching specializations in subject areas,

focused on one or combination of areas, such as composition, electronic and

computer music, ethnic music, guitar, small ensembles, jazz, keyboard, orchestral

music, music history, and theory, music in combination with other disciplines,

music technologies, and popular music; or combinations of one or more of these

types of content with aspects of the general, vocal/choral, or instrumental

specializations:

(a) Knowledge and skill in the selected area(s) of specialization sufficient to teach

beginning and intermediate students effectively.

(b) Knowledge of content, methodologies, philosophies, materials, technologies,

and curriculum development for the area(s) of specialization.

(c) In-depth experiences with the creative and/or performance and/or scholarly

aspects of the selected area of specialization as required by the nature of that

specialization.

(d) The ability to use instruments, equipment, and technologies associated with

the area(s) of specialization.

(e) Laboratory experience in teaching beginning students in the area(s) of

specialization, individually, in small groups, and in larger classes. (p. 97) 49

The latitude given to post-secondary institutions to create well-developed programs in specialty areas has produced schools with outstanding reputations in specialty areas like vocal jazz (University of Miami, 2009; University of North Texas,

2009; Western Michigan University, 2009). While there are several colleges and universities where a music education major can graduate with a vocal jazz emphasis, the overwhelming majority of American schools do not offer the possibility. It would appear that unless an undergraduate student sought out educational experiences outside of the recommended curriculum in jazz, only a very limited amount of vocal jazz information would be obtained.

Researchers have investigated the professional knowledge, skills, and related characteristics of secondary vocal music teachers and how they affect the performance of their choral ensembles. Communities and stakeholders are concerned with teachers that supply a substantial foundation of music fundamentals, including vocal and choral technique and literacy skills (Kuehne, 2007; Whitlock, 1991). Results from a descriptive study on secondary choral director observable behaviors indicated that (a) a solid musical foundation, (b) detailed preparation, (c) choosing literature appropriate for the ages of the students, and (d) professional rehearsal deportment were important qualities necessary for success (Fiocca, 1989). A similar descriptive study found that in addition to having more experience and more education, there was a tendency for successful program directors to offer a wider variety of repertoire (Dunaway, 1987).

In an experimental study, seven rehearsal video segments demonstrating research- identified choral director teaching skills were shown to undergraduate music majors (n =

89). The taped segments were selected from choral rehearsals over the course of a 50 semester. After assigning ratings on ten categories of teacher-student behavior (time use, musicianship, accuracy of presentation, student attentiveness, student performance quality, enthusiasm, intensity, pacing, personality, and overall effectiveness), the subjects’ compared the highest rated video segments to the lowest. The comparisons showed that the highest rated segments contained less off-task student behavior, a higher percentage of approvals, more eye contact, and more activity changes. The most positive comments made by the subjects’ were for student attentiveness, enthusiasm, pacing, and overall teaching effectiveness (Yarbrough & Madsen, 1998). Other studies have shown that students tend to respond favorably to choral environments that offer high expectations, multiple genres of music, and a positive climate (Arasi, M. 2006; Mudrick,

1997).

Choral method texts have been the bedrock for many secondary choral methods courses in American colleges and universities (Garretson, 1988; Lamb, 1988; Collins,

1993; Decker & Kirk, 1995). Despite the comprehensive nature of many of these books, there is a lack of depth and incomplete data when addressing non-traditional forms. Still, there are several noteworthy publications because of their (a) scope, (b) research-based methods, (c) application to the in-service practitioner, and (d) compatibility with research-based vocal pedagogy (Emmons & Chase, 2006; Brinson, 1996; Jordan, 1996;

Decker & Herford, 1988). Common themes among them are (a) technical vocal and choral singing skills, (b) philosophical foundations of choral music education, (c) conducting skills, (d) score preparation, (e) rehearsal techniques, and (f) literature selection. 51

In addition, each year there are a number of new books and resources published for the educational and choral community. Many of these quickly go out of print in today’s marketplace. One music retailers’ website includes 81 such titles currently available (most within a decade of first publishing), each with an emphasis on a particular concept or model (JW Pepper, 2008). With accessibility to so much information, including anecdotal literature found in various non-refereed publications, the user should use caution to separate the quasi-pedagogical sources from the empirically-based material.

Vocal Jazz Education

Published literature in vocal jazz education can be conceptualized as fitting in to three categories: (a) various anecdotal and research-based articles in refereed journals and magazines, (b) dissertations on some aspect of the vocal jazz idiom in education, and (c) comprehensive books on the directing of a vocal jazz ensemble or related contemporary group. The only topic in vocal jazz not included in this section of the review of literature is vocal jazz improvisation, which has been discussed earlier. The earliest articles on the topic of vocal jazz ensembles appear in the Jazz Educators Journal, a publication of the recently defunct International Association for Jazz Education (IAJE). Founded in 1968 as the National Association For Jazz Education (NAJE), IAJE mentored and fostered collegiate jazz programs throughout the country, involving jazz advocates ranging from professional players to academic instructors (Kuzmich, 1989). With the support and guidance from MENC, IAJE eventually became a respected ally for jazz education

(Carter, 1986). 52

Pisciotta (1992) chronicles the history of vocal jazz in the U. S. and Canada tracking the unofficial birthplace of vocal jazz education to the Pacific Northwest.

Initially, vocal jazz consisted of educators with instrumental jazz experience and an affinity for popular vocal groups. The early literature published reflects an attempt to identify problems of ensemble technique perceived by high school and collegiate directors. Informal gatherings and vocal jazz invitational festivals also appeared initially in the Northwest, making opportunities to learn more information on pedagogical issues easier for educators.

Journal Articles and Dissertations

By the mid-to late 1970’s articles were beginning to appear in publications written by and for directors of vocal jazz ensembles (Grier, 1977; Anderson, 1976).

Genre-specific performance skills were detailed during this period, such as the interpretation of jazz notation, diction, and lyrics (Schwartz, 1979; Anderson, 1979;

Shaw, 1976). Since vocal jazz literature was not widely published during this period, several individuals contributed articles on the basics of vocal arranging for choirs (Shaw,

1977; Kunz, 1979; Pirie, 1981). It would appear from the earliest writings that the popularity and support shown for vocal jazz at various institutions created a need for the sharing of information. Because the idiom was in its infancy, the coordination of the topics presented was uneven and the mode of delivery unpredictable (Pisciotta, 1992).

Two important facets of vocal jazz ensemble performance explored in the anecdotal literature include the sometimes mysterious and misunderstood topics of sound reinforcement and rhythm sections. Oyer (1986), Aitken (1985), and Edwards, (1982) have described the benefits, specifications, and component recommendations for the 53 amplification of singers on close-proximity microphones through a PA system. Aitken

(1983) and Cross (1979) have detailed the intricacies of working with the rhythm section.

Several dozen contributions to the literature on the growing genre came from Gene

Aitken, longtime director at the University Northern Colorado, who in addition to his pedagogical advice on the rhythm section and sound reinforcement, has written about the formation and philosophy of vocal jazz ensembles (1980, 1981), rehearsal techniques

(1984), publishing (1988) and profiles of professional vocal jazz artists (1992, 1989,

1982).

It would appear that a developing network among the writers, arrangers, and directors of the northwest high school and college programs continued to reach much of the country by the end of the 1970’s. With the assistance of IAJE’s publications and annual conferences, a vocal tack emerged and performances of ensembles from high school to professional highlighted the diverse areas of the genre. Because of the academic bonds of most of the members, teachers began to incorporate the model throughout the

U.S., Canada, and beyond. A scholarly extension of IAJE, the Jazz Research Proceedings

Yearbook, presented published documents – primarily historical and descriptive studies in jazz – reflecting a serious attempt at bringing jazz education into the research community.

While studies have chronicled the rise and evolution of the jazz choir in education

(Pisciotta, 1992; DeWeese, 1997), one researcher (Cruse, 1999) focused on the state of the high school jazz choir movement in the state of Texas. The study’s purpose was “to assist teachers who lack vocal jazz skills, as well as those who train teachers, with new methodology, rehearsal techniques, and teaching tools” (Cruse, 1999, p. 14). This appears to be the first study to examine the effects of vocal jazz on choral programs and their 54 directors. Among the notable findings were that Texas schools have shown a tendency toward larger enrollments in vocal music programs as a result of vocal jazz classes.

Recommendations for further research included studies to (a) determine the opinions and attitudes of Texas high school choral directors about the performance quality of show choirs and jazz choirs, (b) to update and adapt Cruse’s survey, and (c) compare the attitudes of vocal jazz directors who received jazz pedagogy training in college versus those who did not (Cruse, 1999).

Monkelien (2001) conducted a qualitative study on the career and influence of

Phil Mattson providing a view of the educational vocal jazz genre through the lens of a pioneer who applied choral rehearsal techniques to the amplified vocal jazz ensemble.

Mattson is a vocal jazz arranger – having written for several professional groups, a professional caliber jazz pianist and was trained as a choral director. This combination of attributes seems to have given him credibility within both the choral and jazz community.

His academic appointments along with the multiple jazz workshops he’s hosted on college campuses have enabled him to connect with teachers and students from all over the country. Mattson’s close association with two professional vocal jazz composer/arrangers, Gene Puerling and Clare Fischer, helped to shape and define the

“sound” of the vocal jazz ensemble and his philosophies on vocal jazz pedagogy. Phil

Mattson continues to set a standard in the vocal jazz community that many feel is the benchmark for success due to his (a) talent for arranging music for vocal groups, (b) sharing of the information necessary for success as a director and performer through his workshops, (c) production of high quality recordings by his own group, the Grammy- 55 nominated PM Singers and (d) the elevation of the genre to a high art form (Monkelien,

2001).

Jenson-Hole (2005) applied concepts that Elliott (1995) developed in his book in

The Nature of Musicianship and Educatorship (1995) to the dynamic between the teacher and students in a vocal jazz rehearsal setting. Jenson-Hole’s qualitative study scrutinized the interplay between the legendary director of the University of North Texas Vocal Jazz

Program, Paris Rutherford, and the ensemble he directed. Jenson-Hole sought to establish the theoretical framework for Elliot’s position on procedural knowledge. Educatorship

(Elliott’s term) is the relationship between a teacher’s musical knowledge and procedural knowledge. Rutherford is placed in the role of the coach, mentor, and model. Through observations and interviews with students and director, the researcher makes a case for the theory through the vocal jazz idiom. Though feedback was not always favorable, students seemed to convey their admiration, respect, and acknowledgement of their director as being indispensable. It appears that the researcher recognized that Rutherford corresponded to Elliot’s model of a teacher whose praxial curriculum “centers on achieving self-growth and musical enjoyment in thoughtful actions of artistic music making” (Jenson-Hole, p. 2). This examination of a pedagogue with a long and favorable reputation in the vocal jazz community provides an example of the importance of a director/leader who is equipped with a unique skill-set designed to guide authentic performance in the genre.

Vocal Jazz Ensemble Texts and Literature

Prior to 2000, there had not been any texts exclusively addressing the teaching of vocal jazz ensembles. Two publications that dealt with jazz choirs also focused on other 56 pop choral groups, such as show choirs – vocal ensembles with staged choreography

(Robinson, 1994; Anderson, 1978). Robinson’s (1994) Getting Started with Jazz/Show

Choir was published by MENC as part of a collection of materials designed to introduce music educators that were new to various features of music education. Although helpful to any music educator new to popular styles, there was as yet no in-depth comprehensive text limited to jazz choirs.

There appeared to be an increased demand for published literature as large choral sheet music publishing companies expanded their catalogs to include vocal jazz repertoire. Prior to the mid 1990’s, Hal Leonard Corporation was the only large sheet music company to commit multiple arrangers to vocal jazz. Other published arrangements were available through UNC Jazz Press, an extension of the University of

Northern Colorado Jazz program (UNC Jazz Press, 2009), but most vocal educators not connected to a vocal jazz network were unaware of its existence. Gradually, other national choral sheet music companies entered the marketplace to compete for sales.

Presently, while Hal Leonard continues to offer a larger, more diverse vocal jazz catalog, there are no fewer than five other companies active in producing arrangements and other materials for educational vocal jazz ensembles (Alfred Publications, 2009; Carl Fischer,

2009; Lorenz Corporation, 2009; Shawnee Press, 2009; Walton Corporation, 2009). In addition, Sound Music Publications (2009), created in the first decade after 2000, caters primarily to vocal jazz programs.

Although it appears unclear whether an increased demand for vocal jazz literature existed, three music publishers of octavos have each recently published texts written by

Dr. Scott Fredrickson (2004), Paris Rutherford (2008), and Dr. Stephen Zegree (2002). 57

The authors each represent different regions of the country (Alaska, Texas, and

Michigan, respectively) and have diverse educational and professional experiences. Each individual has over 30 years of experience as a jazz musician, educator, arranger, and master pedagogue. The books, clearly intended for the director of a vocal jazz ensemble, represent each individual’s experience producing college ensembles noted for their consistently high artistic results. Additionally, through festivals, workshops, and camps, the authors come into contact regularly with the needs of novice teachers. The authors, naturally, approach all of the major topic areas in their own way and with varying degrees of concentration on various aspects of the discipline. In total, the three authors include sections on: (a) the history of vocal jazz, (b) jazz styles, (c) rehearsal techniques, (d) working with a rhythm section, (e) solo singing and improvisation, (f) sound reinforcement, and (g) programming/staging.

While the texts cover similar topics, each varies its particular focus and depth of discussion. For example, in the chapter on rehearsal techniques, Fredrickson (2004) expands into greater depth, giving intonation and tuning, conducting, rhythmic and melodic interpretation, and chordal intensity separate chapters. The strength of the book is the voluminous amount of sources that Fredrickson cites in his discussions of each element. Some 500 references are used throughout the book, from choral texts to journal articles that serve to frame his points and advice. With his knowledge of the literature,

Fredrickson reassures novice teachers with supporting data. For instance, he concludes from 20 sources on appropriate choral tone that the difference between pop and traditional choral ensembles is merely a matter of style, and is not related to proper singing technique. 58

Rutherford (2008) and Zegree (2002) rely primarily on the practical experiences they have had with their own programs. However, Zegree appears to more clearly consider that most of the readers may have little or no experience as directors of vocal jazz ensembles, stating “ . . . some of us have difficulty admitting to our students that we do not know the answer to a question, or that we have no experience in the area of expertise in question” (Zegree, 2002, p. 1). Related to this, Zegree encourages readers to develop a fundamental understanding of basic jazz theory in a chapter on the connection between theory and chord voicings. In addition, he spends a chapter stressing the importance of listening as an activity to immerse oneself in the culture of the music, adopting the vocabulary as one build a personal library of recorded jazz music and musicians. Many pedagogues have echoed this same sentiment (Davis, 1995; Aitken,

1989; Anderson, 1993; Weir, 2001). Other strengths of Zegree’s text include suggestions for the disclosure of the audition procedures and purposes for membership in the vocal jazz ensemble.

