PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A CORPUS STUDY OF DEGREE ADVERB IN RESEARCH ARTICLES ACROSS DISCIPLINES A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree in Studies

Martha Erika Diana Student Number: 176332025

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2019

PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A CORPUS STUDY OF DEGREE ADVERB COLLOCATIONS IN RESEARCH ARTICLES ACROSS DISCIPLINES

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree in English Language Studies

Martha Erika Diana Student Number: 176332025

THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA 2019

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

A THESIS A coRPUs sTIr:DY oF IIEGREE AD\rERB CoLLocATroNs IN RESEARCH ARTICLES ACROSS DISCIPLINES

Presented by

Martha Erika Diana Student Number: 17ffi32ol5

Secretary Member

Budi Subanaq S.J.

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STATEMENT OF OruGINALITY

' I honestly declare this thesis which I have written does not contain the

phrases, sentences or parts of the other 1reople's work except those cited in the

quotations and the references as a sciurtific paper should. I understand the full

conseqt€trces including degree cancollatior if I took thc other peoplels work.

Yogyakarta, r:r, 5m, 201 9

.{

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LEMBAR PERI\-YATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH T]NTT]K KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Martha Erika Diana NIM : 176332025

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan

Universitas Sanata Dharma,karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

A CORPUS STUDY OF DEGREE ADVERB COLLOCATIONS IN RESEARCH ARTICLES ACROSS DISCIPLINES

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempubliksikannya di Internet atau media lain unfuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta izin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencanturnkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal 5 Juli 2019 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to dedicate my deepest gratitude to

Almighty Lord Jesus Christ for His richest grace and mercy in the thesis accomplishment.

My big appreciation goes to Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum., my thesis advisor, for providing me with the benefit of his supervisory skills and experiences. He has already given much of her time, attention, guidance, patience, and support for the sake of my success in finishing this thesis.

I would also like to acknowledge Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. and F.X.

Mukarto, Ph.D. as the reviewers of this thesis. I am gratefully indebted to their assistance and very insightful comments on my writing.

I also acknowledge all lecturers in ELS department, Prof. Dr. Soepomo

Poedjosoedarmo, Paulus Sarwoto, M.A., Ph.D., Dr. Fr. Borgias Alip, M.Pd.,

M.A., and Dr. J. Bismoko for their invaluable knowledge, guidance, support, and inspiration throughout my master’s degree programme.

My sincere thanks are also addressed to all of my friends, who were in their own ways could motivate me to always work on my thesis writing: Witta,

Puput, Anin, Ria, Windry, Sylvia, Daia, and Daniel. Appreciation is also expressed to To ELS staffs, mbak Marni and her assistants.

Finally, I would like to express my very profound gratitude to my mom,

Rini Trimurti Margaretha, my dad, Robertus Rudi Atana, and my big sister,

Rosa Galuh Kristanti for providing me their wise counsel and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study.

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Last but not least, I would like to thank every single person who directly and indirectly have lent his or her hands and sympathetic ears in this venture.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE ...... i ADVISOR APPROVAL PAGE ...... ii APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... iv LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN ...... v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... x LIST OF TABLES ...... xi LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xiii ABSTRACT ...... xiv ABSTRAK ...... xv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Research Questions ...... 8 1.3 Research Goals ...... 8 1.4 Research Benefits ...... 9 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 11 2.1 Theoretical Review ...... 11 2.1.1 Degree Adverbs ...... 11 2.1.2 Collocations ...... 13 2.1.3 Corpus Linguistics and Concordance ...... 16 2.1.4 Semantic Preference ...... 18 2.1.5 Semantic Prosody ...... 19 2.1.6 Research Articles ...... 23 2.1.7 Disciplines ...... 25 2.2 Related Studies ...... 27 2.3 Theoretical Framework ...... 31 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 35 3.1 Type of the Study ...... 35

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3.2 Research Data ...... 36 3.3 Data Collection Technique ...... 37 3.4 Data Analysis ...... 40 3.5 Data Presentation ...... 43 CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 46 4.1 Degree Adverb Extremely ...... 47 4.1.1 Patterns ...... 47 4.1.2 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 52 4.2 Degree Adverb Strongly ...... 60 4.2.2 Collocation Patterns ...... 60 4.2.3 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 69 4.3 Degree Adverb Highly ...... 77 4.3.2 Collocation Patterns ...... 78 4.3.2 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 87 4.4 Degree Adverb Fully ...... 93 4.4.3 Collocation Patterns ...... 93 4.4.4 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 100 4.5 Degree Adverb Fairly...... 105 4.5.4 Collocation Patterns ...... 106 4.5.5 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 109 4.7 Degree Adverb Utterly ...... 112 4.7.4 Collocation Patterns ...... 112 4.7.5 Semantic Preference and Prosody ...... 114 CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 125 5.1 Conclusion ...... 125 5.1 Recommendations ...... 132 Bibliography ...... 134 APPENDICES ...... 138

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1:. Conversion Process to a Text Format ...... 38 Figure 3.2:. Corpus Data Processing with AntConc Program ...... 39 Figure 3.3:. Example of Extracted Corpora ...... 43

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Example of Pattern Analysis ...... 44 Table 3.2: Example of Category Collocation Analysis...... 44 Table 3.3: Example of Collocation Analysis ...... 44 Table 3.4: Example of Semantic Preference Analysis ...... 45 Table 3.5: Example of Semantic Prosody Analysis ...... 45 Table 4.1: Occurrences of the Selected Degree Adverbs ...... 46 Table 4.2: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Extremely ...... 48 Table 4.3: Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Extremely . 49 Table 4.4: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Extremely ...... 49 Table 4.5: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Extremely...... 53 Table 4.6: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Extremely ...... 55 Table 4.7: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Strongly ...... 61 Table 4.8: Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Strongly .... 62 Table 4.9: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Physical Discipline ...... 62 Table 4.10: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Social Discipline ...... 65 Table 4.11: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Health Discipline ...... 67 Table 4.12: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Strongly ...... 69 Table 4.13: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Strongly ...... 72 Table 4.14: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Highly ...... 78 Table 4.15: Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Highly ...... 79 Table 4.16: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Highly in Health Discipline ...... 79 Table 4.17: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Highly in Physical Discipline ...... 82

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Table 4.18: Adjective Collocation of the Degree Adverb Highly in Social Discipline ...... 85 Table 4.19: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Highly ...... 87 Table 4.20: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Highly ...... 88 Table 4.21: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Fully ...... 93 Table 4.22: Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Fully ...... 94 Table 4.23: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fully in Social Discipline ...... 95 Table 4.24: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fully in Physical Discipline ...... 97 Table 4.25: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Fully ...... 100 Table 4.26: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Fully ...... 103 Table 4.27: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Fairly ...... 106 Table 4.28: Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Fairly ..... 107 Table 4.29: Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fairly in Physical Discipline ...... 107 Table 4.30: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Fairly ...... 109 Table 4.31: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Fairly ...... 110 Table 4.32: Patterns of the Degree Adverb Utterly...... 113 Table 4.33: Adjective Collocation of the Degree Adverb Utterly in Social Discipline ...... 113 Table 4.34: Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Utterly ...... 114 Table 4.35: Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Utterly ...... 115

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1:. Data Analysis of Extremely Degree Adverb ...... 138

Appendix 2:. Data Analysis of Strongly Degree Adverb ...... 143

Appendix 3:. Data Analysis of Highly Degree Adverb ...... 150

Appendix 4:. Data Analysis of Fully Degree Adverb...... 163

Appendix 5:. Data Analysis of Fairly Degree Adverb ...... 169

Appendix 6:. Data Analysis of Utterly Degree Adverb ...... 171

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ABSTRACT Martha Erika, Diana. 2019. A Corpus Study of Degree Adverb Collocations in Research Articles across Disciplines. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program on English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

A research article is one of the most common academic genres in most disciplines (Bhatia, 2014). In addition to the need to preserve objectivity, the successful academic writing is also defined by the ability of the authors to evaluate claims and establish a connection with the readers by triggering the readers’ acceptance (Hyland, 2004). Accordingly, the discourses should attempt to deliver knowledge persuasively. A degree adverb can be one of the linguistic features to express those cautions. However, each discipline might have its own particular conventions on how degree adverbs are used and represent its community’s values and beliefs about knowledge (Hyland & Bondi, 2006). The linguistic features are tied to particular points of view, approaches, forms of thinking, nuances, and other characteristics of a given discipline (Bakhtin, 1981). The issue is that any incongruence in adopting the features, conventions, and expectations of particular disciplinary communities might result in the authors’ incapability to participate effectively in the appropriate and contextual consensus of the related communities (Blommaert, 2005). This study explores the distribution and preferences of degree adverb collocations in various disciplines pertaining to the patterns of the lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. The data were 60 research articles consisting of 20 research articles from each discipline. Six-degree adverbs were investigated as they meet some criteria to appear in at least two of the three disciplines and exist in one discipline yet with a significant frequency. Those degree adverbs were extremely, highly, strongly, fairly, utterly, and fully. A corpus-based study then was designed to figure out and compare various preferences of the three aspects across health, physical, and social disciplines. The findings indicate that the notion of lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody are subject to the nature of each discipline. There are various distributions of those notions across those three disciplines. With regard to the degree adverb combinations and semantic preference, those notions are commonly more varied in the social discipline than the health and physical discipline. Further, there are some semantic sets which exist in particular disciplines merely due to discipline-specific constraint. Regarding the semantic prosody aspect, the preferences of semantic sets might build positive nuance in one discipline while building negative nuance in other disciplines. The future research is expected to focus on more scopes or areas of every discipline and specifically compare the occurrences in every section. The related research might also be brought to examine expanded disciplines with more various degree adverbs. Keywords: degree adverb, collocation, semantic preference, semantic prosody, across discipline