Sound reinforcement is an aspect of the vocal jazz ensemble that may be overwhelming for choral directors who don’t have specific training or background in this area. Rutherford provides the most comprehensive chapter of the three authors on sound reinforcement. Aspects of the topic that are discussed include: (a) microphones, (b) monitor speakers for the singers, (c) equalization and effects, (d) the mixing console, (e) amplifiers, (f) troubleshooting, and (g) choosing and purchasing equipment. Specific brands, photographs of the components, and prices are included in each description, along with their functions and comparisons to other gear. A complete explanation of the 59 types of cables that are used to connect all of the equipment is given, without intimidating a neophyte:

The terminology is less important to you than the music you make. But knowing

some of the jargon does help you survive conversations that deal with the system

you need, and all the important issues of sound quality, reliability, protection from

noise and hum, etc. (p. 111)

It may be because of Rutherford’s unique career as a music professional in advertising, corporate, and film music before entering academia that he feels comfortable going into such detail on the technical aspects of vocal jazz. Other generic sound reinforcement manuals lack the application to the unique set-up in a vocal jazz ensemble – the multiple microphones, monitors, etc.

Fredrickson (2004), Zegree (2002) and Rutherford (2008) make effective use of jazz choral arrangements reprinted in the text for analysis. The arrangements are accompanied by a CD, and are marked with commentary and coaching. The authors tutor the reader in the interpretation of jazz literature, pointing out important cues and opportunities for developing musicianship through exploration of the musical elements.

For example, in a piece Rutherford arranged in the Latin style, he comments under the unison vocal line that light singing with unified vowels and consonants builds an intense feeling of togetherness in the sound, critical to success in vocal jazz singing. “No other vocal ensemble pushes the envelope so hard.” (Rutherford, p. 34)

Rutherford (2008) and Zegree (2002) contribute informative chapters on solo singing with effective use of the accompanying CD. Zegree takes a standard ballad, But

Beautiful, and records several performance excerpts with professional singer and 60 educator, Sunny Wilkinson. Zegree narrates the various stylistic options being utilized by the singer to express the text, in an accumulation of techniques that develop true artistry in the interpretation of jazz standards. Rutherford identifies the characteristics of expressive solo singing within the ensemble experience by indicating how changes in texture, from group singing to solo, change the meaning of the lyric. He utilizes the CD to display lyric improvisation and the effective use of space by the soloist. Other authors on the art of solo jazz singing support these stylistic techniques and go into greater depth in developing planning for career goals, practice routines, and building a library (Weir,

2006; Nakasian, 2001; Clayton, 2000).

Summary of Vocal Jazz Education

Only recently have manuals become available to teachers interested in directing vocal jazz ensembles. Early in the development of vocal jazz education, mostly anecdotal articles appeared in journals for teachers, though they appeared to lack a coordinated approach to dissemination. Though organizations like IAJE supported jazz education, the vocal track was small compared to the instrumental. After the initial wave of pioneers in the genre, the academic ranks produced the next generation of vocal jazz educators, responsible for contributions to the literature in the way of research studies. The empirical literature appears to lack descriptions of effective training of in-service educators and how teachers are obtaining the various skills and knowledge needed to be effective. 61

Summary of the Chapter

Extant research in vocal jazz education is limited, but has grown and built onto a larger volume of studies in instrumental jazz and curricula. Vocal jazz ensemble programs continue to be popular in secondary and post-secondary institutions, despite higher education curricula that resist change. Researchers have identified a need for more and better training for jazz, both instrumental and vocal music education majors. The growth areas of research have been in vocal improvisation and vocal jazz pedagogy.

Vocal jazz improvisation researchers have benefited from continued interest into the phenomenon and the identification of improvisation as a unique and highly valued creative musical form of expression. In addition, researchers have attempted to identify characteristics that lead to more developed and coherent improvisation, both within amateurs and professionals. As a result of the evolution of jazz music in North American culture, improvisation is inextricably linked to the very essence of jazz and its historical aural traditions.

Technological advances have enabled researchers to build a new pedagogy for contemporary styles of singing, answering previous critics that considered popular singing inherently harmful to the voice. Once ultra-conservative professional vocal organizations have gradually accepted researchers findings that have shown contemporary styles, when performed with proper technique, are healthy for the singer.

As an example, Spectrographic analysis is a new computer-based process enabling teachers and students to literally see the multiple dimensions of the human voice for assessment, bringing non-traditional styles into mainstream vocal pedagogy research. 62

Anecdotal articles in music education periodicals have consistently addressed vocal jazz in a variety of areas, from rehearsal techniques to sound reinforcement. Newer texts have surfaced to address those who direct vocal jazz ensembles. However, there has been a lack of research into how a knowledge base for teaching vocal jazz occurs and the adequate blend of experiences that prepares one for the multiple musical challenges that await. Studies that could identify sources of pedagogical content knowledge from successful practitioners may lead to breakthroughs in understanding, defining, and outlining professional development of teachers without jazz studies degrees. 63

CHAPTER THREE

Methodology

The purpose of this study is to identify and describe the forms of pedagogical content knowledge needed by vocal jazz ensemble educators. A secondary purpose is to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators. Empirical research into the background and training of vocal jazz educators is limited. The results of this study may help guide both teacher preparation and professional development in vocal jazz. This chapter will outline the methodology for the study, including (a) a preliminary study, (b) the participant selection process, (c) materials used, (d) procedures for data collection, and (e) data analysis.

Preliminary Study

A preliminary study was completed that informed the present methodology

(Venesile, 2004). The purpose of the earlier study was to identify the musical skills and content knowledge necessary for success as a secondary or post-secondary vocal jazz ensemble director. Experts in vocal jazz education were surveyed with a questionnaire covering 28 director skills in seven general domain categories gathered from the literature. The experts (n = 15) were leaders in the field of vocal jazz education as performers, post-secondary directors, authors, and/or master teachers, selected based on their recognition by professional music education organizations. Results indicated that the experts identified nearly all of the specific skills as being important in the development of the educator. However, areas rated particularly high were (a) keyboard skills, (b) jazz theory knowledge, (c) directing the rhythm section, (d) professional 64 affiliation/networking, and (e), knowledge of sound reinforcement (see Table 3.1 for a complete list).

Table 3.1 Skills For Vocal Jazz Directors (Venesile, 2004) ______Skill M SD

Keyboard skills 4.65 .64

Jazz theory knowledge 4.50 .52

Directing the rhythm section 4.46 .62

Professional affiliation/networking 3.80 .80

Sound reinforcement knowledge 3.80 .74

Organization/public relations 3.78 .80

Rehearsal techniques 3.73 1.0

Teaching improvisation 3.73 1.0 ______A Likert-type scale was utilized where 1 = no importance to 5 = very important

A limitation of the preliminary study was its restriction to a small group of recognized authorities on the topic. Nonetheless, it was deemed that the opinions of the experts were valuable to inform an initial investigation into the subject and provide a foundation for further study. In designing the present study, the major skill areas provided an outline for the formation of the survey, both jazz content element and pedagogical items.

Present Study

Participants

Participants were selected through a purposeful sampling procedure (Leedy &

Ormrod, 2001) that utilized three sources of data: (a) MENC: The National Association for Music Education members who identified themselves as teaching in the areas of 65 vocal/choral and jazz, (b) vocal jazz educator members of the former International

Association For Jazz Education (IAJE), and (c) vocal jazz educators drawn from various regional vocal jazz invitational schedules across the United States. Patton (1990) describes purposeful (criterion) sampling as selection based on some characteristic, in this case experience as a vocal jazz educator. The assumption is that what is true for this specific sample will allow generalization to a larger population.

MENC: The National Association for Music Educationmaintains a database of member music educators that includes the levels and specialization of music education that they teach. At the main headquarters in Reston, Virginia, MENC has an office that assists researchers and coordinates access to the database. The database does not identify vocal jazz ensemble directors, but does track those members who indicate that they teach secondary and post-secondary vocal music and secondary and post-secondaryjazz.

MENC was unable to forward a complete list of vocal jazz educators due to recent changes in the handling of the data, so only newer members or recent renewals were included. The database containing the membership data that fit the criteria was then forwarded electronically to the researcher. From this list (N = 351), an online search of educational institution websites confirmed that 79 individuals appeared to be secondary or post-secondary vocal music and jazz ensemble directors.

In April 2008, the International Association For Jazz Education (IAJE) went bankrupt and shut down operations after serving jazz educators for 40 years (IAJE,

2007). The last official member directory of the IAJE membership was selected because of its published contact information and because it was the most recent database of vocal jazz educators available. The IAJE list yielded 94 names. The final source of the sample 66 included vocal jazz educators selected from published schedules of various recent large vocal jazz festivals from across the United States and Canada, including The Millikin

University Vocal Jazz Festival, The Ohio Vocal Summit, UNC/Greeley Jazz Festival,

University of North Texas Jazz Festival, and the Western Michigan University “Gold

Company” Vocal Jazz Festival. The festivals chosen were annual events that advertise on the web, and provide post-festival information on the attending schools and directors. A search online for the directors’ emails generated the final 98 vocal jazz educator sample.

The total sample (N = 271) provided an appropriate population with the necessary expertise and attributes required to respond to the research questions (Creswell, 2003;

Leedy & Ormrod, 2001).

Measurement Instrument

Textbooks on survey research were consulted in the development of the survey, survey invitations, and survey administration process (Creswell, 2003; Dillman, 2007).

A quasi-sequential-explanatory methodology was utilized for this study. In this strategy, the qualitative data in the form of responses to open-ended questions follow the quantitative data collection, with the priority given to the quantitative data. The qualitative data is then integrated into the interpretation phase of the discussion chapter, highlighting explanations and conclusions. A researcher-designed survey, the Vocal Jazz

Educator Knowledge and Skill Inventory (VJEKSI), was developed from (a) an examination of the existing literature related to vocal jazz education, (b) a review of the available professional development activities for jazz musicians and educators, (c) results of a preliminary study (Venesile, 2004), and (d) a study of similar surveys used in jazz education and professional development research studies, including those by Walker 67

(2005), Millican (2007), and Bauer, Forsythe, & Kinney (2008). The survey was constructed in five sections: (a) participants’ perceptions of the relative importance of vocal jazz knowledge, skills, and pedagogical approaches for success as a vocal jazz educator, (b) an inventory of potential means of knowledge and skill acquisition, listed as a companion question alongside each vocal jazz content and pedagogical skill, (c) an inventory of professional development practices employed by the participants in acquiring their vocal jazz knowledge, skills, and pedagogical understandings, (d) an open-ended, personal comments section that asked the respondents to share the challenges they faced when deciding to become vocal jazz educators, a turning point in their own development as a vocal jazz educators, and/or to offer advice for the profession, and (e) data related to participants’ professional and demographic background.

Section one assembled 15 areas of vocal jazz education into the two domains of teacher knowledge set forth by Shulman (1986): (a) content knowledge – an understanding of various jazz and vocal jazz-specific subject matter, and (b) pedagogical knowledge – teaching and learning strategies in vocal jazz. Content knowledge items were grouped into three categories: (a) personal musicianship (e.g., jazz theory), (b) ensemble components (e.g., singers), and (c) historical and cultural (e.g., great professional vocal groups). Items related to pedagogical knowledge comprised one of five groups: (a) traditional and jazz vocal pedagogy, (b) warm-ups and ear-training, (c) rhythm section/rhythmic concepts (e.g., teaching correct time-keeping strategies), (d) improvisation/stylistic concepts (e.g., teaching improvisational concepts), (e) sound reinforcement (e.g., teaching proper microphone technique). Using a five-point Likert- 68 type scale (1 = no importance, 2 = little importance, 3 = neutral, 4 = important, 5 = very important) respondents were asked to rate the degree of importance of each knowledge, skill, and pedagogical item. A companion question asked how they acquired each knowledge and skill. See Appendix A for the complete survey.

Section two was concerned with the participants’ interest in professional development topics for vocal jazz. Using a five-point Likert-type scale, subjects were asked to respond to questions regarding the formats and topics of various professional development topics and experiences, with 1 = no interest, 2 = little interest, 3 = nether interested or disinterested, 4 = interested, 5 = very interested. Topics included areas such as vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques, vocal arranging, jazz piano, sound reinforcement, etc.

Section three asked the participants to reflect on their challenges in acquiring and developing their skills, adding personal comments to provide insight into their development as a vocal jazz educator. They were also asked to describe a turning point in their careers when they solidified their skills. It was hoped that this data would be useful in providing additional context to the survey results. Section four contained demographic information, important in describing the profile of the sample. Included were questions on participants’ (a) gender, (b) ethnic background, (c) education, (d) area of emphasis in degree programs in which they’ve been enrolled, (e) years of teaching experience, (f) geographic area where they teach, (g) primary and secondary instruments, and (h) level of teaching.

In order to establish content validity, the survey was submitted to several music education specialists, vocal jazz experts, and researchers. An online survey research tool, 69

SurveyMonkey.com was utilized as the primary delivery method of the survey questions

(SurveyMonkey, 2009). Vocal jazz educators trained in research contributed additional and revised questions for consideration. Music education experts offered suggestions on syntax, skill and pedagogical details, and layout of the webpage that informed the final instrument.

Procedure

Because MENC does not allow researchers to send e-mails to its members, those participants were sent a cover letter (see Appendix B) via U. S. mail inviting them to take part in the study with instructions on how to access and complete the online survey. All other participants were sent an identical letter via email. The cover letter contained the researcher’s contact information and offered participants a paper version of the survey, if they preferred this to the online version. A deadline of two weeks for completion of the online survey was designated in the cover letter.

To ensure that all respondents fit the criteria of being or having been a vocal jazz ensemble director at the secondary and/or the post-secondary level, the survey began by asking the respondent to confirm that they were both a vocal music and jazz educator. If they responded affirmatively, the survey program allowed the respondent to proceed to the rest of the survey. If the response was negative, the survey program directed them to exit the survey. After two weeks, all candidates who did not complete the survey were sent a second request to participate (see Appendix C) within the next five days. Any remaining individuals who had not responded were contacted a final time with a third request (see Appendix D). No participants requested a hard copy (paper) version of the 70 survey. All data was kept exclusively in the researcher’s possession for confidentiality minimizing the number of people viewing the study data.

Data Analysis

From the total population surveyed (N = 271), 121 participants completed the survey for a 44.7% return rate. However, one respondent did not identify him- or herself as being or having been a vocal jazz ensemble director and was eliminated from further analysis. In addition, 27 respondents did not fully complete the survey and were also eliminated from further analysis. This brought the total completed surveys for analysis to

93 (34.3% usable return rate). In this Sequential Explanatory Design (Creswell, 2003)

(see Figure 3.1), the first step in the data analysis involved calculation of quantitative descriptive statistics using Microsoft Excel and SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences, 2008). After this, the qualitative data in the form of responses to open-ended questions were coded for key topics and themes. The qualitative analysis was then integrated into the interpretation phase of the discussion chapter, highlighting explanations and conclusion based on the quantitative analysis.

QUAN >> qual

QUAN >> QUAN >> qual >> qual >> Interpretation Data > Data > Data > Data of Collection Analysis Collection Analysis results Figure 3.1 Sequential Explanatory Design (Creswell, 2003, p. 213) 71

CHAPTER FOUR

Results

Introduction

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the forms of pedagogical content knowledge needed by vocal jazz ensemble educators. A secondary purpose was to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators. From these purpose statements, six research questions were developed. A researcher-designed survey, the Vocal Jazz Educator

Knowledge and Skill Inventory (VJEKSI) was administered to 271 vocal jazz educators who were purposively sampled for their expertise in vocal jazz. The following are the results of the data analysis conducted to answer each of the research questions. Research questions one, three, five, and six were answered by computing the mean and standard deviation for each survey item, and then ranking all of the items from high to low.

Research questions two and four were answered by calculating the frequency with which participants indicated they acquired their knowledge and skills from fifteen sources, then ranking those sources from most to least common. Examination of open-ended responses followed a quasi-sequential explanatory strategy as outlined in Creswell (2003), including an analysis for themes.

Participants

A majority of respondents were male (n = 59, 64.8%) and 32 (35.2%) were female. Eighty-one respondents (89%) were Caucasian, four (4.4%) were African-

American, three (3.3%) were Asian, two (2.2%) were Hispanic, and one (1.1%) was

Pacific Islander. Every respondent except one had obtained a Bachelor’s degree (98.9%). 72

Of those, 84.6% had earned a Master’s degree (n =77), and 17 (18.7%) had an earned doctorate. Sixty-seven (74.4%) respondents indicated the concentration of study in their undergraduate education was in music education, eight (8.88%) were piano performance majors, and seven (7.77%) were jazz studies majors.

Participants represented 28 states in the nation, with the most from Illinois (n

=14) and California (n = 9). Respondents came from all six of MENC’s six regions

(MENC, 2010), with the North Central region having the largest representation (n = 39)

(see Table 4.1). Years of teaching experience ranged from 1 – 40 years (M = 19.24, Mdn

= 19, SD = 11.49). Voice (n = 60, 65.9%) and piano (n = 22, 24.2%) comprised 91% (n

= 82) of the respondents’ primary instruments. Piano (n =46, 50.5%) and voice (n = 22,

24.2%) were also the most frequently indicated secondary instruments of the participants.

Of the 91 respondents who checked the level(s) of vocal jazz ensemble(s) they directed, many of them indicated multiple ensembles at the various educational levels, which resulted in an indication of many more ensembles than participants (see Table 4.2). 73

Table 4.1 Participants by MENC Region

Region n %

North Central Division (IL, IN, MI, MN, NE, OH, WI) 39 42.3

Southern Division (AL, FL, KY, MS, TN, VA) 14 15.2

Northwestern Division (OR, WA,WY, ID) 12 13

Southwestern Division (CO, MO, OK, TX) 10 10.8

Western Division (CA) 9 9.78

Eastern Division (CT, ME, MA, NY, PA) 8 8.7

Total 92 99.8

74

Table 4.2 Educational Levels of Vocal Jazz Ensembles Directed by Participants (n = 92)

Level of Ensemble n

Middle School 17

High School 76

Undergraduate 49

2-year College 24

Graduate 16

Community 14

Professional 13

All-District, All-State 2

Total 211 Note: Some participant responses included more than one ensemble directed.

Research Question 1

The first research question asked, “What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill to success as a vocal jazz educator?” Participants were asked to indicate the importance of jazz subject matter elements essential for success as a vocal jazz educator using a Likert-type scale where 1 = no importance, 2 = little importance, 3

= neutral, 4 = moderately important, and 5 = very important. Participants rated all jazz subject matter knowledge and skill items above “4,” indicating that they placed a high degree of importance on all of them. The subject matter items rated highest were “Be able to read rhythms and interpret them correctly according to specific jazz styles (Latin, 75 swing, etc.)”(M = 4.92, SD = 0.44), “Have an understanding of correct jazz singing style and technique” (M = 4.76, SD = 0.61), and “Have an understanding of influential vocal groups in the history of jazz” (M = 4.76, SD = 0.59). “Adapt compositions, arranging them to fit the specific needs of one’s students or ensemble” (M = 4.03, SD = 0.88),

“Have an awareness of the historical and cultural impact of jazz in America” (M = 4.08,

SD = 0.88), and “Have an understanding of the important instrumental groups in the history of jazz” (M = 4.16, SD = 0.86) with the lowest rated items each with a mean of less than 4.2 on the 5-point scale. Table 4.3 shows the complete scores of jazz subject matter elements.

Research Question 2

The research question asked, “How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired their vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill?” After participants rated the importance of each vocal jazz content knowledge or skill, a companion question asked them to indicate the sources of acquisition of the knowledge or skill. To aid understanding the presentation of this data, abbreviations for knowledge and skill sources are listed in Table 4.4. Sources of knowledge and skills are presented in three categories:

(a) personal musicianship, (b) ensemble components, and (c) historical and cultural. For each category, there is a table presenting individual skills and sources of acquisition and along with the percentage of respondents who utilized a particular source. 76

Table 4.3 Importance of Jazz Content Subject Matter Knowledge and Skill to Success as a Vocal Jazz Educator

Subject Matter Element M SD

Be able to read rhythms and interpret them correctly according to 4.92 .88 specific jazz styles

Have an understanding of correct jazz singing style and technique 4.76 .61

Have an understanding of influential vocal groups in the history of jazz 4.76 .59

Have an understanding of the important jazz singers in history and 4.66 .63 their contributions

Understand the performance practices associated with various jazz 4.58 .70 styles (Dixieland, hot, swing, bebop, cool)

Identify fundamental jazz and contemporary standard song forms: 4.58 .72 (ex. 12-bar blues, AABA, modified blues)

Interpret and play chord symbols with extensions, jazz chord voicings, 4.56 .73 and basic accompaniments at the keyboard for score study, and in some cases, rehearsal purposes

Have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of 4.52 .72 the piano in the rhythm section

Have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of 4.41 .79 the drum set in the rhythm section

Be able to aurally and visually identify jazz chord types 4.37 .86 (extensions beyond the 7th, with alterations) and chord progressions

Have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of 4.31 .84 the double/electric bass in the rhythm section

Have an understanding of the important instrumental jazz performers 4.27 .86 in history and their significant contributions

Have an understanding of the important instrumental groups in the 4.16 .87 history of jazz

Have an awareness of the historical and cultural impact of jazz in America 4.08 .88

Adapt compositions, arranging them to fit the specific needs of one’s students or ensemble 4.03 .88 Note: A Likert-type scale was utilized where 1 = no importance to 5 = very important 77

Table 4.4 Abbreviations for Sources Used to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills

Abbreviation Source of Knowledge and Skill

Ensemble Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate jazz ensemble

Attending jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an Festivals ensemble

Graduate Formal coursework as a graduate student

Hosting Hosting a jazz clinician(s)

Lessons Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments

Listening Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz

Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual Mentor conversations, correspondence, etc.)

Online Online learning offered by a college or professional association

Prof conf Attending sessions at professional conferences

Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through Prof org professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC

Read Reading books or journal articles on jazz

Self Self-study of various topics related to jazz

Undergrad Formal coursework as undergraduate

Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, Web etc.)

Workshop Participating in jazz workshops

78

Personal Musicianship Sources Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their knowledge of and skill in musical attributes that may be important to the personal musicianship of vocal jazz educator. The musical attributes included, (a) keyboard – interpret and play chord symbols with extensions, jazz chord voicings, and basic accompaniments at the keyboard for score study, and in some cases for rehearsal purposes, (b) chords – aurally and visually identify jazz chord types (extensions beyond the 7th, with alterations), (c) rhythms – be able to read rhythms and interpret them correctly according to specific jazz styles (swing, Latin, etc.), (d) form – identify fundamental jazz and contemporary standard song forms (ex. 12-bar blues, AABA, modified blues, etc), and (e) arrange – adapt compositions, arranging them to fit the specific needs of one’s students or ensemble. For each musical element, participants were asked to check all relevant sources used to acquire their vocal jazz knowledge and skills

(see Table 4.5).

Ensemble Components Sources

Respondents were asked to indicate ways in which they had acquired their knowledge of and skill in ensemble components of vocal jazz ensembles that may be important to vocal jazz educators. The ensemble components were (a) sing – have an understanding of correct jazz singing style and technique, (b) bass – have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the double/electric bass in the rhythm section, (c) piano – have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the piano in the rhythm section, and (d) drums – have a basic understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the drum set in the rhythm 79

section. For each ensemble component, participants were asked to check all relevant

sources used to acquire their vocal jazz knowledge and skills (see Table 4.6)

Table 4.5 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Personal Musicianship

Personal Means of Keyboard Chords Rhythms Form Arrange Musicianship Acquisition M

Self 72% 67% 62% 58% 60% 64%

Listening 72% 61% 68% 62% 48% 62%

Workshop 63% 59% 61% 50% 45% 56%

Undergrad 43% 54% 60% 58% 43% 52%

Prof conf 55% 48% 52% 43% 39% 47%

Ensemble 55% 47% 52% 46% 36% 47%

Read 54% 49% 41% 45% 41% 46%

Prof org 54% 46% 45% 40% 39% 45%

Festivals 43% 41% 49% 37% 28% 40%

Mentor 45% 39% 42% 35% 40% 40%

Lessons 42% 42% 37% 38% 28% 37%

Graduate 30% 37% 35% 34% 33% 34%

Hosting 36% 32% 33% 26% 22% 30%

Web 20% 16% 14% 13% 12% 15%

Online 2% 0% 1% 2% 0% 1%

80

“Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” (66%) was the overall, most common source utilized by the participants to acquire knowledge and skill in ensemble components. Additionally, it was the most frequently used approach for each individual item that comprised this category: jazz singing (70%), jazz piano (66%), drum set (67%), and jazz bass (62%). “Participating in jazz workshops (58%), “Self-study of various topics related to jazz” (56%), “Attending and participating at sessions at professional conferences” (54%), and “Participating in jazz workshops” (52%) were also common sources of learning. None of the participants (0%) indicated “Online learning offered by a college or professional association” as a source. “Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources

(podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.)” (13%) was also an infrequent source of learning for ensemble components. Table 4.6 displays the percentage of participants who acquired ensemble components knowledge and skills by sources of learning. 81

Table 4.6 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Ensemble Components

Source Sing Bass Piano Drums Ensemble Components M

Listening 70% 62% 66% 67% 66%

Workshop 63% 52% 58% 57% 58%

Self 63% 52% 58% 52% 56%

Prof conf 60% 53% 49% 52% 54%

Festivals 60% 48% 50% 51% 52%

Ensemble 51% 47% 46% 46% 48%

Mentor 48% 39% 41% 45% 43%

Prof org 48% 32% 41% 39% 40%

Read 38% 35% 38% 37% 37%

Hosting 48% 23% 29% 32% 33%

Undergrad 35% 26% 34% 28% 31%

Lessons 34% 20% 38% 23% 29%

Graduate 29% 25% 29% 27% 28%

Web 14% 12% 13% 13% 13%

Online 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

Historical and Cultural Sources Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their knowledge of

and skill in historical and cultural elements that may be important to the vocal jazz

educator. Historical and cultural elements were (a) history – an awareness of the

historical and cultural impact of jazz in America, (b) styles – understand theperformance

practices associated with various jazz styles (Dixieland, hot, swing, bebop, cool), (c) 82 players – have an understanding of the important instrumental jazz performers in history and their significant contributions, (d) singers - have an understanding of the important jazz singers in history and their significant contributions, (e) groups - have an understanding of the influential vocal groups in the history of the vocal jazz idiom, and

(f) bands – have an understanding of the important jazz instrumental groups in the history of jazz. Table 4.7 displays the participants’ means of learning about historical and cultural knowledge and skills relevant to vocal jazz.

“Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” (70%) was, on average, the most common source (70%) for learning about the historical and cultural aspects of vocal jazz. “Self-study of various topics in jazz” (62%), “Reading books and articles on jazz” (59%), and “Attendance at sessions at professional conferences” (53%) were also common. Almost none (1%) of the participants indicated “Online learning offered by a college or professional association as a source” (1%). “Private lessons in jazz voice, piano, or other instruments” (20%) and “Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources

(podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.)” (24%) were also infrequent sources of learning historical and cultural knowledge. “Regular, focused listening” was the highest rated source for any individual historical and cultural element – “groups - have an understanding of the influential vocal groups in the history of the vocal jazz idiom”

(83%). 83

Table 4.7 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Historical and Cultural

Historical and Cultural Source History Styles Players Singers Groups Bands M

Listening 50% 71% 65% 77% 83% 72% 70%

Self 62% 60% 61% 70% 61% 57% 62%

Read 67% 50% 62% 65% 58% 53% 59%

Prof conf 54% 49% 47% 59% 60% 51% 53%

Workshop 41% 51% 48% 54% 55% 39% 48%

Prof org 41% 38% 40% 41% 42% 38% 40%

Festivals 27% 42% 36% 47% 51% 38% 40%

Mentor 34% 37% 33% 37% 40% 33% 36%

Undergrad 48% 35% 43% 34% 22% 36% 36%

Ensemble 29% 42% 34% 34% 39% 34% 35%

Graduate 40% 34% 39% 38% 24% 37% 35%

Hosting 18% 25% 24% 41% 33% 25% 28%

Web 28% 16% 21% 26% 32% 23% 24%

Lessons 14% 24% 23% 26% 16% 16% 20%

Online 0% 1% 1% 1% 0% 0% 1%

Summary of Research Question 2 Research question 2 results were determined by calculating the frequency of

participants’ acquisition of 15 knowledge and skill items, categorized in three groups, (a)

personal musicianship, (b) ensemble components, and (c) historical and cultural (see 84

Figure 4.1). “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” was the most common means of acquisition for each of the three groups. Over half of the participants reported learning from (a) “Self-study of various topics related to jazz” (61%), (b)

“Attendance at jazz workshops”(53%), and (c) “Attendance at sessions at professional conferences” (51%). One respondent utilized “Online learning offered by a college or professional association”(1%) as a source of jazz knowledge and/or skills. Similarly, less than one-fifth of respondents utilized “Jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, websites, wikis, etc.)”(18%). One in three respondents learned jazz skills in “Graduate studies” (33%), and less than one-third of the respondents reported acquiring jazz skills and knowledge from “Hosting a clinician” (30%) and taking “Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instrument” (28%).