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ABSTRAK Martha Erika, Diana. 2019. A Corpus Study of Degree Adverb Collocations in Research Articles across Disciplines. Yogyakarta: Program Pascasarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Artikel penelitian adalah salah satu kategorisasi wacana akademik yang paling umum di sebagian besar disiplin ilmu (Bhatia, 2014). Selain adanya kebutuhan untuk menjaga obyektivitas, penulisanan bersifat akademis yang sukses ditentukan juga oleh kemampuan penulis untuk mengevaluasi klaim serta membangun hubungan dengan pembaca dengan memicu persetujuan pembaca (Hyland, 2004). Dengan demikian, wacana harus dapat menyampaikan pengetahuan secara meyakinkan. Adverbia tingkat dapat menjadi salah satu fitur linguistik untuk mengekspresikan aspek-aspek tersebut. Namun, masing-masing disiplin mungkin memiliki konvensi khusus tentang bagaimana adverbial tingkat digunakan dan mewakili nilai-nilai serta keyakinan komunitasnya berkaitan dengan pengetahuan (Hyland & Bondi, 2006). Fitur linguistik akan berkaitan dengan sudut pandang tertentu, pendekatan, bentuk pemikiran, nuansa, dan karakteristik lain dari disiplin yang diberikan (Bakhtin, 1981). Permasalahannya adalah ketidaksesuaian dalam mengadopsi fitur, konvensi, serta harapan dari komunitas disiplin tertentu dapat dapat memicu ketidakmampuan penulis untuk berpartisipasi secara efektif dalam konsensus yang sesuai dan kontekstual dari komunitas terkait (Blommaert, 2005). Studi ini mengeksplorasi distribusi serta preferensi kolokasi dari adverbia tingkat dalam berbagai disiplin ilmu, berkaitan dengan konstruksi kolokasi leksikal, preferensi, serta prosodi semantik. Data penelitian mencakup 60 artikel penelitian yang terdiri dari 20 artikel penelitian dari masing-masing disiplin ilmu. Enam adverbial tingkat dipilih untuk diselidiki karena memenuhi beberapa criteria untuk muncul dalam setidaknya dua dari ketiga disiplin dan hadir dalam satu disiplin namun dengan frekuensi yang signifikan. Adverbia tersebut adalah extremely, highly, strongly, fairly, utterly, dan fully. Sebuah studi berbasis korpus kemudian dirancang untuk menemukan serta membandingkan berbagai preferensi dari tiga aspek lintas disiplin kesehatan, fisika, dan sosial. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa aspek kolokasi leksikal, preferensi semantik, dan prosodi semantik terikat pada sifat masing-masing disiplin. Ada berbagai distribusi aspek-aspek itu dalam ketiga disiplin ilmu yang diteliti. Berkenaan dengan kombinasi adverbial tingkat dan preferensi semantik, aspek- aspek itu umumnya lebih bervariasi dalam disiplin sosial daripada di kesehatan dan disiplin fisika. Selain itu, terdapat beberapa set semantik yang hanya muncul di disiplin ilmu tertentu karena pengaruh aturan khusus disiplin. Berkenaan dengan aspek prosodi semantik, preferensi set semantik cenderung dapat membangun nuansa positif dalam satu disiplin serta membangun nuansa negatif di disiplin lain.

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Penelitian selanjutnya diharapkan untuk dapat focus pada lingkup disiplin yang lebih luas serta secara khusus membandingkan kejadian di setiap bagian artikel. Penelitian terkait juga dapat diarahkan untuk meneliti disiplin yang lebih luas dengan adverbial tingkat yang lebih beragam.

Kata Kunci: adverbia tingkat, kolokasi, preferensi semantik, prosodi semantik, lintas disiplin

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter consists of four sections: the background of the study, research questions, research goals and research benefits. The first section deals with the reason why the topic of degree adverb collocation across discipline is chosen for this research. The second section presents the limitation given to this research. The third section shows the goals of this study. The last section presents the benefits for further research.

1.1 Background of the Study

Academic writings are often characterized by the use of many strategies in promoting objectivity Khamesian (2015). In addition to the need to preserve the objectivity of the writing, the production of persuasive writings is also crucial.

Hyland (2004) suggests that the successful academic writing is defined by the ability of the authors to evaluate claims and establish a connection with the readers. In transforming certain claims into knowledge, the authors need to trigger the readers’ acceptance. That means that the discourses should attempt to deliver knowledge persuasively. Hence, the authors are urged to employ certain linguistic features which can rhetorically make any information more convincing. One of the linguistic features is degree adverbs. Degree adverbs will be very helpful for academic writers to add expressive richness on certain messages while still preserving the writing’s objectivity. It is in line with Partington’s proportion that the existence of degree adverbs can be a vehicle to persuade, impress, praise, insult, or generally influence the readers’ reception of the message (2004).

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A degree adverb is a kind of linguistic grading which indicates different levels of intensity. It is usually placed before the adverbs, , or verbs which it qualifies. However, adverbs of degree are not always treated that way.

Further, adverbs of degree can be classified into amplifiers or such as more, so, too, very, extremely and diminisher or downtoners such as less, somewhat, rather, quite (Reppen, Fitzmaurice, & Biber, 2002). The degree presented through such adverbs thus qualify the to which they refer and indexes the attitude and stance of the speaker or writer.

Thus, the access to knowledge about degree adverbs is considered important to language learners. Yet, Philip (2008) finds out that the use of degree adverbs is still problematic for English learners. According to his research, a small group of particular adverbs was over-used by learners, while others were very rare in learners’ data. Further, there was a confusion of the learners, since particular adverbs can intensify almost all adjectives, while others are limited to specify certain types of adjectives merely. The lack of such degree adverbs usage awareness may be even worse in non-native English speakers or under-advanced

English learners.

Dealing with the problem stated before, the more exposure to such property is still needed. Mastering it cannot be instantly gained. We need to know the distribution and frequency of how such feature is present in reality. Thus, it leads us to the relationship between such property and the lexical items that regularly co-occur with it. For example, there are a number of degree adverbs that can be used instead of very or extremely. Nevertheless, it is often difficult to

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predict which adverb will be used with a particular adjective, verb, or adverb. This sort of phenomenon is related to the habitual collocation of lexical items which linguistic expressions that belong to a certain semantic field. We often say bitterly disappointed or bitterly offended but not bitterly successful. This sort of language behavior is then what we call collocation.

Collocation is mainly made up of grammatical and lexical units. Howarth classifies collocation as lexical and grammatical units and explains that lexical collocations consist of two open class word, while collocations between one open and one closed word are grammatical. In revealing the phenomenon of collocations, we cannot merely rely on intuition while choosing certain degree adverbs to denote certain meanings (Hoey, 2010). Intuition is an unreliable guide to lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. It is supported by Bublitz who affirms that intuitions about frequency and likelihood of co- occurrences are notoriously thin and not always accurate. Stubbs also takes the view that attested data are required in collocational studies since native speaker intuitions are not a reliable source of evidence (Hoey, 2010). When computational linguistic and corpora studies were still immature, the importance of lexis and formulaic language had been ignored.

The notion of collocation is closely related to the concept of semantic preference since it explores how particular word is frequently collocated and associated with particular words. According to Partington (2004), semantic preference refers to the frequent co-occurrences of a lexical item with a group of semantically related words. As an example, the word adequate is frequently

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collocated with words which are associated with ‘abstractions’. Another example,

O’Halloran (2007) points out that in newspaper text the verb erupt gas a semantic preference for human phenomena whereas the noun eruption prefers geological.

There are many other cases in English when it is difficult to know which words go well with the word you want to use. It can be more complicated since the frequency of such co-occurrences in the reality is very dynamic. Some words may just sound right together, while others do not. It brings us to the notion of collocation which is one of the subcategories to formulaic language.

Beside semantic preference, the notion of semantic prosody is also an important concept related to collocation. Louw (1993) defines the term semantic prosody as a consistent aura of meaning with which a form is imbued by its collocates. His examples include utterly, bent on, and symptomatic of which all of them employ unfavorable prosodies. Not to mention, Stubbs (2001) groups the concept of discourse prosody into three categories: positive, negative, and neutral.

Hunston and Francis (2000) explain that a word may be said to have a particular semantic prosody if it can be shown to co-occur typically with other words that belong to a particular semantic set. In other words, the words will take on meaning from their immediate surrounds. Further, the scope of semantic prosody is usually in relation with evaluation. Morley and Partington (2009) describe this relationship as speakers’ desire to evaluate entities as good or bad. They assert that this desire may come from a human’s innate desire to judge the consequences of an action as something beneficial or harmful.

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It might be a fuzzy boundary between two concepts of semantic preference and semantic prosody, one main aspect to distinguish them is that semantic preference may be in favor of any definable semantic field, but semantic prosody is always either for positive or negative evaluation (Hu, 2015). In other words, the term semantic prosody implies that it is a kind of evaluative meaning which may be potential goes beyond the single orthographic word and it is much less evident to the naked eyes (Hoey, 2010).

Another problematic issue comes as different topics of academic texts may entail different semantic preference and different level of semantic prosody. As language is highly sensitive to situation, there must be particular writing style conventions of each subject discipline (Giltrow, 2002). Those conventions, then, are perceived as specialized codes used among the related communities of readers and writers. It is supported by Louw’s study of semantic prosody in academic writings. His study reveals that different academic disciplines have different levels of semantic prosody (Louw, 1993). The word cause, for example, usually carries the negative semantic prosody in a larger corpus. Yet, it tends to have a more neutral semantic prosody in particular scientific writing. For another example, the students in science and medicine tend to think of simple as a positive word and complex as a negative word. More precisely, they consider that the word simple means “well-planned” or “clearly designed” and the word complex means

”messy” or “confusing”. In contrast, the students in social consider that the word simple means ”unsophisticated” and the word complex means “sophisticated”.

Supporting those issues, Partington notes more generally that initial research

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seems that it is highly likely that the quality and strength of the prosody of many items will differ from genre to genre or from domain to domain (Hoey, 2010).

Therefore, the awareness that each academic discipline may have its own discipline-specific writing styles pertaining to degree adverbs’ lexical pattern, level of semantic preference and semantic prosody should be raised by academic writers. The writers are urged to deploy degree adverbs with appropriate accuracy and caution according to the style-conventions of each discipline so that they can successfully and effectively deliver the agreed meaning about particular ideas or concepts to a group of scholarly and meet particular disciplinary communities’ expectations. Any incongruence in adopting the linguistic features within particular disciplinary conventions and communities’ expectations might likely result in the writers’ incapability to participate effectively in the appropriate and contextual consensus of the related communities (Blommaert, 2005).

To conduct this study, the researcher uses a corpus-driven approach. The emergence of a corpora study has resuscitated collocation studies, including collocation pattern, semantic preference, and semantic prosody since the study can provide a large amount of data empirically (Hoey, 2010). Currently, English has been being a global language. With over a quarter of the world speaking English, the dynamism and production of this language’s new rules in reality are inevitable. This study, then, is not intended to be prescriptive but seeing how the language is used in reality. The use of computer technology in the form of corpora will lead to a greater possibility to examine large quantities of language data.

Hence, the argument formulation pertaining to what is usual and less usual in

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particular situations of use can be more convincing. Furthermore, the methodology to examine semantic prosody through the quantitative analysis of corpus may be very effective in removing researchers’ subjective judgments. It is quite important to make distinctions between collocations and apply the right statistical analysis while extracting the data from the corpus. Since different researchers have argued different conclusions even about the collocations of the same word, a very close examination or investigation through the help of corpus linguistics is highly needed.

This study is going to examine the pattern, semantic preference, and semantic prosody of degree adverbs in various academic disciplines. Due to the limited time that the researcher has, this study will not talk broadly about all degree adverbs in English. The researcher limits the study to several degree adverbs in English. The selection process of the degree adverbs is going to combine both previous data of research and data-driven approach. The former one means that several degree adverbs are selected as they have been very productive in both spoken or written texts according to previous research and there is an assumption that many people have not mastered how those adverbs collocate in sentences. The latter one means that particular degree adverbs are chosen since they frequently co-occur in the data.

Regarding the data of the study, the corpus-data will be driven from research articles in three disciplines namely health, physical, and social. Those disciplines are selected as they are assumed having rather significant discipline- specific writing styles. The investigation, however, is limited to the discussion

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part of the writings since this part is assumed containing more degree adverbs as the writers must attempt to convey their proposition.

1.2 Research Questions

This study intends to answer the following questions:

1. What patterns of degree adverb collocations are observed in research

articles across disciplines?

2. How is the semantic preference of the degree adverb collocations

represented in the research articles across disciplines?

3. How is the semantic prosody of the degree adverb collocations represented

in the research articles across disciplines?

1.3 Research Goals

The first goal of this study is to discover what patterns of degree adverb lexical collocations that are found across the data. Therefore, the researcher will focus on the textualization lexico-grammar. The researcher investigates whether there are particular patterns of adverb+adjective, adverb+verb, or other types of patterns found in the data. Then, the researcher will be able to examine how the distribution of such patterns exists in different scientific disciplines. It means that the researcher will see whether there are some differences in the distribution across disciplines.

The second goal of this study is to analyze deeper the semantic preference of the selected degree adverbs. Examining the semantic preference refers to the action of the research in analyzing the aspects of the immediate words that co- occur typically with particular degree adverbs and how those properties are tied

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and build the meaning of the sentences together. For example, the word adequate is frequently collocated with words which are associated with ‘abstractions’.

The third goal of this study is to analyze deeper the semantic prosody of the selected degree adverbs. Examining the semantic prosody means that the researcher analyzes the positivity or negativity of the words collocated with particular degree adverbs. For example, the degree adverb absolutely is frequently collocated with negative nouns. The analysis on both semantic preference and prosody aspects, then, will be executed to see whether there are some differences of the associated aspects of the degree adverbs’ immediate surrounds and the degree adverbs’ prosodic strengths among different academic disciplines.

1.4 Research Benefits

This study has theoretical, practical, and pedagogical benefits.

Theoretically, this study may give any contribution to the development of lexical collocation analysis of degree adverbs in English, particularly to the selected degree adverbs. Through this research, we may reexamine the previous research’ results and reveal what patterns (syntactically) which possibly occur in the use of the selected degree adverbs. Furthermore, this study may also reveal whether different disciplines of writings will entail different constructions or patterns of the degree adverbs. Practically, this research helps, first, the readers to comprehend the language use in how particular collocation patterns, semantic preference, and semantic prosody of degree adverbs work in sentences. Second, the academic writers will be able to promote their accuracy in using the degree adverbs and how they collocate across disciplines. By doing so, they will be more

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fluent in adding expressive richness on certain messages while still preserving the academic writing's objectivity. Pedagogically, this research may enlighten English educators on how to teach the way particular patterns, semantic preference, and semantic prosody of degree adverbs work in sentences.

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter consists of three divisions. The first is literature review which displays the theories underlying this research that identified as the main tools to answer the research questions. The second is the related studies that focus on the previous studies which are in the same interest and area with this research. The third is the theoretical framework of how the theories are elaborated to answer the researcher’s questions.

2.1 Theoretical Review

This part shows the theories that are used to clarify the research topic.

Those are Degree Adverbs, Collocations, Corpus Linguistics and Concordance,

Semantic Preference, Semantic Prosody, Research Articles, and Disciplines.

2.1.1 Degree Adverbs

The term degree adverbs can be used interchangeably with the terms of degree modifiers or intensifiers. The usage of this notion is to convey the degree or the exact value of the quality expressed by the item that is modified. In other words, it is a kind of linguistic grading that may add any expressive richness to a certain message. Quirk and Greenbaum define intensifiers as linguistic devices that boost the meaning of a property upwards from an assumed not (Quirk &

Greenbaum, 1973). The presence of such intensifiers is needed in written academics since such writings should be objective. Therefore, intensifiers may help the writers to accommodate their desire to ‘exploit hyperbole’. The

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intensifiers may be the vehicle for the writers to impress, praise, persuade, insult, and generally influence the readers’ reception of the message (Quirk &

Greenbaum, 1973). Not to mention, there might be particular conventions on how degree adverbs are employed to demonstrate any attitudinal aspects of the writers.

Backlund gives a detailed descriptive characterization of degree adverbs in

English and divides them into eight subclasses in terms of some notions of degree

(Su, 2017). For example, the degree adverbs such as quite, pretty, rather, and fairly belong to moderate degree adverbs. The work of Greenbaum on some verb- collocations in English has brought a definition of verb-intensifier. He suggests that verb-intensifiers are called those adverbs which may be positioned before the verb and have some heightening effect on the force of the verb.

However, the term of intensifiers, in general, refers to the adverbs of degree qualify other adverbs, adjectives, or verbs by increasing or decreasing the degree of intensity of the word to which they refer (Perez, 2012). In addition, Biber describes degree adverbs as the extent to which a characteristic hold can be used to mark that the extent or degree is either greater or less than usual or than that of something else in neighboring discourse (Perez, 2012). To classify degree adverbs, we may first take a look at the work of Quirk and Greenbaum in classifying adverbials. Quirk and Greenbaum establishes a widely acceptable classification of adverbials into adjuncts, disjuncts, and conjuncts. Adjuncts then can be sub-classified based on semantic criteria into viewpoint, focusing, intensifiers, process, subject, place, time, and adjuncts involving other meanings.

In turn, intensifiers are divided into emphasizers, amplifiers, and down-toners.

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They are not limited to the indication of an increase in intensity. However, they also indicate a point on the intensity scale which may be high or low. Emphasizers have a general heightening effect, amplifiers scale upwards from the assumed norm, down-toners have a lowering effect, usually scaling down from an assumed norm. Amplifiers then can be divided into maximizers which denote the upper extreme of the scale such as absolutely, altogether, completely, entirely, fully, quite, thoroughly, utterly, in all respects, most, and the second one is boosters which denote a high point on the scale such as badly, deeply, greatly, heartily, much, so, violently, well, a great deal, a good deal, a lot, by far. Amplifiers co- occur only with gradable adjectives, while emphasizers can co-occur with non- gradable adjectives. As mentioned before, there must be the need to deploy degree adverbs with appropriate accuracy and caution according to any conventions, contexts, and readers’ expectations. Any incongruence in adopting such feature might result in the writers’ incapability to participate effectively in the related contexts (Blommaert, 2005).

2.1.2 Collocations

The term collocation is initially used by Firth to denote the habitual co- occurrence of lexical items at the syntagmatic level (Shitu, 2015). There are numerous definitions provided by linguists and researchers. One of them,

Hashemi defines this notion as the co-occurrence of two words, independent of grammatical types and likely to take place over sentences boundaries. Natinger also defines collocation as a habitual association of words that co-occur with mutual expectancy. Despite those numerous definitions proposed, there is a

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general consensus towards the definition of collocation as the partnership or natural co-occurrence of words (Shitu, 2015). Thus, the term collocation refers to the habitual tendency for particular words to go together or get juxtaposed side by side.