Figure 4.1 Sources of Vocal Jazz Knowledge and Skills Summary Percentage of respondents indicating acquisition of skill by source

85

Research Question 3

The research question asked, “What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of jazz pedagogical knowledge and skill to success as a vocal jazz educator?” Participants were asked to rate the importance of vocal jazz pedagogical skills essential for success as a vocal jazz educator using a Likert-type scale where 1 = no importance, 2 = little importance, 3 = neutral, 4 = moderately important, and 5 = very important. All jazz pedagogical knowledge and skill items were rated above “4,” indicating that participants generally valued all 14 pedagogical skill items highly, between “moderately important” to “very important.” The most highly rated pedagogical skills were (a) “Select high quality repertoire in a variety of jazz and contemporary styles from appropriate sources” (arrangements from publishing companies, original compositions, websites of individual arrangers, etc.)(M =

4.92, SD = 0.45), (b) “Utilize definitive recordings for inspiration, modeling, comparisons, and stylistic considerations in teaching students” (M = 4.77, SD = 0.59), and (c) “Utilize traditional vocal pedagogy (basics of tone production, regardless of style) to develop healthy, stylistically correct singing with individuals and ensembles” (M =

4.73, SD = 0.64).The lowest rated items were (a) “Assist students in the transition from listening acoustically to listening through monitor speakers” (M = 4.20, SD = 0.90), (b)

“Employ effective ear-training exercises and drills for the development of aural perception skills” (M = 4.20, SD = 0.85), and (c) “Employ effective vocal warm-up exercises for individuals and the ensemble” (M = 4.21, SD = 0.93) (see Table 4.8). 86

Table 4.8

Importance of Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills to Success as a Vocal Jazz Educator

Pedagogical Knowledge Skills M SD

Select high quality repertoire in a variety of jazz and contemporary 4.92 0.44 styles from appropriate sources (arrangements from publishing companies, original compositions, websites of individual arrangers, etc.)

Utilize definitive recordings for inspiration, modeling, comparisons, 4.77 0.59 and stylistic considerations in teaching students

Utilize traditional vocal pedagogy (basics of tone production, 4.73 0.64 regardless of style) to develop healthy, stylistically correct singing with individuals and ensembles

Teach students proper microphone technique 4.66 0.63

Utilize jazz vocal pedagogy (ex. applying specific techniques to 4.70 0.66 change resonance in the sound) to develop healthy, stylistically correct singing with individuals and ensemble

Utilize specific strategies for teaching proper time and time-keeping 4.68 0.61 strategies to the ensemble

Teach vocal jazz improvisation through personal modeling, use of 4.64 0.60 recordings, improvisational games, and/or other strategies

Employ specific techniques for teaching the appropriate stylistic 4.64 0.65 execution of jazz rhythms

Teach rhythm section students how to play with correct style, balance 4.53 0.68 blend, and time

Utilize basic sound reinforcement components (microphones, amps, 4.52 0.73 mixer, monitor speakers, various cables)

Guide students in the proper care of sound system components and 4.26 0.87 connection procedures

Employ effective vocal warm-up exercises for individuals and the 4.21 0.93 ensembles

Employ effective ear-training exercises and drills for the development 4.20 0.85 of aural perception skills

Assist students in the transition from listening acoustically to listening 4.20 0.90 through monitor speakers Note: A Likert-type scale was utilized where 1 = no importance to 5 = very important 87

Research Question 4

The research question asked, “How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired their vocal jazz pedagogical knowledge and skills?” After participants rated the importance of each vocal jazz content knowledge or skill, a companion question asked them to indicate the sources of acquisition of the knowledge or skill. Respondents were asked to indicate all of the ways in which they acquired their knowledge of and skill in traditional and jazz vocal pedagogy that may be important to the vocal jazz educator. The following results present the sources of vocal jazz pedagogical skills categorized in five

(5) groups: (a) vocal pedagogy, (b) warmups/ear-training, (c) rhythm section/rhythmic concepts, (d) improvisation/stylistic concepts, and (e) sound reinforcement.

Traditional and Jazz Vocal Pedagogy

Respondents reported their “Formal coursework as an undergraduate” as being the highest source of knowledge and skills for teaching traditional vocal pedagogy (71%).

“Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instrument” (62%) and “Self- study of various topics related to jazz” (57%) were also common sources.

In addition, more than half of the respondents learned through other means: (a) “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” (55%), (b) Reading books and journal articles on jazz” (54%), (c) “Attending sessions at professional conferences” (53%), and

(d) “Participating in jazz workshops” (53%). Almost none of the participants indicated

“Online learning offered by a college or professional association”(1%), and less than one- fifth (18%) cited “Jazz-related Internet resources” (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc).

The responses for the acquisition of jazz vocal pedagogy indicated that two-thirds

(66%) of the participants employ “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded 88 jazz.” “Participating in jazz workshops” (53%) and “Self-study of various topics related to jazz” (53%) were also common means of knowledge acquisition (53%). Nearly half of the respondents’ utilized “Attending jazz festivals as a member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble” (48%), “Attendance at sessions at professional conferences”

(47%), “Utilizing a mentor” (45%), and “Participating in a vocal jazz ensemble”(45%) as sources of jazz vocal pedagogy knowledge acquisition. As with traditional vocal pedagogy, one participant learned “Online by a college or professional association” (1%).

“Jazz-related Internet resources” (17%) was also an infrequent means of knowledge acquisition. “Formal coursework as a graduate student” (27%) and “Private lessons in jazz voice, piano, or other instrument” (25%) were also less common sources. Table 4.9 displays the percentage of participants who acquired vocal pedagogy skills by sources of learning.

Warm-ups/Ear-Training

Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their knowledge of and skill in effective vocal warm-up and ear-training exercises that may be important to the vocal jazz educator. “Formal coursework as an undergraduate” (54%) was the most common source for respondents in the learning of warm-up and ear-training exercises for the individual singer and ensembles. “Attendance at sessions during professional conferences” (46%), “Attendance at jazz workshops” (42%), and “Self-study of various topics related to jazz” (42%) were also common sources. Respondents reported that their undergraduate education was the highest rated individual source (58%) for either warm-ups or ear-training exercises. There were no ratings for “Online learning offered by a college or other professional association” in warm-ups and one (1%) for ear- 89

training and few respondents indicated “Jazz-related Internet sources” (13%) (see Table

4.10).

Table 4.9 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Pedagogy: Traditional and Jazz Source Trad vocal ped Jazz vocal ped Vocal ped M

Listening 55% 66% 61%

Self 57% 53% 55%

Workshop 53% 53% 53%

Undergraduate 71% 33% 52%

Prof conf 53% 47% 50%

Read 54% 41% 48%

Ensemble 46% 45% 46%

Festivals 42% 48% 45%

Mentor 43% 45% 44%

Private 62% 25% 44%

Prof org 40% 38% 39%

Hosting 38% 35% 37%

Graduate 43% 27% 35%

Web 18% 17% 18%

Online 1% 1% 1%

90

Table 4.10 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Warm-ups and Ear-Training Source Warm-ups Ear-training Warmup/Ear TrainingM

Undergraduate 58% 50% 54%

Prof conf 43% 49% 46%

Workshop 42% 45% 44%

Self 43% 41% 42%

Ensemble 42% 35% 39%

Read 39% 36% 38%

Mentor 38% 33% 36%

Prof org 33% 34% 34%

Graduate 32% 33% 33%

Listening 28% 38% 33%

Festivals 30% 30% 30%

Hosting 27% 25% 26%

Lessons 27% 21% 24%

Web 14% 12% 13%

Online 0% 1% 1%

Rhythm Section/Rhythmic Concepts Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their

pedagogical knowledge of and skill in rhythm section/rhythmic concepts that may be

important to the vocal jazz educator. Rhythm section and rhythmic concepts were (a)

rhythm section – teach rhythm section students how to play with correct style, balance,

blend, and time, (b) rhythmic concepts – employ specific techniques for teaching the 91 appropriate stylistic execution of jazz rhythms, and (c) timekeeping strategies – utilize specific strategies for teaching proper time and time-keeping strategies to the ensemble.

“Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” (59%) represented the participants’ most frequently utilized source of acquisition of pedagogies to teach this category of knowledge and skill. “Attending jazz workshops” (52%), “Attending sessions at music education professional conferences” (49%), and “Participating in jazz festivals”

(47%) were also common sources. No respondents learned rhythmic concepts for teaching “Online from colleges or professional associations” (0%), and few learned by“Jazz-related Internet resources” (14%). “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz represented the highest rated source for each individual pedagogical skill

(see Table 4.11).

Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts

Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their pedagogical knowledge of and skill in improvisation/stylistic concepts that may be important to the vocal jazz educator. Improvisation/stylistic concepts were (a) improvisation – teach vocal jazz improvisation through personal modeling, use of recordings, improvisational games, and/or other strategies, (b) recordings – utilize definitive recordings for inspiration, modeling, comparisons, and stylistic considerations in teaching students, and (c) repertoire – select high quality repertoire in a variety of jazz and contemporary styles from appropriate sources (arrangements from publishing companies, original compositions, websites of individual arrangers, etc.) 92

Table 4.11

Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Rhythm Section/Rhythmic Concepts

Source Rhythm Rhythmic Timekeeping Rhythm M section concepts strategies

Listening 64% 63% 50% 59%

Workshop 55% 53% 49% 52%

Prof conf 52% 48% 47% 49%

Festivals 49% 49% 43% 47%

Self 46% 45% 43% 45%

Ensemble 42% 45% 46% 44%

Mentor 43% 37% 38% 39%

Prof org 37% 36% 30% 34%

Read 36% 37% 30% 34%

Hosting 34% 29% 34% 32%

Undergraduate 26% 28% 41% 32%

Lessons 29% 30% 26% 28%

Graduate 24% 28% 25% 26%

Web 15% 14% 13% 14%

Online 0% 0% 0% 0%

Overall, three out of four respondents indicated “Regular, focused listening to live

and/or recorded jazz” (75%) as a means utilized to improve their knowledge and skills in

this area. “Attending sessions at professional conferences” (62%) and“Participating in

jazz workshops” (59%) were also common sources (see Table 4.12). No participants 93 indicated “Online learning from colleges or professional associations” (0%) was a source for acquiring knowledge and skills in this area. “Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instrument” (23%) and “Formal coursework as a graduate student” (24%) were also less common indicated sources.

Eighty percent of the respondents indicated they’d learned improvisation skills for teaching through “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz.” “Attending sessions during professional conferences”(65%) and “Participating in jazz festivals”

(65%) were also common sources. No participants indicated learning improvisational pedagogy from “Online learning offered by a college or professional association” (0%).

“Jazz-related Internet resources” (20%) were also a less common source. When learning to utilize recordings for student inspiration, modeling, comparisons, and stylistic considerations, 78% of the respondents indicated “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz.” “Self-study of related topics to jazz”(54%) and“Attendance at sessions at professional conferences” (50%) were other common sources. No participants indicated learning from “Online learning offered by a college or professional association”(0%). Additionally, few chose “hosting a jazz clinician” (21%) or “Private lessons in jazz voice, piano, or other instruments” (20%) as sources.

Sources that rated high for the selection of high quality repertoire in a variety of jazz and contemporary styles included “Attending sessions at professional conferences”

(70%), “Participating in jazz festivals” (67%) and “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” (66%). No participants chose “Online learning offered by colleges or professional associations” (0%). Also, “Formal coursework as a graduate student”(24%) and “Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instrument” 94

(23%) were less common sources. Table 4.12 displays the percentage of participants who

acquired teaching techniques for this group by sources of learning.

Table 4.12 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts

Source Improvisation Recordings Repertoire Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts M

Listening 80% 78% 66% 75%

Prof conf 65% 50% 70% 62%

Workshop 65% 48% 65% 59%

Festivals 55% 34% 67% 52%

Self 53% 54% 49% 52%

Prof org 50% 41% 58% 50%

Ensemble 46% 39% 48% 44%

Mentor 37% 46% 49% 44%

Read 52% 42% 39% 44%

Hosting 38% 21% 30% 30%

Undergrad 30% 24% 27% 27%

Web 20% 26% 36% 27%

Graduate 28% 25% 20% 24%

Lessons 38% 20% 10% 23%

Online 0% 0% 0% 0%

Sound Reinforcement Respondents were asked to indicate the ways in which they acquired their

pedagogical knowledge of and skill in sound reinforcement concepts that may be

important to the vocal jazz educator. Sound reinforcement includes (a) utilize system 95 components – utilize basic sound reinforcement components (microphones, amps, mixer, monitor speakers, various cables), (b) mic technique – teach students proper microphone technique, (c) transition to monitors – assisting students in the transition from acoustic singing to listening through monitor speakers, and (d) PA care, connections – guiding students in the proper care of sound system components and connection procedures.

Overall, the sources most often indicated by participants as a means of acquiring the knowledge and skills in this group were “Utilizing a mentor” (47%) and

“Participating in jazz workshops” (47%). “Self-study of various topics related to jazz”

(44%) and “Participating in a vocal jazz ensemble”(44%) were also common sources.

“Online learning offered by a college or professional association” (1%) was indicated as the least common resource for sound reinforcement knowledge. Both “Formal coursework as an undergraduate” (12%) and “Formal coursework as a graduate student”

(16%) were indicated as less common sources.

For individual pedagogical items, the most frequently used means of knowledge and skill acquisition for utilizing system components was “Utilizing a mentor” (59%), while acquiring proper microphone technique was most often done by “attending jazz workshops” (58%). “Participation in vocal jazz festivals” (46%) was the frequently used means for teaching the transition to monitors, and “Utilizing a mentor (47%) was the most frequently utilized source for PA care, connections. Table 4.13 displays the percentage of participants who acquired teaching techniques for sound reinforcement by sources of learning. 96

Table 4.13 Percentage of Participants Utilizing Varying Means to Acquire Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Sound Reinforcement Utilize Transition Sound Source system Mic to PA care, Reinforcement components technique monitors connections M

Mentor 59% 43% 39% 47% 47%

Workshop 51% 58% 40% 37% 47%

Ensemble 45% 50% 41% 39% 44%

Self 49% 45% 40% 41% 44%

Festivals 41% 49% 46% 33% 42%

Prof conf 50% 46% 38% 29% 41%

Prof org 39% 36% 33% 27% 34%

Read 43% 34% 20% 25% 31%

Hosting 23% 30% 22% 15% 23%

Undergraduate 25% 21% 14% 17% 19%

Listening 20% 26% 16% 11% 18%

Graduate 24% 15% 9% 14% 16%

Lessons 10% 22% 15% 4% 13%

Web 15% 13% 12% 9% 12%

Online 0% 1% 0% 1% 1%

Summary of Research Question 4 The data for the 14 pedagogical knowledge and skill items from the survey was

grouped in five categories for analysis: (a) vocal pedagogy, (b) warm-ups and ear-

training, (c) rhythm section/rhythmic concepts, (d) improvisation/stylistic concepts, and

(e) sound reinforcement. More than seven in ten respondents indicated they’d acquired 97 their understanding traditional vocal pedagogy from their undergraduate education.

However, when acquiring jazz vocal pedagogy, only three in ten respondents indicated learning from their undergraduate courses. Regular, focused listening was indicated by two-thirds of the participants as a source for jazz vocal pedagogy.

In the category of warm-up vocalises and ear-training exercises, the undergraduate preparation of respondents was chosen most often as a source (54%). Jazz workshop and professional conference sessions were also common choices for this area.

More than half of the respondents acquired pedagogy of rhythmic concepts from regular, focused listening (59%) and participation in jazz workshops (52%). Three in four respondents (75%) acquired jazz improvisational and stylistic knowledge and skills from

“Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz,” and to a lesser extent,

“Attending sessions at professional conferences” (59%) and “Participating in jazz workshops”(52%) and “Attending jazz festivals” (52%). Sound reinforcement knowledge and concepts came from a variety of sources, with no individual source indicated by more than half of the participants. Almost no participants (1%) indicated that “Online learning offered by a college or professional organizations” provided information. This was consistent throughout all five groups. “Jazz-related Internet resources” were also chosen at low frequency throughout the five pedagogical areas.

Research Question 5

The research question asked, “What are the professional development topics of interest to in-service vocal jazz educators?” Participants were asked to indicate their degree of interest in improving their knowledge and skills in various topic areas utilizing a Likert-type scale where 1 = no interest, 2 = little interest, 3 = neither interested nor 98 disinterested, 4 = interested, and 5 = very interested. The mean rating of professional development topic areas clustered near “4”, indicating that participants were generally

“interested.” Only “Jazz history” (M = 3.35, SD = 1.17) averaged below 3.5. Highest interest was for “Vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques” (M = 4.24, SD = 1.07) and

“Programming/literature sources” (M = 4.24, SD = 1.02) and lowest interest was for

“Jazz theory” (M = 3.65, SD = 1.20) and “Jazz history(M = 3.35, SD = 1.17). (see Table

4.14).

Table 4.14 Mean Results of Professional Development Topic Areas

Topic Area M SD

Vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques 4.24 1.07

Effective programming through literature, finding new literature sources 4.24 1.02

Developing relationships with other professionals in vocal jazz education 4.12 1.13

Strategies for teaching vocal jazz improvisation 4.08 1.13

Vocal arranging 3.94 1.24

Sound reinforcement technology for the vocal jazz educator 3.89 1.22

Teaching strategies for the rhythm section 3.86 1.23

Latest research in jazz vocal pedagogy 3.84 1.20

Jazz piano 3.72 1.24

Jazz theory 3.65 1.20

Jazz history 3.35 1.17

Note: A Likert-type scale was utilized where 1 = no importance to 5 = very important 99

Research Question 6

The research question asked, “What are in-service vocal jazz educators preferred formats and approaches to professional development?” Participants were asked to indicate their degree of interest in specifies formats for professional development using a

Likert-type scale where 1 = no interest, 2 = little interest, 3 = neither interested nor disinterested, 4 = interested, and 5 = very interested. The mean rating of professional development formats and approaches generally clustered near “4”, indicating that participants were generally interested. Only “enrolling in graduate courses in vocal jazz pedagogy” (M = 2.91, SD = 1.40) and “Online learning offered by a college or professional association” (M = 2.87, SD = 1.25) averaged below “3”. Highest interest was for “Interest session at a professional music education conference or meeting” (M = 4.37,

SD = 0.84) and “Participation/attendance at vocal jazz festivals that include any of the following: clinician(s), adjudication, host college ensemble and/or professional artists”

(M = 4.31, SD = 0.97) (see Table 4.15). Academic education (online college and graduate courses) scored low on interest. Meetings and festivals were rated as the most preferred approaches to professional development. 100

Table 4.15 Mean Results of Professional Development Formats/Activities ______Topic Area M SD

Interest session at a professional music education conference or meeting 4.37 .84

Participation/attendance at vocal jazz festivals 4.31 .97

Learning independently 4.10 1.02

Learning from an informal mentor 4.07 .95

Organization and participation with an all-state, all-regional 4.04 1.10 vocal jazz ensemble

Multi-day summer vocal jazz workshop 3.86 1.19

Jazz specific instruction in voice, piano, or other jazz instrument 3.80 1.19

Enrolling in graduate courses 2.91 1.40

Online learning offered by a college of professional association 2.87 1.25 Note: A Likert-type scale was utilized where 1 = no importance to 5 = very important

Open-ended Questions

At the end of the VJEKSI, participants were given an opportunity to respond to open-ended questions regarding their experiences as vocal jazz educators. The inclusion of survey questions with open-ended responses follows a quasi-sequential explanatory strategy as outlined in Creswell (2003). While the quantitative results are given priority, the qualitative portion is integrated during the interpretation phase of the analysis. The purpose is to “use qualitative results to assist in explaining and interpreting the findings of a primarily quantitative study” (p. 215). 101

Open-ended Question 1 The question asked of respondents was, “What have been the greatest challenges in acquiring and developing your skills as a vocal jazz educator?” Of the total number of participants (n = 93), a total of 82 (88.1%) elected to respond to this question. Twenty- five comments were made regarding a lack of training for vocal jazz. Eighteen participants cited a need of vocal jazz teaching (pedagogical) skills, 10 required more resources, and eight did not have personal support from a mentor or other colleagues.

Open-ended Question 2

The question asked, “If applicable, please share a/the turning point in your career with regard to solidifying your knowledge and skills as a vocal jazz ensemble director.

What has contributed most to your success?” A total of 75 (80.6%) participants elected to respond this question. Twenty-one respondents referred to ways in which the contribution of a mentor or networking with colleagues had contributed to their success. Twenty comments were made about the benefit of becoming a participant in a vocal jazz ensemble and/or performing. Participation in vocal jazz workshops were cited by 14 respondents and 13 mentioned the value of learning jazz in their undergraduate and/or graduate programs. Eight respondents indicated that participating in vocal jazz festivals had made important contributions to their success and seven cited the practice of listening to jazz recordings and live performances.

Open-ended Question 3

The final item was “Please share any other insights from your own experience.” A total of 61, (65.6%) elected to respond to open-ended question three. A practice of 102 regular listening to jazz recordings were cited 20 times, playing jazz professionally and/or in college received eight mentions, and five respondents stated the importance of mentors.

Chapter Summary

Demographic information indicated that the majority of respondents were male,

Caucasian, had earned Master’s degrees, and majored in music education during their undergraduate education. The highest concentration of respondents’ was from the North

Central region of the United States. Generally, the primary and secondary instruments of the respondents’ were voice and piano and the majority taught vocal jazz at the high school and college level. All fifteen jazz content knowledge items were rated above a

“4” or “important” by respondents. Being able to read and interpret rhythms, understanding correct jazz singing style and technique, and understanding the influential vocal groups in the history of jazz were the highest rated jazz knowledge and skill items.

Understanding the important instrumental groups in jazz history, an awareness of the historical and cultural impact of jazz in America, and being able to adapt or arrange compositions were the lowest rated jazz subject matter skills.

In the acquisition of the jazz content knowledge and skills, the most highly rated source was “regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz.” In fact, “listening” dominated each of three content knowledge domains – (a) personal musicianship

(keyboard skills, familiarity of chords, rhythms, etc.), (b) ensemble components

(understanding of correct singing style, bass, piano, and drum style and technique), and

(c) historical and cultural (awareness of jazz history and culture, understanding of the performance practices associated with various jazz styles, the importance of jazz 103 instrumentalists, singers and vocal groups). In addition, respondents found “self-study of various topics related to jazz” and “attending jazz festivals and professional conferences” as valuable sources.

As with jazz subject matter skills, participants generally rated all pedagogical skill items above a “4” or “important.” The highest rated were “selecting high quality repertoire from appropriate sources,” “utilizing recordings in teaching situations,” and

“utilizing traditional vocal pedagogy to develop healthy singing.” Five groups of pedagogical skills were used to present the results of the highest rated skill sources – (a) traditional and jazz vocal pedagogy (“regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” obtained highest average percentage), (b) warm-ups and ear-training

(“undergraduate education” highest percentage), (c) rhythm section, rhythmic concepts, and time-keeping strategies, (d) improvisation and stylistic concepts (“regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” obtained the highest percentage for both groups), and (e) sound reinforcement concepts and components. While the first four groups had one source that dominated each pedagogical element in the grouping, each individual sound reinforcement item had different sources as the highest percentage.

Participants reported being interested in all listed topic areas related to vocal jazz education, particularly vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques and repertoire sources.

In the delivery of the professional development, professional conference sessions and participation in vocal jazz festivals were the highest rated. More than three-fourths of the participants responded to open-ended questions about their experiences. Among the challenges in learning to be a vocal jazz educator, respondents cited (a) a lack of jazz training and experience, (b) little teaching skills in jazz, (c) few resources, and (d) no 104 mentor or little support from colleagues. Respondents indicated that several areas were important to their success: (a) having a mentor, (b) experience as a performer, (c) attending vocal jazz workshops, and (d) an effective pre-service training in their undergraduate or graduate education. Respondents also shared that listening to jazz was an important ingredient in obtaining additional skills and knowledge.

105

CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the forms of pedagogical content knowledge needed by vocal jazz ensemble educators. A secondary purpose was to examine the role of professional development in the acquisition of pedagogical content knowledge by vocal jazz educators. This chapter begins with a discussion of the results presented in Chapter Four, including implications for the profession and how the findings compare to related studies described in Chapter Two. Finally, limitations to this study and suggestions for future research are presented, followed by concluding thoughts.

Vocal Jazz Subject Matter Knowledge: Research Question 1

Research question one: What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill to success as a high school vocal jazz teacher? Vocal jazz educators rated all fifteen of the jazz content knowledge and skill items highly, placing them within a narrow range between “moderately important” and “very important”. An analysis of the items’ mean scores and standard deviations reveals that responses were not only uniformly high, but they were also fairly consistent across respondents, without a great deal of variance.

Respondents may have found it difficult to differentiate among the perceived importance of individual knowledge and skill items since they believe all are essential to being a successful vocal jazz educator. The data appear to show a tendency toward a comprehensive view of the jazz knowledge and skills required by teachers, a finding that is similar to results from an earlier study (Venesile, 2004). 106

For example, the top four items had high ratings for performance skills (reading jazz rhythms, understanding jazz singing technique) and specific cultural understandings

(familiarity with the influential jazz vocal groups and jazz singers). An open-ended response by one participant supports the importance of a broad base of knowledge:

At first I just started off ahead of the students in my knowledge and skills. As my

knowledge and skills grew I could provide a better foundation, being a further

distance away from them and having a more comprehensive background allowing

me to take a more specific approach to the rehearsal and to each new group of

students I encountered. (Participant 88)

It would seem that in order to be capable of teaching jazz concepts to students, instrumental or vocal, educators should familiarize themselves with the basic idiomatic elements of the genre. An immersion period in the fundamentals of jazz theory, vocal pedagogy, and the evolution of various styles appears necessary for educators to function with confidence. To service the needs of pre- and in-service educators, teacher education and professional development creators should provide rich experiences in the identified areas. Just as with generic musical concepts, the more secured the skills, the more the educator will approach their teaching with confidence and afford effective instruction.

Sources of Jazz Knowledge and Skills: Research Question 2

Research question two: How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired their vocal jazz subject matter knowledge and skill? Participants were consistent in their regard for listening activities as a means to acquire jazz knowledge and skill. Twelve of the fifteen jazz knowledge and skill items from across the three categorized groups (personal musicianship, ensemble components, and historical and cultural) of jazz subject matter 107 skills reflect “Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz” as the highest source, particularly in the historical and cultural group (vocal groups, styles, bands, players, singers). In responding to the question “What has contributed most to your success?” Participant 16 responded succinctly, “Listening, Study. Listening more.

Performing. Listening again.” Another respondent advocated an immersion in the aural elements to gain access to jazz style:

Tough to teach it if you don't know it (and love it). If you don't know the style and

the idiom, how on earth can you expect to be able to convey it to students? People

who want to teach jazz singing of any kind should build in an immersion period

(if they haven't had one already) where they just listen to as much of it as

possible. Jazz is a language, and the best way to learn a foreign language is

through immersion. Without that, authenticity will be hard to come by.

(Participant 18)

Many of the anecdotal articles that began appearing in various publications in the

1970s and ‘80s were geared to the traditional choral director, appealing for an immersion into the culture of jazz, which promotes abundant listening activities (Anderson, 1976,

1979; Grier 1977; Aitken, 1980, 1981). Both participants’ statements, as well as the quantitative study results, are congruent with a variety of related jazz topics discussed throughout the literature review (e.g., Walker, 2005; Reimer, 2003). Other skills and common jazz musician practices such as audiation and transcription are also by-products of listening activities (Brent, 2008; Gordon, 1999).

In the Personal Musicianship grouping, undergraduate education was indicated as a valuable source for jazz theory knowledge. This may signify that undergraduate 108 music theory courses often include a substantial amount of contemporary theory. Or, perhaps the participants absorbed relevant theoretical understandings through their participation in vocal jazz ensembles. Offering undergraduate courses in jazz theory and ear-training could lead to greater comfort with jazz theory for vocal jazz educators.

Other techniques were also revealed as important ways to acquire essential jazz skills and knowledge. Next to “Listening to live and/or recorded jazz,” “Self-study in various topics related to jazz” was a valuable source of learning for keyboard skills and jazz theory and arranging, and developing an historical awareness of the cultural impact of jazz in America. It appears that despite all of the available formal and semi-formal types of educational opportunities, a consistent and determined amount of self-study has been beneficial to study participants’ acquisition of these understandings. On the other hand, self-study for some respondents could be the result of a lack of available professional development, or an absence of it altogether, as in the case of vocal jazz arranging, where there currently are no published materials available on the topic.

Participants reported that each of the Ensemble Components (“Understanding of correct style and technique of jazz singing,” “Understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the piano in the rhythm section,” “Understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the bass in the rhythm section,” “Understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the drums in the rhythm section”) were acquired most often by “regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz”. Though listening had the highest percentage, multiple sources were indicated as being frequently utilized: attendance at jazz workshops, professional conferences, and jazz festivals. One of the more confounding aspects of learning vocal jazz is the necessity of also learning about 109 the pedagogy of the rhythm section instruments. Fortunately, there are professional development experiences that isolate the rhythm section components and identify the fundamental concepts about their function in a vocal jazz ensemble.

Of the 92 participants surveyed, nearly 60% indicated gaining knowledge and skills from workshops. Across the U.S. and Canada there are annual advertised workshops, mostly of the summer, multi-day variety. These findings are similar to other recent studies on music educator professional development (Bowles, 2003). A problem for inexperienced educators is gaining access to the advertisements of the workshops, which appear mostly in jazz education publications. There is no standardized or centralized database of workshops available for interested participants; they are dependent largely on word-of-mouth reputations, and held on campuses of colleges or universities where vocal jazz has a profile (Rocky Mountain Vocal Jazz Camp, 2010;

Steve Zegree Vocal Jazz Camp, 2010; UNT Summer Vocal Jazz Workshop, 2010). They are mostly regionalized, although Phil Mattson still conducts multiple versions of the same workshop in diverse locales (Phil Mattson Vocal Jazz Workshops, 2010). There appears to be a bit of a breakdown in the way individual camps and workshops choose to advertise their professional development. Some utilize the large national music education organization publications; others prefer to save on advertising and localize marketing efforts. With better communication on marketing themselves to the profession, all workshops and camps could benefit, knowing that interested vocal jazz educators are adequately informed of the available opportunities.