There are several linguists who try to classify collocations into major groups. Benson (2015) tries to classify English collocations into two major groups. They are lexical and grammatical collocation. Lexical collocation refers to the relations between two or more content words that naturally appear together in a sentence. There are four word-classes that can collocate. Those are noun, verb, adjective, and adverb. Regarding those four classes, there is a number of collocation classifications. Benson proposes seven subtypes: 1) Verb+Noun/P (or prepositional phrase) such as set an alarm, break a code, and lift a blockade; 2)

Adjective+Noun such as strong tea and best wishes; 3) Noun+of+Noun such as a pride of lions; 4) Verb+adverb such as argue heatedly and appreciate sincerely;

5) Adverb+Adjective such as deeply absorbed and closely related; 6) Noun+Verb such as bombs explode and water freezes; and 7) Verb+Noun such as reject appeal and compose music. In other studies, Martynska identifies nine subtypes.

Those are 1) Verb+Noun; 2) Verb+Adverb; 3) Noun+Verb; 4) Adjective+Noun;

5) Adverb+Adjective; 6) Noun+Noun such as pocket calculator; 7)

Verb+Adjective+Noun such as learn a foreign language; 8) Adverb+Verb such as half understand; and 9) Verb+Preposition such as speak through an interpreter.

The second type of collocation is grammatical collocation. This type is made up of combinations containing a content word such as a verb or an adjective

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and a function word such as preposition. The example of a grammatical collocation is speak through in which it combines a content word in the form of a verb and a function word which is a preposition. However, the analysis of such grammatical collocation is not the concern of this study.

Discussing about the grammatical constructions which involve the investigated degree adverbs, it might be necessary to conduct a further analysis on the subject and object reference in the related sentences. More specifically, there is the need to investigate the grammatical subjects of any patterns which have the investigated degree adverbs to collocate with verbs. Besides, there is also the need to examine the modified objects of any combinations which have the related degree adverbs to collocate with adjectives. If there are any passive constructions, there will be an investigation on the objects of the related passive verbs.

In examining those subject and object references, the analysis adapts

Gosden’s classification (Gosden, 1993) which has been modified based on some trial analyses. The groups of classification are ordered from the domain where the writers are most visible and have more interactional actions in discourses to the domain where the writers are least visible and directed to the more topic-based themes. There are two main groups namely Participant Domain and Real-world

Domain. The former one refers to the domain which has the greatest writer visibility. It is divided into three subdomains: 1) Discourse Participant, it refers to the use of I or We as report writers; 2) Participant Viewpoint, it refers to the use of

Our which is directed to any report outcomes such as our conclusion; 3)

Interactive Participant, it refers to the people or corporate entities that help

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initiating the research. On the contrary to the previous domain, the latter one has the least writer visibility and focuses on more topic-based themes. This domain is divided into: 1) Abstract Thing, it refers to any abstracted or intangible entities;

2) Concrete Thing, it includes any non-mental entities which are tangible; 3)

People, it refers to any human entities who become the topic of the research.

2.1.3 Corpus Linguistics and Concordance

Corpus linguistics is a relatively recent branch of linguistics which is firstly popular since the discovery of personal computers in the 1990s. Corpus linguistics, however, is not a branch of linguistics which has the same sense as semantics, , sociolinguistics, and others. It is more a methodology instead of an aspect of language needing explanation. This methodological approach, then, can be brought to almost any areas of linguistic enquiry. Corpus linguistics is characterized by the involvement of computer-based empirical analyses which deal with actual patterns of language use. The analysis is done by processing and examining a large amount of naturally occurring spoken or written texts called corpora. It means that the data processing is done mechanically by using computers. According to Teubert (2005), corpus linguistics is rather an insistence on dealing with real language data collected from discourses through a principled way and then compiled into a corpus. The word corpus comes from the Latin word for body, and its plural form is corpora. Thus, corpus means a body of language or more specifically, a (usually) very large amount of language data, stored as computer files.

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Defining what corpus linguistics is might be quite problematic. There are many opinions pertaining to whether corpus linguistics is a methodology or a theory of language, or even both. Considering corpus linguistics as a method,

McEnery et al. (2006) make a proposition as follows:

Corpus linguistics is a whole system of methods and principles of how to apply corpora in language studies and teaching/learning. It certainly has a theoretical status. Yet, the theoretical status is not a theory in itself.

This proposition is also supported by Meyer (2002). He asserts that corpus linguistics is rather a methodology that makes all linguists are able to use corpora as valuable resources in their studies of language.

Any discussion of corpus linguistics may not be separable from the discussion of concordance. Concordance refers to a table of all of the occurrences of a linguistic item in a corpus, presented within their linguistic contexts (usually a few words to a few lines either side of the linguistic item). This notion is an important aspect of corpus linguistics since it allows us to have qualitative analyses to be carried out on corpus data and explore individual cases in detail.

Concordance analyses are normally essential before we can make any claim about language variation or change based on frequency. The research scopes which are usually done by employing electronic corpora as the tool are, as examples, near- synonyms, changes or preferences in actual language use, word-forming elements, and other topics.

The approach through corpora studies is very suitable for this study. The existence of corpora studies is able to provide a large amount of data empirically for collocation studies, including collocation pattern, semantic preference, and

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prosody (Hoey, 2010). Being facilitated by corpus linguistics, there are more possibilities for researchers to reveal language variations in various contexts.

Moreover, the large amount of data help researchers to have more insight about language use that dictionaries cannot show. Further, corpora studies are able to cope with the language dynamic issues which arise from the new perspective that

English is a global language. Those issues are related to the dynamism and production of new language rules in reality which have been becoming inevitable by the time. In addition, the quantitative analysis of corpus studies may be one of the effective strategies to remove researchers’ subjective judgments.

2.1.4 Semantic Preference

The concept of semantic preference and the related notion of semantic prosody are currently very important aspects in corpus linguistics. These two terms and what they designate have sometimes been confusing. They have sometimes been employed for the same phenomenon or for different but closely related phenomena. Semantic preference has recently been considered in terms of

‘priming’. It means that as the word is learned through encounters with it in speech and writing, it is loaded with the cumulative effects of those encounters such that it is part of our knowledge of the word that it co-occurs with other words. Related lexical items that belong to different word classes may also have different semantic preferences.

In investigating the selected degree adverbs’ semantic preference, the identification of the notion is accessed through their collocations. As an example of analysis, O’Halloran (2007) points out that in newspaper text the verb erupt

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has a semantic preference for human phenomena whereas the noun eruption has a preference for geological. On the other hand, the notion of semantic prosody can be described as a further stage of abstraction than preference. Partington proposes that semantic preference generally remains relatively closely tied to the phenomenon of collocation (Begagic, 2013). It describes a phenomenon where a particular item x collocates frequently not with another item y but with a series of items which belong to a semantic set.

2.1.5 Semantic Prosody

The concept of semantic prosody has been a focus of interest among corpus linguists over the last 15 – 20 years (Hoey, 2010). It was initially an idea of Sinclair in 1987, though he did not use the term to refer the concept. His first observation was about the lexicogrammatical environment of the phrasal set in.

He notes that ‘’many uses of words and phrases show a tendency to occur in a certain semantic environment”. As an example, the word happen tends to be associated with unpleasant things such as accidents and the likes. In figuring out the semantic prosody of a particular sentence, there is the need to analyze the general nuance constraining the environment where the related words emerge.

Then, Louw (1993) defines the term semantic prosody as a consistent aura of meaning with which a form is imbued by its collocates. His examples include utterly, bent on, and symptomatic of which all of them employ unfavorable prosodies. In 1996, Sinclair then comes up again and defines semantic prosody as follows:

Semantic prosody . . . is attitudinal and on the pragmatic side of the semantics/pragmatics continuum. It is thus capable of a wide range

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of realisation, because in pragmatic expressions the normal semantic values of the words are not necessarily relevant. But once noticed among the variety of expression, it is immediately clear that the semantic prosody has a leading role to play in the integration of an item with its surroundings. It expresses something close to the ‘function’ of an item—it shows how the rest of the item is to be interpreted functionally (Sinclair, 1996).

Stubbs reassesses the concept proposed by Sinclair and prefers to use the term discourse prosodies both in order to maintain the relation to speakers and hearers, but also to emphasize their function in creating discourse coherence (Hoey, 2010).

In defining the term, he places a strong emphasis on its attitudinal quality:

Discourse prosody is a feature which extends over more than one unit in a linear string. [ . . . ] Discourse prosodies express speaker attitude. If you say that something is provided, then this implies that you approve of it. Since they are evaluative, prosodies often express the speaker’s reason of judgement, for example, it carries this kind of meaning identify functional discourse units. Stubbs (2001) groups the concept of discourse prosody into three categories: positive, negative, and neutral.

Then, by operating within Sinclairian framework in terms of co-selection and extended units of meaning, Tognini-Bonelli points out that what is consistently shown by corpus work is the strict correlation between lexical and grammatical choices which extends the boundaries of the initial unit (Hu, 2015).

He states:

If a word is regularly used in contexts of good news or bad news or judgement, for example, it carries this kind of meaning around with it; and, as noted by Sinclair [ . . . ] the choice that a speaker/writer will make when selecting a multi-word unit will involve the more local grammatical and lexical constraints around the word, but will also include a perhaps more remote semantic preference and its correspondent on the pragmatic side, semantic prosody.