The advantages of these workshops for learning new skills and knowledge may come from the ability of vocal jazz professionals to work closely with attendees in many 110 of the facets of vocal jazz: theory, jazz pedagogy, ensemble singing, etc. An intensive immersion and exploration into various vocal jazz topics over the course of 3-5 days is a type of experiential learning that may have a profound effect on the learner. In discussing a turning point in the development of their skills, one participant offered:

Steve Zegree's camp gave me my first grasp of jazz theory, an idea of how to

conduct a JV (jazz vocal) rehearsal, etc. Though I have since studied with many

of what I consider the "greats," he had the most influence on my teaching and

performing. I will say that Frank DeMiero's camp, now defunct, helped me

understand the rhythm group and sing in a group with experienced teachers who

"showed me" the correct sound; I'd never been in a JV group before! (Participant

23)

There were many comments that communicated ways in which camps and workshops had been transformative experiences, resulting in pivotal moment in participants’ careers:

The best thing that happened to me was organizing/attending/and directing a 5-

day summer vocal jazz camp with experts in the field. The sharing and modeling

of ideas, knowledge, style, etc. was most enlightening and certainly developed my

abilities as a vocal jazz instructor. (Participant 76)

Another example:

I attended the Phil Mattson Vocal Jazz Workshop in Kalamazoo, MI in the

summer of 1981. I learned by participating in a vocal jazz ensemble, by taking

jazz theory classes, improvisation classes and solo singing coaching sessions

during the week. Jazz is something that must be experienced to be understood.

That workshop changed the way I teach. I then attended 2 more and went to Phil's 111

school for 2 years. I have been directing vocal jazz ensembles ever since!

(Participant 73)

There may be an overlapping of sources for many respondents, as listening to jazz is a major part of attending workshops, jazz choir festivals, and attending sessions at conferences. This could account for the reason that all of these activities were highly rated sources of knowledge for the Ensemble Components.

There was a means of knowledge and skill acquisition that was virtually ignored by respondents – online learning offered by a college or other professional association. .

Although the reasons for this are uncertain, as with other forms of specialized learning not involving computer technology, online learning programs may be seen as still in its infancy to much of the public. It is also unknown whether any colleges or professional organizations currently offer any vocal jazz curricula content online. However, as with any growing technological source, this will most likely change. In fact, leading vocal jazz educator/arrangers are beginning to offer personalized instruction through interactive websites (Michmusic, 2010; K. Marsh, 2010). While twenty years ago, it seemed far- fetched that downloading music to our personal computers would be a primary means of acquisition, it is commonplace today. Likewise, engaging in online professional development may be an option that is utilized much more frequently by vocal jazz educators in the coming years.

Even though utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc) was an infrequent source of acquisition of information, there were some noteworthy exceptions. For instance, almost a third (32%) of the respondents indicated learning of the great professional vocal jazz groups through the Internet, and more than a 112 third (36%) have acquired repertoire sources utilizing the web. In a few more years, the percentage of vocal jazz educators utilized this means of knowledge and skill acquisition may rise dramatically in those, and other, areas. For this study, however, it is apparent that more traditional sources are being accessed for information and guidance at present.

Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Knowledge and Skills: Research Question 3

Research question three: “What is the perception of in-service vocal jazz educators regarding the importance of various elements of jazz pedagogical knowledge and skill to success as a vocal jazz educator?” All 14 pedagogical knowledge and skill items were rated between “moderately important” and “very important.” This was very similar to the results of the jazz subject matter items, which were also all highly rated. An analysis of the data revealed a consistency among the pedagogical skills, organized into five categories (vocal pedagogy, ear-training/warm-ups, rhythm section/rhythmic concepts, improvisation/stylistic concepts, and sound reinforcement). The six highest rated individual pedagogical skills were found in four of the five categories, indicating a comprehensiveness of all pedagogical domains in vocal jazz – (a) Vocal Pedagogy (both traditional and jazz vocal pedagogy), (b) Improvisation and Stylistic Concepts (repertoire and recordings for inspiration and modeling), (c) Sound Reinforcement (microphone technique), and (d) Rhythm Section/Rhythmic Concepts (teaching proper time-keeping).

“Selecting high quality repertoire” was the highest rated pedagogical skill, indicating that participants may believe using quality material is tied to effective instruction. Having information about quality sources of vocal jazz literature appears to be a prized skill among respondents, meaning that obtaining quality literature may require more effort and exploration. Since vocal jazz literature is only a small niche in the 113 large publishing company catalogues, alternative and less visible sources are necessary to find a wider array of charts for educators. Participants expressed the importance of selecting quality repertoire that fits the needs of students: “Choosing the correct repertoire for the ensemble. Not letting it be too hard, but also not picking a ‘dumbed down’ arrangement stylistically” (Participant 56). Another respondent offered encouragement in the search for literature: “Do not stick with the mainstream publishers for arrangements, but don't shy away from them, either. Good arrangements may be hiding anywhere!” (Participant 10)

Since listening activities have been shown to be of prime importance to the respondents, it seems logical that “Utilizing definitive recordings for inspiration, modeling, comparisons, and stylistic considerations in teaching students,” was the second highest rated pedagogical element. An understanding of style, expressiveness, improvisational skills, and rhythmic elements has been shown to have a connection to listening (Madura, 1997; Wadsworth-Walker, 2005). One respondent reinforced the value of using recordings as a pedagogical tool:

In my experience, the music educators who come from the choral world to vocal

jazz tend to underestimate the importance of classic recordings to improve their

understanding and as a teaching tool. Jazz is an aural art and listening is essential

to improving comprehension. (Participant 44)

An interesting outcome of the data was the similarity in mean scores for traditional vocal pedagogy (M =4.73) and jazz vocal pedagogy (M = 4.70). The implication seems to be that basic fundamentals in singing, regardless of style, are essential. Traditional vocal pedagogy was held in the same regard and valued as much as 114 obtaining jazz vocal pedagogy. Long-held beliefs by some traditional voice instructors that jazz singing is technically unsound may be a factor in the participants’ responses in this area. It may also reflect a sensitivity of the criticisms of the past and underscore the importance of the basics of vocal pedagogy.

Several comments about the early challenges of acquiring jazz skills relate to vocal pedagogy: “Vocal pedagogy – creating ‘the sound’ without compromising vocal health” (Participant 57). More to the point: “Finding the links between classical and jazz vocal training” (Participant 85). A vocal jazz educator with a different background perspective added: “The greatest challenges I have faced have been pedagogical; as an instrumentalist, it took me quite some time to feel comfortable dealing with the mechanics of the voice as an instrument” (Participant 91).

Respondents’ lowest ratings were for the Warm-ups-Ear-Training group. It may be that vocal jazz warm-up and ear-training exercises have not been addressed enough in the literature, and thus, are somewhat unknown to educators. Or, it may be that in the prioritization of pedagogical skills, preparation exercises lag behind other issues.

However, in establishing a foundation for proper tone and technique, preparation exercises may be an important growth area for the development of beginning skills.

Except for teaching correct microphone technique, the other lower ratings came for skills in the Sound Reinforcement group. “Utilize basic sound reinforcement components,” “Guide students in the proper care of sound system components and connection procedures,” and “Assisting students in the transition from acoustical listening to listening through monitor speakers” were three of the five lowest rated skills.

The lower ratings could account for the fact that many respondents may not utilize a 115 sound reinforcement system with close proximity microphones. Many choral directors who program vocal jazz opt to forego an elaborate PA system, eliminating the extra hassle and burden that accompanies a sophisticated technology (Rutherford, 2008). Many educators may feel unprepared in this area, choosing to amplify solo vocals only. Or, it could be that some educators employ sound reinforcement for dress rehearsals and/or performances only, even though regular rehearsing on a PA system has been encouraged to establish consistency in performance (Rutherford, 2008; Zegree, 2002). One respondent indicated a lack of training: “Proper use of sound reinforcement is hard to learn when there aren't that many people around to teach it” (Participant 84). Or perhaps, sound reinforcement issues may not be as critical as vocal pedagogy, stylistic properties, and rhythmic concepts. There are vocal educators who program jazz compositions but do not utilize a sound reinforcement system, instead embracing a cappella jazz, which can be performed acoustically from risers within a traditional choral program. For that reason, some respondents may have given sound reinforcement items lower ratings of importance.

Sources of Vocal Jazz Pedagogical Skills: Research Question 4

Research question four: “How have in-service vocal jazz educators acquired the vocal jazz pedagogical knowledge and skills?” A particularly noteworthy result from the survey questions on vocal pedagogy was the disparity in the indicated sources for traditional versus jazz vocal pedagogy. While a combination of undergraduate education and private lessons supplied a high percentage of respondents’ traditional vocal pedagogical knowledge, listening activities and attendance at jazz workshops provided the highest percentage for vocal jazz. This is consistent with what is found in the 116 literature (Weir, 2002; Spradling, 2007). Since the undergraduate education provides less training in jazz, students and educators alike are forced to look elsewhere for guidance within the jazz idiom. Participant 22 noted: “Learning to sing jazz by and from instrumentalists, and then working with vocal groups without the vocal ped (sic) was difficult at first. Needed to acquire vocal ped (sic) skills later in career.”

Finding an effective blend of sources seems to be a key in unlocking some of the pedagogical hurdles. Participant 77 provided comment: “Listening to this style is the key, in my opinion. You will never be able to sing or teach this style, unless you hear it first,” and “Listening is crucial. Going to workshops given by professionals in vocal jazz education. Hosting my own workshops and attending All State Vocal Jazz rehearsals”

(Participant 82). It may be that with recent developments in contemporary vocal pedagogy research, the gap between the sources of jazz vocal pedagogy is beginning to close and merge with mainstream traditional sources (Borla, 1985; Shapiro, 1986;

Spradling, 1986, 2007; Barber, 1996, Hicks, 1997, Kteily-O’Sullivan, 1998, Weir, 1998;

Archambeault, 2006)

As influential an endeavor as listening activities (listening to live and/or recorded jazz) appears to have been for the participants in this study, they rated listening higher for the Improvisation/Stylistic Concepts group than any other area. Improvisation for traditional musicians can seem esoteric and was mentioned several times by participants as presenting challenges: “Learning techniques for teaching vocal improvisation, particularly scat singing. I am still not 100% satisfied with the approach I am using, but I still incorporate new ideas when I can” (Participant 10). 117

Strong sources for the teaching of improvisation included “Attending jazz workshops” and “Attending sessions at professional conferences.” One source was cited by Participant 15: “Workshops with Bobby McFerrin at World Choral Symposium in

Minneapolis on improvisation got me over fear of the art.” New ideas have also come from another layer of sources that averaged over 50% frequency from respondents –

“Attendance at jazz festivals,” “reading books and journal articles,” and “self-study of various topics related to jazz.” The proliferation of published materials has been a much- needed source for educators searching for techniques for introducing scat-singing to students (Madura, 1997; Weir, 2002; Stoloff, 2003).

Participant responses emphasized the need for skills in obtaining quality vocal jazz literature. “Sessions at major professional music education conferences” garnered the highest frequency of responses for sources of literature, followed by “Participation in vocal jazz festivals,” and “Participating in jazz workshops.” Vocal jazz festivals, much like workshops, enable teachers to hear new music, potentially introducing them to new arrangements and sources. Often, individual arrangers without an affiliation to a publishing company become “discovered” through this process. Many arranger/composers may find themselves in demand as a result of having their works featured at vocal jazz festivals – invitational events aimed at high school, community college, and university-level vocal jazz choirs. Educationally-based festivals are presented on the campuses of colleges/universities by a hosting vocal jazz ensemble or program and may provide some or all of the following: (a) a performance by a professional artist(s), (b) a non-competitive environment, (c) a short clinic by an adjudicator after the stage performance, (d) “meet” the professional artist(s), and (e) 118 recorded/video of the performance (Western Michigan University, 2010; Millikin

University, 2010; Southwestern Community College, 2010). Usually, the arrangers or new sources of repertoire are found at festivals in the form of the hosting group, professional artists, or invited ensembles.

The results in the Sound Reinforcement group (“Utilize system components,”

“Microphone technique,” “Assisting students in the transition from acoustic singing to listening from monitor speakers,” and “PA system care and connections”) did not follow the trend of other group responses. The four elements combined did not have a single source that averaged 50% responses. Though the frequencies were comparably low when compared to the other pedagogical areas, a deeper look shows that several approaches were rated very similarly, indicating that teachers may use a variety of sources to gain the knowledge and skill necessary for success in live sound application. Sixteen percentage points separated seven sources in “Utilizing system components.”

The item that teachers most frequently utilized in the Sound Reinforcement group was “Utilizing a mentor” in “Utilizing system components.” One reason for this outcome could be that teachers may find it difficult to locate accessible sources of information on sound reinforcement issues for vocal jazz choirs. Another reason may be that because of the perceived complex nature of amplifying a large number of singers and instrumentalists, teachers may find it overwhelming to confront another multi-layered topic that requires more time, knowledge, and skill. Turning to a well-informed colleague who can be used as a resource may make sound reinforcement more manageable and less stressful.

Vocal jazz workshops were a strong source of information on microphone 119 technique for the singer. Workshops, as previously discussed, may be effective sources of knowledge in vocal jazz because they are “hands-on” experiences that allow teachers time to experiment in a non-threatening environment with expert guidance. For example, handling and listening to a cardioid microphone through a sound system gives a teacher a more thorough understanding of its response than watching a performer on stage. This explains half of the respondents indicating “Participating in a vocal jazz ensemble” as a major source of understanding in this area.

Professional Development Topics: Research Question 5

Research question five asked, “What professional development topics are of interest to vocal jazz educators?” Four topic areas out of the 11 listed averaged between a

“4” (interested) and “5” (very interested). One of the two top-rated topics, “Effective programming/finding new literature sources” elicited the highest response from the participants. Since the pedagogical skill of selecting high quality repertoire was a top- rated skill by respondents, it seems consistent that learning about new literature sources would rate highly. In addition, many pieces or “charts” as they are called, are slow to appear in the marketplace because of the legalities surrounding the payment of royalties to the copyright holders by publishing companies. Sometimes publishing companies deem the cost prohibitive; other times the process of clearing copyright, like other legal issues, can be lengthy. In vocal jazz’ growth period of the 1970’s and ‘80s, few publishing companies invested in vocal jazz charts, given the small niche market, which inhibited arrangers. An educator/arranger responded:

Self-publishing is prohibitively difficult if one wishes to do it legitimately, due to

the aggravatingly slow pace of companies like Hal Leonard in responding to 120

copyright requests (or utter lack of response). The choice, for a young arranger, is

usually to sell arrangements illegally or to not be an arranger at all, and this is

stifling to the literature selection in our genre. (Participant 29)

As the Internet has grown, alternative sources have begun to appear. Arranger websites such as Sound Music Publications and UNC Jazz Press are dedicated tot eh genre, providing younger arrangers opportunities to showcase their writing. However, connecting educators with the new sources requires interaction in the community, hence the importance of reading sessions at conferences, vocal jazz festivals and workshops

(highly rated formats for professional development in this study, discussed later). As the market expanded, large publishing companies, such as Hal Leonard, Alfred, Shawnee, and others, began to carry a wider selection (Hal Leonard, 2009).