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The concept of how the contexts of good news and bad news may influence a word is supported by Hunston and Francis. They explain that a word may be said to have particular semantic prosody if it can be shown to co-occur typically with other words that belong to a particular semantic set (Hunston & Francis, 2000). In other words, the words will take on meaning from their immediate surrounds.

The notion of semantic prosody (or pragmatic meaning) is that a given word or phrase may occur most frequently in the context of other words or phrases which are predominantly positive or negative in their evaluative orientation [ . . . ] As a result, the given word takes on an association with the positive, or, more usually, the negative, and this association can be exploited by speakers to express evaluative meaning covertly.

The definition above is also in line with Louw’s basic definition of semantic prosody.

A semantic prosody refers to a form of meaning which is established through the proximity of a consistent series of collocates, often characterizable as positive or negative, and whose primary function is the expression of the attitude of its speaker or writer towards some pragmatic situation. A secondary, though no less important attitudinal function of semantic prosodies is the creation of irony through the deliberate injection of a form which clashes with the prosody’s consistent series of collocates (Louw, 2000).

It might be a fuzzy boundary between two concepts of semantic preference and semantic prosody, one main aspect to distinguish them is that semantic preference may be in favor of any definable semantic field, but semantic prosody is always either for positive or negative evaluation (Hu, 2015). In other words, the term semantic prosody is a kind of evaluative meaning which may be potentially goes beyond the single orthographic word and it is much less evident to the naked eyes

(Hoey, 2010).

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Thus, semantic preference and semantic prosody have different operating scopes. Semantic preference relates the node item to another item from a particular semantic set whereas semantic prosody may affect wider stretches of text. Semantic preference can be viewed as a feature of the collocates while semantic prosody is a feature of the node word. Not to mention, the notion of semantic prosody rules the general environment which constrains the preferential choices of the node item whereas the notion of semantic preference helps to build semantic prosody (Partington, 2004). As an example, the verb break out is investigated in the BNC and the result shows that the majority cases of the verb lead to the semantic preference for ‘disease’, ‘situations of conflict’, or

‘problematic circumstances’. In addition, the immediate environments of the verb are pertaining to the words of war, infection, conflict, and crisis. Thus, the verb break out is considered to be associated with unfavorable semantic prosody which is contingent upon the semantic preferences (Stewart, 2010).

Discussing the productivity of degree adverbs in both conversation and writing, the work of Biber et al. (1999) finds that the degree adverb very occurs at least 200 times per million words in British English and American English conversation and in academic registers. Really and too occur at least 200 times per million words only in their British English and American English conversation corpora, while quite is found at least 200 times per million words only in British

English conversation and academic registers. Exactly, right, pretty, and real quantitatively salient only in American English conversation. Furthermore,

Swales and Burke analyze evaluative adjectives in the Michigan Corpus of

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Academic Spoken English (MICASE) and conclude that the standard intensifier very is four times more productive in spoken academic English than in written academic registers.

2.1.6 Research Articles

The term research article is one of the common academic genres in most disciplines in addition to textbooks, essays, and examination questions. Each academic genre must have its own features leading to how the discourses are constructed (Bhatia, 2014). Academic writing itself is simply defined as the writings found in academic settings. Research articles refer to written texts which are typically limited to a few thousand words. The articles are kinds of outcomes from any complex process in research studies. They aim to report on certain investigation conducted by the authors. Not to mention, they usually have references to others’ works of study in building the related knowledge or issues.

The existence of research articles in particular field, then, is inseparable from a group of individuals as its discourse community. The discourse community tends to have a broadly agreed set of common public goals, specialized lexis, and particular mechanism of communication (Swales J. , 1990). Consequently, the authors of research articles highly need to consider they ways to manifest those cautions. Further, the language and structure used in academic writing are concise, clear, focused, structured and also backed up by sufficient shreds of evidence. As stated before, the academic writers need to adhere to the appropriate style so that the message of the writing can be conveyed for the target audience. According to

Swales and Feak, there are several distinctive features of academic writing style.

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First, academic writings use more formal alternative in choosing a noun, verb, or other parts of speech. Second, academic writings usually use linking verbs and phrases which can help the writers define clear relationships between ideas and maintain the flow (Swales & Feak, 1994).

Regarding the further feature of academic writings, the need of qualifications and strength of claim are quite crucial in the writing. Highlighting statements in the writings need good judgments. As cited in Swales and Feak

(1994), Skelton states that it is crucial for students to learn to be confidently uncertain. Therefore, there is the need of having linguistic resources to express this caution. Moreover, this need becomes more apparent as academic writings are often characterized by lots of nominalization to promote objectivity (Khamesian,

2015). One of the linguistic resources to express the caution, particularly in such nominalized sentences, is degree adverb. The existence of degree adverb will be able to qualify and moderate particular claims. Furthermore, it can also enhance the expressive richness of certain messages while still maintaining the writings’ objectivity.

Currently, the growth rate of scientific publication has been examined and studied for decades by making use many data from literature database. Research articles, then, become the products or outcomes from any complex process in research studies. They have a significant role in contributing to knowledge- building and facilitating learning in many aspects. In addition, they also become a means to prove any evidential propositions about various issues. The language use in communicating the knowledge should be managed and organized accurately

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and cautiously according to any rigid conventions and community’s expectations.

By doing so, the informational knowledge could be conveyed effectively with full of cautious to the targets.

2.1.7 Disciplines

Apparently, any criteria in organizing any scopes or domains into disciplines are quite debatable. It entails the fact that there is no specific consensus on the classification of academic disciplines. However, in general, academic disciplines are also recognized as a branch of knowledge. The organization of disciplines can be set hierarchically. The highest level is occupied by the discipline which covers a group of broadly similar disciplines. The parts of the group, then, are the sub-disciplines and occupy the lower levels of the hierarchy.

As language is very sensitive to situation, it entails many disciplines of academic writing with their own diversities enacted to them. Bhatia (2014) is in line with the statement by asserting a proposition as follows:

Disciplines have their typical characteristics and are primarily understood in terms of the specific knowledge, methodologies, and shared practices of their community members, especially their ways of thinking, constructing and consuming knowledge, their specific norms and epistemologies and, above all, their typical goals and disciplinary practices to achieve those goals. In other words, there are particular disciplinary variations, especially in academic writings as the discourses are inseparable the community values where they are produced. Any related research in hard disciplines are typically highly conditioned with concentrated equipment, environment, and other aspects which are necessary in the investigation. Such research, then, entails the typical reports

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or writings which focus more on the truth discovery and promote objectivity.

Meanwhile, the typical writings in soft disciplines are highly tied to more contextual factors less control of variables. Hence, there are more tendencies for different outcomes and less unequivocal claims to appear. Hyland supports this proposition by arguing that the typical writings of soft disciplines are more interpretative and supported by various forms of arguments. In other words, there will be more spaces for claim-making negotiations. In addition, hard disciplines tend to put emphasis on the research practices, methods, procedures, and equipment used in the research. On the other hand, the soft disciplines cannot depend on their general acceptance of the proven procedures. The writings, therefore, would rely more on a claim-making negotiation (Hyland & Bondi,

2006).

As an example, the discipline-specific writing styles of mechanical- engineering discipline would be significantly different from the academic writing characteristics of health discipline. Since the end of the twentieth century, the notion of discipline serves the study of forms and categories (Giltrow, 2002).

Discipline is seen as a way of thinking about the context-dependency of language.

Further, the conceptualization of discipline asserts discipline is not merely constituted of form but also the situation (Giltrow, 2002). The style conventions and similarities of each subject discipline specific are not perceived as rules but as the codes of common grounds among particular communities of readers and writers. By adhering to the style-conventions of each discipline, the writers will be able to successfully convey the agreed meaning about particular concepts or ideas

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of a group of scholarly experts. The discourse analysis of this research, however, focuses more on one of the style-conventions namely the textualization of lexico- grammar.

2.2 Related Studies

In this part, there are some related studies provided to give a brief discussion on the scope of this study. These studies help the researcher to find the strategies to conduct the study. There are a number of related studies described in this section.

The first previous study was conducted by Sue (2017). In her study, she examined four general intensifiers such as quite, pretty, rather, and fairly in the

British National Corpus, the Written English Corpus of Chinese Learner, and the

Chinese Learner English Corpus. She compared the practical use as well as the semantic prosody of the four intensifiers between native speakers and English learners. The investigation helped us to clarify the difference in the acquisition by native English students and native Chinese students as well as the preference in the syntactic use of the intensifiers. The result of the study figured out that native speakers and English learners showed a different preference in use and had a different understanding of the intensifiers (Su, 2017).

The second previous study was conducted by Begagic (2013). Her study focuses on semantic preference and semantic prosody of the collocation make sense. The researcher observed the collocation in the Corpus of Contemporary

American English (COCA, 2019). The procedure of the study involved every second of the first randomly selected 100 occurrences of all the word forms of the

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collocation make sense such as make sense, makes sense, made sense, and making sense. All of those occurrences were then manually examined and observed at the span of 10 words to the left and 10 words to the right and the results were compared. The paper agreed with the fact that several definitions should be placed under the entry of the collocation ‘make sense’. However, the study proved that one of the most important and central uses of the collocation make sense was in difficult situations, when the collocation was accompanied by the preposition of.

The third previous study was conducted by Ordem and Bada (2016). The focus of the study was about lexical collocations and applied corpus-driven approach as well. However, this study does not focus on degree adverbs. It focused more on verb+noun collocations. The new thing here was that the object of the study involved research articles from various disciplines which were health, physical, and social science. The researcher intended to describe and analyze lexically-initiated verb + noun lexical collocations in research articles across disciplines, discover whether there was any prototypical verb + noun collocations and collostructions across and within three different sciences, and examine these collocations in terms of construction grammar. The result showed that there were similar verbs used in research articles across the three disciplines. However, these verbs showed much variation in terms of the collocates they attracted. In other words, there was a significant difference in the use of textual collocations across the different disciplines.

The fourth previous study was researched by Stratton (2018). He examined two adjective intensifiers which were well and proper. By using a

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dataset of over 20 million words (approximately 10 million per corpus), the study explored the frequency, collocation, and syntactic distribution from 1994 to 2014.

The results showed that both adjective intensifiers have significantly increased over the periods. The adjective intensifier well is used frequently than proper.

This research argues that these two adjective intensifiers are multifunctional and productive insofar as what they can modify and collocate with. They can modify predicative, attributive, extreme, and comparative adjectives. As for their collocational distribution they can modify adjectives of a variety of different semantic classes and can modify adjectives of both positive and negative prosody.

Furthermore, the number of verbs which they collocate has increased over the two decades.

The fifth previous study is a corpus-based sociolinguistic study of amplifiers in British English by Richard Xiao and Hongyin Tao (2007). In this study, they used British National Corpus (BNC) which is the largest balanced corpus of British English available today, to figure out any variations in the use of amplifiers in terms of a wide range of sociolinguistic variables. They examined 33 amplifiers across the following dimensions: discourse mode and register, gender, age, education level, audience gender, and ages, as well as publication date. The results showed a complex picture. Some tendencies were clearly seen that amplifiers are more common in speech than in writing, higher levels of education correlate positively with higher frequencies of use, and there is an overall decrease in the use of amplifiers over an intervening thirty-year period (Xiao & Tao, 2007).

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Next, Partington (2004) managed to conduct an investigation on the aspects of semantic preference and semantic prosody. More specifically, he examined the frequency of occurrence of happen, occur, come about, take place, and set in by using corpora which are compiled from academic writings and newspaper. The result suggests that the notion of prosody differs in important ways in which the quality and strength of particular items will differ from domain to domain or genre to genre.

Finally, Louw (2000) presented his other work to summarize some earliest related works and also examine new proofs of the notion of semantic prosody in corpus-based dictionaries. The research is specially focused on the word cause as a verb. The result implies that the aspect of semantic prosody is not monolithically negative or positive since it could be smoothed by employing any particular impersonal scientific context.

Three of those earlier studies have explored intensifiers by applying a corpus-driven approach. Each of the three studies focuses the intensifiers on native or non-native speaker, particular period, or sociolinguistics aspect.

Meanwhile, four of the previous studies presented in the section brought up the focus on semantic prosody, semantic preference, and study of across disciplines.

However, the researchers of those four earlier studies did not emphasize and focus on degree adverbs as the scope of their study.

Since the need of qualifications and strengths of claim are quite crucial in academic writings, degree adverbs can be one of the linguistic features to express those cautions. The notion of degree adverb is very useful to add expressive

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richness on certain messages while still preserving the academic writing's objectivity, especially in nominalized sentences. By seeing this need, the researcher is going to analyze degree adverbs across different disciplines. The researcher is going to focus on how various disciplines may affect the use of the degree adverbs pertaining to the patterns of the lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. By this investigation, academic writers may promote their accuracy in using the degree adverbs and how they collocate across academic writing disciplines.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

Some theories supporting the study and some related studies have been described above. The theories include collocations, degree adverbs, corpus linguistics and concordance, semantic preference, semantic prosody, research articles, and disciplines. This section will show how the theories proposed can contribute answering the research questions.

The theory of collocations, particularly the types of collocations, is used as the base for the researcher to classify the degree adverbs occurred from the data.

To be more specific, this theory will provide detailed descriptions of the structure of collocations for the classification. Then, the data will be the source to answer the first research question.

The next theory is related to degree adverbs. The theory of degree adverbs helps this study to see how the notion of degree adverbs is defined. The concept proposed in the theory is used to select the data. Further, the types of degree

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adverbs will provide a deeper understanding of how the roles of such degree adverbs are presented in the data.

The theory of corpus linguistics is used since the investigation applies a corpus-driven approach. In applying this approach, a concordance or corpus data of degree adverbs in selected research articles will be the objects of the study. The use of corpora is suitable for this study as it can reveal any lexical profile and its surrounds. Further, it can be very helpful to investigate the focuses of the study which are the collocation structure, semantic preference, and semantic prosody.

The study of semantics shows that the concept of collocation is closely related to the notion of semantic preference since it explores how certain words are frequently collocated and associated with particular words. Therefore, the theory of semantic preference is used to provide more insights into the concepts and operating scopes of semantic preference to analyze the data. Further, by applying a driven-data approach, several types of semantic preference may be revealed and used to answer the second research question.

The theory above is then followed by the explanation on the notion of semantic prosody. The theory of semantic prosody is presented as this concept is also crucial in collocation. This theory is used to give more understandings pertaining to the concepts, operating scopes, and types of semantic prosody. Not to mention, this theory will be very helpful to uncover how particular degree adverbs will take on meaning from their immediate surrounds. Thus, this theory will help to answer the third research question.

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Then, the theory of research article is presented to define what a research article is and establish the characteristics of academic writings in general. Further, this part also shows the need of degree adverbs to establish qualifications and strengths of claim in academic writings. Thus, this theory helps the researchers be the principle in selecting the objects of the study and also one of the supporting rationales to conduct this study.

The last one is about the explanantion on what a discipline is. In this section, the theory elaborates how different disciplines entail different style conventions. The fact of various style conventions apparently brings the researcher to the main idea of this research.

The related studies presented are also used as additional inputs to enrich the knowledge and insights of the researcher to conduct research in a similar topic or method. Through this study similar principles, it tries to fill the gap by analyzing the similar concepts from a different perspective.

The researcher’s hypothesis related to this study is that there will be a variety in the occurrence of lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody of the selected degree adverbs. It is assumed that different disciplines of writings will entail different distribution of collocation, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. This point is supported by the study by Hyland in 2014. He proposes that each academic discipline is unique in that it uses different collocations. Further, one of the fundamental tenets of Hoey’s theory is that a word is acquired through encounters with it in speech or writing. It becomes cumulatively loaded with the contexts and co-texts in which it is encountered, and

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our knowledge of it includes the fact that it co-occurs with certain words in certain kinds of context. The same applies to word sequences built out of these words; they become loaded with the contexts and co-texts in which they occur. Talking particularly about semantic prosody, Tribble has introduced the concept of ‘local prosodies’. He states that words in certain disciplines or analogs of these disciplines […]. He is not assuming that all keyboards in a text will have specific local semantic prosodies, but he is proposing that it is an aspect of language worth considering as it will constitute important local knowledge for writers in a specific discipline. Partington notes more generally that initial research seems that it is highly likely that the quality and strength of the prosody of a good many item will differ from genre to genre or from domain to domain (Hoey, 2010).

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CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter elaborates the methodology of the research. It contains four parts, namely the type of the study, research data, data collection technique, and data analysis. The type of the study shows what form of the study is. The research data display what the data are. The data collection technique shows how the data are found. Finally, the data analysis elaborates how the data are analyzed using the theories.

3.1 Type of the Study

This study aims to examine how degree adverbs co-occur with their environments in order to build the meaning of the related sentences. It means that this research deals with the study of meaning and the principles that govern the relationship between sentences or words and their meanings. Since the study explores how meaning works in language, it is categorized as the study of semantics. The study of semantics typically uses native speaker intuitions about the meaning of words and phrases as the base of the research. Further, it will also look at how the meaning of speech is not just derived from the meanings of the individual words all put together.

Further, since this study aims to discover the patterns of degree adverb collocations in research articles across disciplines and intends to analyze the semantic preference and semantic prosody of the patterns occur in different disciplines; therefore, the scope needs to establish a design considering corpus-

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driven approach together with theoretical analysis. Through this approach, we will have sets of generalizations arising from a corpus which is more relied on frequency, and one that is more interpretative by involving a human researcher.

The scope of this study, particularly semantic prosody, is best revealed by corpus investigations. It is supported by Bublitz who argues that the relationship, crucial to semantic prosody, between an item and its environment is best revealed by applying computational methods to large corpora of discourse (Hoey, 2010).

Bublitz’s proposition implies that the use of corpora is suitable to investigate the lexical collocations and semantic preference which are also being the focuses of this study. This point is based on the proposition that a corpus-driven approach may reveal any lexical profile and its surrounds. Meanwhile, Louw also supports it by asserting that semantic prosody is a phenomenon that has been only revealed computationally, and whose extent and development can only be properly traced by computational methods. Another linguist who is in line with the statements stated before is Hunston. Hunston suggests that semantic prosody can be observed only by looking at a large number of instances of a word or phrase (Hoey, 2010).