The other top-rated professional development topic was “Vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques.” Rehearsal techniques are forms of instructional strategies for the performance classroom that may be among the most important topics to music educators

(Bauer & Moehle, 2008). The earliest form of professional development in vocal jazz came from initial anecdotal articles on rehearsal techniques (Grier, 1977b; Cross, 1979;

Aitken, 1981, 1984) and workshops led by master teachers (Pisciotta, 1992; Monkelien,

2002). One respondent said bluntly: “I have seen opportunities for students. I'd like opportunities directed at teachers. Teaching techniques” (Participant 8). A study respondent’s search for effective instructional strategies in rehearsal techniques prompted this comment: 121

Training my ears to hear not just that something's wrong, but know exactly what

is wrong to then be able to fix it. Followed closely by finding out how to break

down tougher concepts into easy to learn strategies. (Participant 16)

With improved instructional strategies, vocal jazz educators can effectively improve the performance of an ensemble, thereby increasing the confidence of both ensemble and director. It is understandable then that professional development topics that most directly impact the performance of the ensemble would be most attractive to vocal jazz educators.

Networking with other vocal jazz educators was another highly rated topic area by respondents. Many of the sources of various content and pedagogical skills, such as workshops, festivals, various professional conferences, and professional organizations involve contact and interaction with other educators providing valuable information and collegial support:

Informal mentors throughout my life have helped shape who I am as a jazz

educator. Without them, I would not have any idea how to succeed in vocal jazz.

As I took on leadership roles, I grew exponentially, as I was expected to know a

whole lot more! It also put me in a position of being in touch with my jazz

colleagues at a much higher level. I have learned most from informal discussions

with all my colleagues. (Participant 55)

Attempting to acquire knowledge and skills in a virtual vacuum would be grueling at best. When asked about a great challenge in acquiring knowledge, Participant 58 said,

“Finding help. With no background in the genre, you start at ground zero.” Another added: 122

It was in 1980 that I had my first vocal jazz ensemble and knew basically nothing.

I went to colleagues in instrumental jazz to ask for help and listened to everything

I could. The biggest challenge was the lack of resources at that time. (Participant

73)

Another implication for the importance of networking may be that making connections with peers provides confirmation: “My former directors, ensemble members and professionals with which I've performed with and learned from really made me realize how much I enjoy this art form, and care about it's survival!” (Participant 64)

The fourth topic area receiving a strong rating was “Developing strategies for vocal improvisation.” As detailed earlier in the discussion, musicians rely, in part, on listening activities to acquire the culture of jazz improvisation. More than half of the respondents in this study also acquired skills through six other sources (“Conferences,”

“Workshops,” “Festivals,” “Self-study,” “Reading books, journals,” and “Professional organizations”), possibly an indication that improvisation is a challenging concept requiring many approaches. However, becoming a competent improviser and possessing strategies for teaching improvisation to others are the difference between understanding a skill and having the pedagogical skills to teach it. Modeling for students is but one of the many effective strategies for teaching vocal jazz improvisation (Madura, 1992;

Wadsworth-Walker, 2005). Even though there have been well-received materials on teaching improvisation created especially for jazz vocalists, the demands on a multitude of musical and cognitive skills may be a reason for many educators’ reluctance to include it in the curriculum. Still, high ratings for strategies for teaching improvisation indicate a desire to acquire more knowledge on the topic. 123

Preferred Professional Development Formats and Approaches: Research Question 6

Research question six asked, “ What are in-service vocal jazz educators preferred formats and approaches to professional development?” Teachers reported interest in seven of the nine formats listed formats in the survey. They were: (a) interest session at a professional music education conference or meeting, (b) participation/attendance at vocal jazz festivals, (c) learning independently, (d) learning from an informal mentor, (e) organization and participation with an all-state, all-regional vocal jazz ensemble, (f) multi-day summer vocal jazz workshop, (g) jazz-specific instruction in voice, piano, or other jazz instrument. Three of the top six approaches involve experiential learning, an immersion into an activity where meaning is created from direct experience. Most closely associated with John Dewey, experiential learning was proposed by Kolb (1984) as learning through the reflection of meaningful experiences, by connecting the learner personally by fulfilling their desire to acquire knowledge and skills. The vocal jazz educator who participates in a reading session, sings in a workshop ensemble on microphones, or directs an ensemble of peers, takes advantage of opportunities to participate in the many phases of learning that are critical for the vocal jazz ensemble director. A respondent reflected on the need to experience what one is expected to teach:

When one has not "done" an activity, yet is expected to teach it, I find the

academic nature of the skill development daunting. I have no reference point. It is

a much slower learning curve, I believe, when not paired with experiential

learning. The rewards are great, but it is difficult to begin a journey without a

reference point. This is the most difficult aspect. (Participant 55) 124

According to Kolb (1984), there are certain characteristics that must be present for experiential learning to be effective. Workshops, festivals, and conferences all provide an educator the opportunity to be: (a) actively involved in the learning experience, (b) able to gain insight from reflective thinking, (c) able to cognitively process and conceptualize the experience, and (d) using critical thinking to problem-solve and solidify knowledge and skills (Kolb, 1984). A study participant advocated for experiential learning:

Doing is the best learning. It creates great empathy towards my students and helps

me see where specifically strategies are needed to help students grow. I believe it

is essential for the vocal jazz educator to sing solos, do vocal improvisation, and if

possible, be part of a jazz choir on mics (even for a short experience at a vocal

jazz workshop). These "in-action" experiences are the best learning . . . without

them, it is quite intimidating. (Participant 55)

“Learning independently” was another highly rated approach to professional development whose implications are unclear. Self-study of various topics related to jazz has been a viable source for participants in this study for both content and pedagogical knowledge and skill. Part of the problem for many teachers has been the need to self- assemble a patchwork curriculum in the absence of other traditional sources. Self-study may not only be an option, but a necessity. The publication of high quality materials to assist educators in managing their career enhancement in vocal jazz may fill needs that currently exist. Another key to mastering the many facets of vocal jazz teaching may be the degree of the commitment to self-directed learning and combining it with the experiential types of professional development. 125

Open-ended Questions

The open-ended questions were designed as an opportunity for respondents to share some thoughts about their personal experiences in vocal jazz education that would be difficult to obtain through quantitative means. It was hoped that respondents would communicate examples of the: (a) specific challenges they faced when encountering the genre, (b) a turning point in their career when they began to realize success, and (c) anything else that they felt motivated to disclose. Nearly all of the respondents shared at least one answer to one of the three questions and many answered all three. The responses have, in part, been distributed throughout the discussion to highlight conclusions or to illuminate broad points with a personal perspective. However, due to the large quantity of open-ended responses, an analysis of the total number of comments provided emerging themes.

The first question asked, “What have been the greatest challenges in acquiring and developing your skills?” The largest obstruction in the way of progress educationally seems obvious – little or no previous training in jazz. A strange paradox in many successful vocal jazz educators is the fact that many of them had little or no experience prior to teaching, yet persevered to find training:

Not having any formal training in jazz, I've had to learn as I was trying to teach it.

But the longer workshops (summer) helped tremendously, especially those

specifically aimed at vocal, not just a vocal session here and there. Having no

place to study jazz voice (except two 15 minute lessons at a workshop) has been

frustrating. And I am not able to play the piano, so that has been a great handicap.

(Participant 23) 126

Out of the necessity to improve skills, new sources have filled in to meet those needs.

The vocal jazz workshop is an example, as are ongoing numerous topics on vocal jazz at state, regional, and national music education conferences. Because of the lack of training in choral music education programs at the post-secondary level, many educators self- administer their own vocal jazz curriculum.

I wish I'd had the training right from the start of my undergraduate. I think our

traditional U's (universities) are not giving undergrad students enough exposure to

jazz music, theory and singing. My own school doesn't really do that; I'm just

doing it through my group, but I can't teach theory and arranging and such and I

am sure many of the students could and would do it if it were offered. (Participant

23)

To further underscore the potential importance of jazz training in music education programs, the majority of responses to the second half of question two (“What has contributed most to your success?”) referenced positive experiences in vocal jazz ensembles in college and/or the quality of jazz education they received.

The turning point for me as an educator came at [a large Midwestern university],

where there is a strong emphasis on teaching philosophy and methodology within

the vocal jazz ensemble. Though I had never considered education at the time,

under [the director’s] mentorship and his direction, I gained knowledge and an

enthusiasm that I have been able to translate into a personal teaching style when,

indeed, I did not realize the gifts I may have had in that area. (Participant 49)

The previous comment displays the chasm between individuals with jazz as a component in their undergraduate music education and those who did not. Two individuals 127 represented the many respondents who protested a lack of curricular opportunities in their undergraduate programs said: “I'm on a campaign to get more colleges to offer specific jazz instruction and ensemble participation for all music ed students.” (Participant 61)

“After doing my undergrad work in music education and being frustrated with the lack of emphasis placed on jazz voice, I decided to do my graduate work in jazz voice pedagogy, and those two years taught me so much.” (Participant 84) The tenor of the comments in this section mirrored criticisms from previous studies about the lack of jazz training to music education graduates (Balfour, 1988; Shires, 1990; Marks, 1994; Knox, 1996;

Avery, 2002; Venesile, 2004).

Mentors were sourced for assistance less than half the time throughout the survey, but were mentioned the most by respondents when asked about the contributions to their success. This indicates that when an individual locates an invaluable personal resource, the learning curve in many areas may be reduced and/or confidence in certain areas, as in the case of sound reinforcement, may be increased. There were comments advocating for workshops and participation in ensembles, though at the same time praising the workshop leader or director for guidance, suggesting that mentors may play an even large part in educator success.

Finally, when prompted to share any other insights, respondents returned to the most dominant theme throughout the study – listening. The open-ended comments buttressed the quantitative data with testimonials on the advantages of listening to jazz recordings. Critical listening was regarded as the basic foundation for the stylistic, rhythmic, and improvisational aspect of vocal jazz. While respondents were careful not to advocate copying recordings, it was stressed that jazz is an aural art, stylistically different 128 from European-based classical music, where the musical language and traditions of jazz culture are revealed through imitation.

Implications of Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Based on the results of this study, the participants have indicated that educators may acquire valuable pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) from a variety of sources.

This specialized knowledge, identified in the literature and presented in the survey, contains specific skills not present in most undergraduate choral music education programs, and must be accumulated through various forms of professional development.

For example, jazz theory, jazz vocal pedagogy, stylistic varieties, and rhythm section techniques must come from musical experiences and activities found outside the curriculum, even outside academia. While the undergraduate music education is adequate for the learning of a knowledge base in basic musical and teaching skills, it rated low in specialized vocal jazz skills. This outcome is logical given that the majority of the participants were vocal music education majors that followed a traditional curriculum.

Personal experiences such as listening and studying recordings, attending workshops and festivals, and participating in ensembles were successfully sourced more often, compatible with other music education studies on PCK (Ballantyne & Packer, 2004,

Conway, 2002; Gohlke, 1994).

Millican (2007) found that PCK, the kind of knowledge that “separate(s) the professional musician from the professional music educator” (p. 23), was one of the highest rated types of knowledge for the secondary instrumental music educator. Included as examples of PCK were “selecting appropriate literature based on musical development, identifying potential performance problems in new musical literature 129 selections and diagnosing solutions to performance problems” (p. 23). Content

Knowledge, which included basic musical understandings in theory, analysis, instrument skill, history, etc. was also highly rated. Present study data suggest similar findings, in that repertoire selection was the highest rated pedagogical skill, followed by rehearsal/instructional techniques. In addition, all content knowledge elements were rated high for importance, suggesting that music teachers in this study value vocal jazz- specific concepts as well as general musical concepts.

It would appear that desirable sources of pedagogical content knowledge vary according to the specific knowledge and skills desired, and may be most useful when utilized in combinations to triangulate learning. For instance, in the sound reinforcement group, music teachers showed a preference for a mixture of six sources, all rated within six percentage points, of each other, suggesting that by relying on one or two sources may not be as effective as utilizing multiple sources. In addition, each individual may respond favorably to different sources, based on individual preferences, learning styles, and availability of sources. Relying on a mentor, attending workshops and festivals, and self-study form an amalgamation that may make learning more concrete, suggesting that post-secondary choral music education programs that do not have a vocal jazz component

(jazz studies vocal major, vocal jazz ensemble, or vocal jazz techniques course) might incorporate multiple opportunities for students to contextualize their knowledge within existing choral methods courses. 130

Conclusions

Limitations of the Study Identifying a total core population of vocal jazz educators in the United States was difficult since vocal jazz is a small niche in music education. The IAJE member directory was the only professional music education organization to publish a member directory to its constituents until its demise in 2008 (IAJE, 2008). The American Choral

Directors Association (ACDA) have vocal jazz education represented in state and regional chapters, but do not publish a document identifying members that teach jazz.

Only MENC has kept track of member specialties, albeit recently – which was utilized in this study. However, every effort was made to obtain a purposive criterion sample – that is, educators who have met the specific criteria of having been a vocal jazz educator.

Even though this method is strong in quality assurance, caution should be used in suggesting generalization and validity of the results (Patton, 1990).

Another limitation is that the survey questions did not ask the strength of particular sources of knowledge and skill – only a list of sources. Though the percentages of individuals were ranked, obtaining the assessed strength of a source may provide different rankings. Additionally, the length of the survey may have reduced the response rate, as the number of participants who finished the survey was considerably lower than the number that started.

Suggestions for Further Research

Research on the topic of vocal jazz educators and their impact on student success needs to be continued. First, a replication of this study with an opportunity for respondents to assess the strength of particular sources would provide a refinement to the results. Studies examining how successful educators with no pre-service exposure to jazz 131 obtained training would be an important contribution to the literature. In particular, case studies examining educators’ teaching and professional development experiences at various points in their careers may indicate the kind of professional development experiences appropriate for different stages of an educator’s career. Specifically, a study using Shulman’s pedagogical content knowledge model could implement Duling’s

(1992) methodology, where the practices of exemplary music teachers were examined for

PCK, and make it applicable to vocal jazz educators.

Besides undergraduate music education curricula and the handful of masters programs with a jazz vocal major, workshops may be the only place to gain additional knowledge and skills in a sustained educational format. A study on the efficacy of learning from multi-day vocal jazz workshops using methodology similar to Bauer,

Reese, and McAllister (2003) could illuminate ways to improve workshops and increase knowledge retention. A longitudinal study following successful graduates of institutions where vocal jazz is a part of curricular pre-service training could contribute important information to the literature on the methods and best practice for adequately preparing new teachers for encountering and implementing jazz programs in the schools.