3.2 Research Data

To answer the three research questions stated before, the investigation needs the same set of data. It needs a large amount of data which are corpus-data driven from 60 research articles from 6 journals of health, physical, and social science. Health science refers to the discipline which concerns with human and animal health as well as health care. There are two divisions of the discipline. The first one deals with the study, research, and knowledge of health whereas the

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second deals with the application of how the knowledge is used to cure diseases, improve health, and know how humans and animal function. From this health science, there was a number of sub-disciplines chosen for the corpora. For health science, the disciplines are about anatomy, anesthesiology, bacteriology, brain- neuroscience, cardiology, dentistry, genetics, and other disciplines. Physical science, in contrast, focuses on the study of inanimate natural objects. The branches of this science include physics, astronomy, chemistry, and related subjects. For physical science, the sub-disciplines chosen for this research were about astronomy, botany, engineering, geology, physics, chemistry, and other disciplines. The last field, social science is an academic discipline which concerns with society as well as the relationship among individuals in a society. The social science is about literature, anthropology, education, law, sociology, psychology, philosophy, and other disciplines. Those three disciplines were selected as they are assumed to have rather significant discipline-specific writing styles. The selected journals for the investigation consist of the African Journal of Emergency

Medicine, Clinical Infectious Disease, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Journal of Geology, Christianity and Literature, and Mexican Law

Review. From those journals, the researcher took 10 articles from each of them.

3.3 Data Collection Technique

First, a number of articles from health, physical, and social science were taken from journals. There were 60 research articles from 6 journals of health, physical, and science. The recent articles published between 2010 and 2018 were chosen. Before converting the texts into text format, the articles were grouped and

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given specific codes according to their disciplines. Hence, there were three groups: health, physical, and social science group. Those texts, then, were converted into a text format in order to create an electronic corpus.

Figure 3.1 Conversion Process to a Text Format

The researcher used an AntConc program as the tool to process the texts and compile the corpus data which became the objects of the research. The

AntConc is a Windows-based concordance and word listing program that is able to help us to create word lists and search natural language text files for words,

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phrases, and patterns.

Figure 3.2 Corpus Data Processing with AntConc Program

Regarding the observed degree adverbs, several degree adverbs were selected. Those degree adverbs were selected as they have been very productive and problematic in both spoken and written texts. There were some criteria in selecting the degree adverbs. First, the degree adverbs should exist in all or two of the three disciplines. Second, the degree adverbs might appear in one discipline merely, yet they should have quite significant frequency. It means that there is the need to predict any particular and significant tendencies of the degree adverbs which can be interpreted later. After analyzing and filtering the whole data by scanning lots of random degree adverbs, six degree adverbs were finally chosen to be investigated.

By implementing the data-driven approach, more degree adverbs were selected as they frequently co-occur in the data. Further, using the AntConc

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program let the electronic texts be processed to search the selected degree adverb combinations.

Next, the concordance was extracted from the program to Microsoft

Word’s file format. Since the aim of this study was to analyze the degree adverbs’ lexical collocations, irrelevant data were excluded.

3.4 Data Analysis

After the concordance of the selected degree adverbs was extracted from the corpus, the researcher focused on textualization lexico-grammar by applying statistical analysis to examine the distribution and frequency of the occurred degree adverbs’ lexical patterns in research articles across disciplines. In analyzing the degree adverbs’ lexical patterns existed in the data, the researcher identified the collocability of each degree adverb with the immediate co-text to the left and right of it. After that, the occurred degree adverbs’ lexical patterns were classified according to the types of lexical collocation. In this step, a quantitative approach was undergone. This quantitative approach let the researcher figure out whether there was any various distributional pattern of the lexical collocations. It helped the researcher to answer the first research. Such investigation on collocation is basically quantitative by entailing any statistical significance. It is supported by Hoey that collocation has long been the name given to the relationship a lexical item has with items that appear with greater than random probability in its (textual) context (Hoey, 2010). Furthermore, Baker affirms that all words co-occur with each other to some degree. However, when a word regularly appears near another word, and the relationship is statistically

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significant in some way, then such co-occurrences are referred to as collocates and the phenomena of certain words frequently occurring next each other is collocation.

After doing the quantitative approach, all of the numeric data were tabulated to compare the result of each discipline. Hence, the researcher was able to see whether there are any various distributions pertaining to degree adverbs’ lexical patterns across distinct disciplines. Those steps were expected to help the researcher to answer the first research question. The data, then, were put into tables.

After conducting the investigation on the degree adverbs’ lexical patterns, the researcher then examined the semantic preference and semantic prosody of the lexical collocations occurred in the data. First, the researcher conducted an analysis on the degree adverbs’ semantic preference. A depth analysis was taken to identify the semantic preference of each degree adverb’s occurrence. In this process, the identification of the semantic preference was accessed through the degree adverb collocations. In the process of analyzing and classifying the words collocated with the related degree adverbs semantically, the USAS or the UCREL

Semantic Analysis System (McEnery, Rayson, Archer, & Piao, 2004) and Roget’s

Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases (Davidson, 2002) were very helpful to provide a range of semantic tag set with prototypical words in each semantic field.

Then, the result of the analysis was grouped into several categories based on the analysis. Later, the results of the analysis were also tabulated. By having the tabulation, the researcher was able to compare the data of each discipline.

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The next step was conducted to analyze the semantic prosody of each degree adverb’s occurrence. In analyzing the semantic prosody, the research analyzed the general nuance constraining the environments where the degree adverbs occured. Therefore, the notion of semantic preference takes a significant role in building the semantic prosody. After conducting the analysis, the data were categorized into negative, neutral, or positive. Further, felicity tests might be conducted to dispel any subjective judgments in the analysis process. After that, the results were tabulated to compare the data of the distinct disciplines.

Those steps in investigating semantic preference and prosody relied more on interpretative and descriptive approach. The researcher needed to analyze whether there was any various distribution associated with the semantic preference and prosody of the selected degree adverbs across distinct disciplines.

In the stages, the corpus investigation concerned more specifically on the way we identified the semantic preference and prosody which were accessed via lexical profiles or concordances. In other words, the information got from the lexical profiles and concordances were translated to analyze the semantic preference and prosody. Therefore, those stages were highly interpretative because it did not rely on mere frequency but also involving subjective judgments about fragments of text. The data, then, were put into tables. Those approaches explained above are expected to help the researcher to answer the second and research question.

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3.5 Data Presentation

After the concordance was extracted from the AntConcordance program to

Microsoft Word’s file format, the data were coded and listed into tables. Below is the example of the table consisting of the data of analysis.

Figure 3.3 Example of Extracted Corpora

Since there were three disciplines which were investigated in the study, the researcher coded them. H stands for Health, P stands for Physical, and S is for

Social. Further, the researcher also coded the six examined degree adverbs. A is for Extremely, B is for Strongly, C is for Highly, D is for Fully, E is for Fairly, and F is for Utterly. The data in every discipline were, then, numbered in order to organize them in a good order. As an example, there is a datum which is coded as

(H/A/001). That means that the sentence or phrase appears as the first datum which consists the degree adverb extremely and it is found in the health discipline.

The tables which show the data presentation are provided in the appendices.

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In presenting the data, the researcher will let each degree adverb to have its own section. In every section, there will be two subsections. In the first subsection, all of the numeric data from the quantitative approach which was done in analysing the degree adverb collocation patterns will be tabulated and presented in tables. Below are the examples of the tables.

Table 3.1 Example of Pattern Analysis Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Extremely + Real-world domain

Health adjective (Abstract) Extremely + Verb Extremely + Real-world domain Physical adjective (Abstract) Extremely + Real-world domain Social adjective (Abstract, People)

Table 3.2 Example of Word Category Collocation Analysis No. Word Category Frequency % 1 Adjective 2 Verb 3 … Total

Table 3.3 Example of Adjective Collocation Analysis No. Adjective List Frequency % 1 Uncommon 2 Low 3 … Total

In the second subsection, then, there will be the data presentation of the semantic preference and prosody analysis results. The data will be presented in the form of tables. Below are the examples of the tables consisting of the result analysis on semantic preference and semantic prosody of the investigated degree adverbs.

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Table 3.4 Example of Semantic Preference Analysis Discipline Health Physical Social Semantic Measurement Measurement Measurement Preference Importance/ Importance/ Significance

Table 3.5 Example of Semantic Prosody Analysis No. Semantic Prosody Frequency % 1 Positive (+) 2 Negative (-) Total

The tables will present the classification and numerical data of the analysis. The table 3.4 and 3.5 above demonstrates how the tables will be designed. Such tables, henceforth, will help the researcher to analyze the data in an organized manner.

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CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

This chapter elaborates the findings of the research and also explains the results by referencing the theories in the second chapter. The analysis results of each degree adverb will be explained in its own section. Every section of the degree adverb, then, will have two subsections including the section for pattern analysis and the section for the semantic preference and prosody.

As explained before in the previous chapter that there are 6 selected degree adverbs to be observed. The result shows that those investigated degree adverbs, apparently, have different number of occurrences between one and the others. The frequency of each degree adverb can be observed in the table 4.1 below.

Table 4.1 Occurrences of the Selected Degree Adverbs No. Degree Adverbs Frequency % 1 Extremely 94 38 2 Highly 67 27 3 Strongly 48 19 4 Fully 33 13 5 Fairly 6 2 6 Utterly 4 2 Total 248 100

From the table 4.1, it can be clearly noticed that the degree adverb extremely, highly, and strongly come as the most frequently used degree adverbs in the data with 94, 67, and 48 occurrences respectively. Not being too contrast to the frequency of the favorable degree adverbs mentioned before, the degree adverb

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fully appears with 33 occurrences. Further, the result reveals that the degree adverb fairly and utterly are not favored in the data as they only occur with very limited frequencies which are 6 and 4 occurrences respectively. Not to mention, each degree adverb varies considerably in terms of its collocation patterns, semantic preference, and semantic prosody among health, physical, and social discipline. The detailed explanantions of such issues will be discussed in the following sections.

4.1 Degree Adverb Extremely

This section, specifically, is devoted to have a further discussion on the degree adverb extremely. This section, then, will be divided into two subsections.