Professional music education organization-sponsored research could inform the development of a vocal jazz curriculum, to be made available to colleges and universities for summer session professional development, or for high school music departments to implement in existing vocal jazz classes. In this way, schools without vocal jazz components would have access to the materials needed to introduce the disciplines’ major areas with guided materials. Philosophical issues and the viability of jazz in the choral curriculum in the public schools needs to be discussed as the 21st century popular music 132 evolves to more types of hybrid contemporary musical forms in society. The effect of new technological research in the field of vocal pedagogy and its applicability to contemporary vocal styles has enhanced the credibility of popular music in secondary and post-secondary education. However, more research is needed to inform the applied vocal studio profession before it can be considered for acceptance at mainstream institutions. In this way, the widespread acquisition of vocal jazz pedagogy could become a salient feature of a comprehensive applied vocal program.

In view of the demonstrated strong artistic merit and educational viability of vocal jazz, is there enough interest to sustain its propagation in American education? Large- scale survey research of choral educators on their attitudes, opinions, and knowledge about vocal jazz may help the profession in the assessment of how best to design and market professional development. Further, surveys and interviews modeled after Jones’

(2005) study of the opinions and attitudes of music school administrators may reveal the status and future for curricular courses in vocal jazz in more post-secondary institutions.

Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that both content and pedagogical knowledge and skills are important to vocal jazz educators. While some items ranked lower than others, it should not be assumed that they are unimportant, but rather the result of a prioritization of a comprehensive skill set that is not exclusive of any type of knowledge or skill. Educators indicated that regular focused listening to jazz was a vital primary source of knowledge and information for success. From there, participating in experiential-type professional development is very helpful in developing and reinforcing skills. Most educators did not obtain skills until their in-service teaching began, and 133 comments showed pattern of dissatisfaction. An interesting point was that many succeeded in spite of their lack of training. Those educators who had pre-service training in jazz (ex. jazz studies degrees, participation in vocal jazz ensemble) expressed positive statements about their preparedness to teach it.

The future of vocal jazz educator training is dependent on an acknowledgment by post-secondary institution policymakers that during curricular revisions, they include more training for music education graduates in jazz and other contemporary styles, as consistently called for in the recent past (Jones, 2006; Kennedy, 2005; Day, 1992, Elliott,

1983). In addition, the vocal jazz community in the United States and Canada is regional and lacking a central and unified voice since the downfall of IAJE. It remains to be seen if other newly-formed, replacement advocacy groups such as MENC’s Society For Jazz

Education and the Jazz Education Network (JEN) can gain the type of cooperative spirit and unity from educators that would exert enough influence to initiate progressive changes. Until such time, more implementation of research-based methods in quality professional development are needed to administer to the scores of new in-service educators that will require training in vocal jazz education.

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APPENDIX A

VJEKSI Survey

(The survey formatting appeared differently to participants due to the online environment) 135

The purpose of this survey is to investigate vocal jazz educators' perceptions regarding the knowledge and skill necessary to successfully teach high school vocal jazz. Your participation in this study may help us to better understand how pre and in-service teachers can best be prepared to provide students with learning experiences that will enrich their understanding of vocal jazz.

Please be assured that all responses are considered strictly confidential. Only group results will be reported. Section 1 Jazz Subject Content Knowledge

Are you, or have you ever been, a secondary or post-secondary vocal jazz ensemble director?

• Yes • No

Vocal jazz educators need certain types of knowledge and skill in order to be successful.

Each knowledge and skill area has a pair of questions: Please rate each of the following items in terms of its importance to success as a vocal jazz educator. Then, indicate the way(s) you’ve acquired your understanding of the item by checking the appropriate boxes (check all that apply)

1. The vocal jazz educator needs to interpret and play chord symbols with extensions, jazz chord voicings, and basic accompaniments at the keyboard for score study, and in some cases for rehearsal purposes.

• No importance • Low importance • Moderately important • Very important

2. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments 136

• Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

3. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to aurally and visually identify jazz chord types (extensions beyond the 7th, with alterations) and progressions

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

4. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify) 137

5. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to read rhythms and interpret them correctly according to specific jazz styles (swing, Latin, etc.)

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

6. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

7. The vocal jazz instructor needs to identify fundamental jazz and contemporary standard song forms (ex. 12-bar blues, AABA, modified blues).

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important 138

8. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

9. The vocal jazz instructor needs to adapt compositions, arranging them to fit the specific needs of one’s students or ensemble.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

10. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz 139

• Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

11. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of correct jazz singing style and technique.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

12. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

140

13. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the double/electric bass in the rhythm section.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

14. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

15. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the piano in the rhythm section.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

141

16. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

17. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the basic functions and responsibilities of the drum set in the rhythm section.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

18. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, 142

etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

19. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an awareness of the historical and cultural impact of jazz in America.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

20. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

143

21. The jazz educator needs to understand the performance practices associated with various jazz styles (Dixieland, hot, swing, bebop, cool).

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

22. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

23. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the important instrumental jazz performers in history and their significant contributions.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

144

24. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

25. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the important jazz singers in history and their significant contributions.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

26. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, 145

etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

27. The vocal jazz instructor needs to have an understanding of influential vocal groups in the history of the vocal jazz idiom.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

28. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

146

29. The vocal jazz educator needs to have an understanding of the important jazz instrumental groups in the history of jazz.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

30. How did you acquire your knowledge and skill in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify) 147

Section 2 Pedagogical (Teaching) Skills

Vocal jazz educators need to be able to utilize certain types of teaching and learning strategies in order to be successful. Please rate each of the following items in terms of its importance to success as a vocal jazz educator. Then, indicate the way(s) you’ve acquired your understanding of the item by checking the appropriate boxes (check that apply).

1. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to teach vocal jazz improvisation through personal modeling, use of recordings, improvisational games, and/or other strategies.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

2. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

148

3. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to teach rhythm section students how to play with correct style, balance, blend, and time.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

4. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

5. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to utilize traditional vocal pedagogy (basics of tone production, regardless of style) to develop healthy, stylistically correct singing with individuals and ensembles.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

149

6. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

7. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to utilize jazz vocal pedagogy (ex. applying specific techniques to change resonance in the sound) to develop healthy, stylistically correct singing with individuals and ensemble.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

8. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments 150

• Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

9. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to employ specific techniques for teaching the appropriate stylistic execution of jazz rhythms.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

10. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association 151

• Other (please specify)

11. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to utilize specific strategies for teaching proper time and time-keeping strategies to the ensemb le.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

12. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

13. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to employ effective vocal warm-up exercises for individuals and the ensembles. • no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

152

14. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

15. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to employ effective ear-training exercises and drills for the development of aural perception skills.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

16. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences 153

• Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

17. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to utilize definitive recordings for inspiration, modeling, comparisons, and stylistic considerations in teaching students.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

18. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) 154

• Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

19. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to utilize basic sound reinforcement components (microphones, amps, mixer, monitor speakers, various cables).

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

20. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

21. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to teach students proper microphone technique.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important 155

22. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

23. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to assist students in the transition from listening acoustically to listening through monitor speakers.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

24. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz 156

• Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify)

25. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to guide students in the proper care of sound system components and connection procedures.

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

26. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify) 157

27. The vocal jazz educator needs to be able to select high quality repertoire in a variety of jazz and contemporary styles from appropriate sources (arrangements from publishing companies, original compositions, websites of individual arrangers, etc.).

• no importance • low importance • neutral • moderately important • very important

28. How did you acquire your teaching and learning strategies in this area? (check all that apply)

• Formal coursework as an undergraduate • Formal coursework as a graduate student • Participating in vocal jazz workshops • Attending vocal jazz festivals as the member of an ensemble or director of an ensemble • Hosting a vocal jazz clinician(s) • Attending vocal jazz sessions at professional conferences • Private lessons in jazz voice, jazz piano, or other jazz instruments • Regular, focused listening to live and/or recorded jazz • Reading books or journal articles on vocal jazz • Utilizing jazz-related Internet resources (podcasts, blogs, wikis, websites, etc.) • Participating in jazz-related professional development offered through professional organizations such as IAJE, ACDA, MENC • Participating in a high school, collegiate, and/or post-collegiate vocal jazz ensemble • Utilizing an informal mentor (attending a colleague’s rehearsal, casual conversations, correspondence, etc.) • Self-study of various topics related to vocal jazz • Online learning offered by a college or professional association • Other (please specify) 158

Section 3 Professional Development Activities

1. Please indicate your degree of interest in attending a professional development event to improve your knowledge and skill, as well as your understanding of teaching and learning strategies, on the topics listed below:

no interest little interest neutral moderately interested very interested

Vocal arranging

Strategies for teaching vocal jazz improvisation

Jazz history

Jazz theory

Jazz piano

Latest research in jazz vocal pedagogy

Developing relationships with other professionals in vocal jazz education

Effective programming through literature; finding new literature sources

Vocal jazz ensemble rehearsal techniques

Sound reinforcement technology for the vocal jazz ensemble director

Teaching strategies for the rhythm section

Other (please specify):

159

2. Please indicate your degree of interest in the following professional development formats and activities for vocal jazz educators and the possible hosting organizations no interest little interest neutral moderately interested very interested

Enrolling in graduate courses in vocal jazz pedagogy

Multi-day summer vocal jazz workshop (3-5 days)

Participation/attendance at vocal jazz festivals that include any of the following; clinician(s), adjudication, host college ensemble and/or professional artists

Organization and participation with an all-state, all-regional vocal jazz ensemble

Interest session at a professional music education conference or meeting

Jazz-specific instruction in voice, piano, or other jazz instrument

Learning independently on my own

Learning from an informal mentor

Online learning offered by a college or professional association

Other (please specify)

160

Section 4 Teacher Preparation and Open-ended

Please list other professional development activities that you have participated in and found of value.

1. What have been the greatest challenges in acquiring and developing your skills?

2. If applicable, please share a/the turning point in your career with regard to solidfying your knowledge and skills as a vocal jazz ensemble director. What has contributed most to your success?

3. Anything else you would like to add from your experience?

Section 5 Professional Background Information

Please select the appropriate response to each item.

1. Gender:

• Male • Female

2. Ethnic background:

• African-American • Asian • Caucasian • Hispanic • Pacific Islander • Native American • Other (please specify)

3. Education: (Indicate highest degree earned)

• Bachelor’s • Master’s • Doctorate

4. Concentration in each degree: what was the area of emphasis (ex. music education, piano performance)

• Bachelor’s: 161

• Master’s:

5. How many years of full-time teaching experience do you have, including this year?

6. In which state do you teach?

7. Primary instrument/voice:

• Piano • Voice • Woodwind • Brass • Percussion • Strings • Other (please specify)

8. Secondary instrument(s), if applicable (minimum proficiency: capable of adequate amateur public performance)

• Piano • Voice • Woodwind • Brass • Percussion • Strings • Other (please specify)

9. Level of vocal jazz ensemble(s) that you have directed in your career: (check all that apply)

• Middle school • High school • 2-year college • Undergraduate • Graduate • Professional • Community • Other (please specify)

Thank you for your participation in this survey! Your assistance is greatly appreciated! 162

APPENDIX B

Survey Cover Letter

[Date]

Dear Music Educator,

I am contacting you because you have been identified as a current or former director of a vocal jazz ensemble by MENC. Because of this background and expertise, I request your assistance with an investigation into the background knowledge and skill needed by vocal jazz educators. Vocal jazz ensemble directors at the secondary level come from a variety of backgrounds and have been prepared as jazz educators through a number of different academic and non-academic experiences. Currently, little information is available on the topics vocal jazz educators believe are the most crucial to the successful instruction of vocal jazz students. There is also a lack of understanding regarding the approaches educators have taken to acquire the knowledge and skill required for success. The purpose of this study will be to examine the acquisition of the subject matter knowledge and teaching skills needed by in-service vocal jazz educators. A secondary purpose will be to examine the professional development preferences of in-service vocal jazz educators.

Please take about 10-15 minutes to complete an online survey designed to answer these questions. Taking part in this study is completely voluntary and you can be assured that your responses will remain strictly confidential. No individual information will be disclosed, only group data will be used in the reporting and discussion of the results. To become a participant in the study, please type the following URL (Internet address) in to your web browser.

http://tinyurl.com/m4f38e

If you are unable to access and complete the online survey, you may contact me for a hard/paper copy of the survey. I will immediately send you the survey and an addressed, stamped, return envelope by U.S. mail. Please complete the survey as soon as possible and no later than [Date].

Thank you for your participation in this study. If you experience any difficulty with the survey site or have any questions, please contact me by email, [email protected] or phone at (216) 225-9842. You may also contact my dissertation advisor Dr. William I. Bauer at (216) 368-2431 or [email protected]. If you would like a copy of the final study, please email me and I will send them to you, by email, at the completion of the study.

Sincerely,

Christopher J. Venesile Ph.D. Student in Music Education Case Western Reserve University (216)-225-9842 [email protected]

163

APPENDIX C

Second Survey Request

[Date]

Dear Music Educator,

A couple of weeks ago I contacted you about participating in a research project examining the acquisition of the subject matter knowledge and teaching skills needed by in- service vocal jazz educators. As of this date, I have not received a response from you. You were one of a limited number of teachers selected to participate in this study, and your participation is crucial in order to obtain accurate and complete results. Will you please take a few minutes to provide your contribution?

Taking part in this study by completing the online questionnaire is completely voluntary and you can be assured that your responses will remain strictly confidential. No individual information will be disclosed, only group data will be used in the reporting and discussion of the results. To become a participant in the study, please copy and paste the following URL (Internet address) in to your web browser. http://tinyurl.com/m4f38e

If you are unable to access and complete the online survey, you may contact me for a hard/paper copy. I will immediately send you the survey and an addressed, stamped, return envelope by U.S. mail. Please complete the survey as soon as possible and no later than [Date].

Thank you for your participation in this study. If you experience any difficulty with the survey site or have any questions, please contact me by email at [email protected] or phone at (216) 225-9842. You may also contact my dissertation advisor Dr. William I. Bauer at (216) 368- 2431 or [email protected]. If you would like a copy of the final study, please email me and I will send them to you, by email, at the completion of the study.

Sincerely,

Christopher J. Venesile Ph.D. Student in Music Education Case Western Reserve University (216) 225-9842 [email protected] 164

APPENDIX D

Reminder Request

[Date]

Dear Music Educator,

A few weeks ago I sent you a request to complete a 10-15 minute survey on identifying the knowledge and skills necessary to teach vocal jazz. Unfortunately, as of this date, I still have not heard from you. Your knowledge and expertise and experience as a vocal jazz educator is crucial to the understanding of this topic. As a fellow teacher, I know your time is valuable. However, this investigation is seeking to understand important issues related to the current status and future development of vocal jazz education. Please take a few moments to contribute your expertise to this study.

If you have already completed the survey and this letter has crossed in the mail, thank you for participating. If you have experienced technical problems or need a hard copy of the survey, please contact me by email at [email protected] phone at (216) 225-9842. You may also contact my dissertation advisor Dr. William I. Bauer at (216) 368-2431 or [email protected].

To become a participant in the study, please copy and paste the following URL (Internet address) in to your web browser.

http://tinyurl.com/m4f38e

Thank you for your participation!

Sincerely,

Christopher J. Venesile Ph,D. Candidate in Music Education Case Western Reserve University (216) 225-9842 [email protected]

165

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