The first one belongs to the result and analysis of the degree adverb extremely in terms of the lexical pattern. The second subsection, then, will deal with the result and analysis of the degree adverb extremely in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.1.1 Collocation Patterns

The result of the analysis reveals that the degree adverb extremely does not have a high tendency to occur in varied patterns. There is only one pattern

Extremely + Adjective and it is used in across disciplines. Pertaining to the typical objects modified by the adjectives, there are frequent references to real-world domain, especially abstract things. Furthermore, the nature of each discipline partly affects on the preferences of the objects.

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Table 4.2 presents the occurrence of collocation patterns of extremely observed in research articles across health, physical, and social discipline with 24 occurrences in total.

Table 4.2 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Extremely No. Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Real-world domain 1 Health Extremely + adjective 9 100 (Abstract) Real-world domain 2 Social Extremely + adjective 9 100 (Abstract, People) Real-world domain 3 Physical Extremely + adjective 6 100 (Abstract)

As stated before, the most obvious finding to emerge is that there is only one type of pattern for the degree adverb extremely occurs in all of the data coming from three disciplines. The type of pattern is Extremely + Adjective. Behind the uniformity of the pattern, there are differences pertaining to the type of objects described by the adjectives collocating with extremely.

4.1.1.1 Health Discipline

In the table 4.3, it is clearly noticed that the frequency of pattern involving extremely in health discipline is nine occurrences. As mentioned before that there is a uniformity pertaining to the collocation patterns in which there is only one type of pattern Extremely + Adjective across all disciplines. In other words, the degree adverb Extremely collocates with adjectives. The list of collocated adjectives can be seen in the table 4.4 below.

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Table 4.3 Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Extremely Word Category Social Social Physical No Freq % No Freq % No Freq % Disc. Disc. Disc. 1 Adj. 9 100 1 Adj. 9 100 1 Adj. 6 100 Total 9 100 Total 9 100 Total 6 100

Table 4.4 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Extremely Adjective Collocation

No Health Freq % No Social Freq % No Physical Freq % Power- 1 Uncommon 2 22 1 Low 1 22 1 2 33 ful Impor- 2 Low 2 22 2 1 22 2 Low 1 17 tant

3 Rare 2 22 3 Rigid 1 22 3 Narrow 1 17 Compli- 4 Important 1 11 4 1 11 4 Limited 1 17 cated

5 Limited 1 11 5 Flexible 1 11 5 Rapid 1 17

6 Useful 1 11 6 Anxious 1 11 Total 6 100

Total 9 100 7 Limited 1 22 Ambi- 8 1 22 valent Un- 9 1 22 pleasant

Total 9 100

Further, the finding shows that each discipline has its own preference related to the type of object described by the adjective phrase in every sentence.

In health discipline, the typical object modified by the adjectives is real- world domain referring to abstract things. More specifically, those abstract things refer to technical terminologies of health discipline such as the case fatality rate,

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disease incidence, knowledge of stone analysis, and others. An example is demonstrated below.

(1) However, knowledge of stone analysis in Malaysia would be extremely useful for epidemiologists… (H/A/003)

The example (1) above shows that the abstracted technical term knowledge of stone analysis appears to be the object which is modified by the adjective phrase extremely useful. The appearance of such abstract things instead of author presence as the subjects in this discipline implies that the knowledge is foregrounded over knowers (Maton, 2007). The example (1), apparently, has a writer’s voice in it. Yet, the writer’s voice is disguised to lessen the dominant role of the writer in the meaning construction and make an impression that the reality or knowledge speaks for itself. The less intrusive the writers are in the sentence, the more a sense of objectivity is portrayed (Hyland & Guinda, 2012). Such human source invisibility, then, has been the typical strategies in natural discipline, including the health discipline (Hood, 2012). There might be some occasional instances to find ‘participant domain’ as the subjects of sentences as this discipline’s scope might also cover human aspects. However, the possibility to find such instances might be rare enough.

In short, the Extremely +Adjective sequence comes as the only type of combination which involves the degree adverb extremely. The typical objects modified by the adjective phrases are the real-world domain referring to abstract things.

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4.1.1.2 Social Discipline

After examining the health discipline, the further investigation figures out that the frequency of pattern involving extremely in the social discipline is 9 occurrences. Further, there is also merely one type of pattern which is Extremely

+ Adjective.

As seen in the table 4.4, there are 9 adjectives which co-occur with the degree adverb extremely. However, there is a difference regarding the typical objects which are modified by the related adjective phrases. The difference is the presence of real-world domain referring to people or a person. An example is demonstrated below.

(2) …to counsel the extremely anxious Kate Cutrer Bolling in the novel…

(S/A/006)

The example (2) presents that the adjective phrase extremely anxious occurs to modify an object coming from real-world domain, particularly, a person who is involved in the topic of the writing. The emergence of such objects, even in a low frequency, is in line with the nature of social academic writing in which the discipline examines various aspects of human life.

Thus, the degree adverb in this discipline has the same tendency to occur in the Extremely + Adjective sequence as in the health discipline. The related adjective phrases, however, have the different preferences on the typical objects modified by them. Besides having the real-world domain referring to abstract things, the adjectives phrases also tend to have the real-world domain referring to people modified in the data.

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4.1.1.3 Physical Discipline

Same as the two disciplines explained before, the pattern with degree adverb extremely also exists in physical discipline, but with 6 occurrences. The degree adverb, then, collocates with 5 adjectives in the data.

Basically, there is no difference pertaining to how the degree adverb extremely collocates in health and physical discipline since both of them belong to natural science. Below is the example.

(3) …a region of very high relief and extremely rapid present-day exhumation… (P/A/006)

The example (3) clearly shows that the adjective phrase extremely rapid exists and modifies an abstract noun present-day exhumation.

From the result, it can be noticed that the typical objects which are modified by the adjective phrases in the health and physical discipline are same.

Such a finding shows that there are low references to real-world domain referring to people as the grammatical subjects or objects since the scopes of the discipline itself do not cover human aspects but non-living systems such as natural phenomena of earth or space.

4.1.2 Semantic Preference and Prosody

After discussing the type of pattern with the degree adverb extremely occurs in health, physical, and social discipline, the further investigation comes to how the degree adverb collocates in terms of semantic preference. As explained before, Begagic (2013) defines the notion of semantic preference as a phenomenon where a particular word or item collocates frequently with a series of items which belongs to a certain semantic set. The identification of the degree

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adverbs’ semantic preference; therefore, is accessed through the semantic meaning of the degree adverbs’ collocation. The adjective lists which have been presented in the table 4.4, then, can be classified into groups based on their semantic connection at some level of generality with same mental concepts. In other words, those adjective words will be the prototypical examples of particular semantic sets where they have been grouped into. There are quite various semantic sets which collocate with the degree adverb extremely in the health, physical, and social discipline. Among them, the semantic sets related to evaluation come as the most favored semantic sets. However, there are significant differences on the tendency whether the degree adverb collocations construe either favorable or unfavorable nuance in each discipline. It implies that the semantic prosody aspect of the degree adverb extremely is highly subject to specific discipline. In the health and physical discipline, the degree adverb collocations mostly exist in positive nuance. In the social discipline, by contrast, the degree adverb collocations frequently emerge in unfavorable nuance. The table 4.5 below demonstrates the semantic set distribution of extremely in the three disciplines.

Table 4.5 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Extremely Discipline Health Physical Social Measurement Measurement Measurement Importance/ Constraint Importance/ Significance Semantic Significance Judgement: Personality Preference Comparing Judgment (for substance) Complexity Pain

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As presented in the table 4.5 above, the degree adverb extremely typically co- occurs with different items that belong to a range of semantic set. Among those various semantic sets, interestingly, the degree adverb extremely in all disciplines shares the same tendency to frequently co-occur with adjectives words related to judgment or evaluation such as ‘measurement’ and ‘importance or significance’ semantic set. More specifically, the first dominant semantic set is ‘measurement’ with a high frequency. Besides, the second most dominant semantic set is

‘importance/significance’ which exists in the health and social discipline. The further explanation regarding those semantic sets and others is presented in the following sections.

4.1.2.1 Health Discipline

As can already be seen in table 4.5, the semantic sets collocated with the degree adverb extremely in health discipline are not varied with only three groups of semantic preference. Those three groups cover words which denote

‘measurement’, ‘importance/significance’, and ‘comparison’.

The first semantic set is ‘measurement’. This semantic set covers any words which denote size, dimension, or capacity of a person, thing, or object based on specific rules. In this discipline, the semantic set ‘measurement’ particularly covers ‘height’ and ‘frequency’ such as low and rare. The example

(4) below demonstrates one of the occurrences.

After having semantic set ‘measurement’, the next semantic sets which also exist in the health discipline are ‘importance or significance’ and

‘comparing’. The former one refers to words which denote the information

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whether something is meaningful and has any crucial value or not. The latter one

refers to any consideration of the similarities or differences between two people or

things. However, in this discipline, this semantic set merely covers words

evaluating something as ‘usual or unusual’. The examples of

‘importance/significance’ and ‘comparing’ semantic set are shown in the example

(1) and (5) respectively.

(4) …suggesting that this age group may still have some protection after being immunized in infancy, as supported by the extremely low disease incidence in this age group. (H/A/009) (5) Respiratory distress (3/1718 [<1%]) and cyanosis due to profound shock (10/1714 [<1%]) were extremely uncommon. (H/A/004)

Table 4.6 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Extremely Semantic Prosody Health Social Physical No. Freq. % No. Freq. % No. Freq. % Disc. Disc. Disc. Positive Negative Positive 1 7 78 1 8 89 1 5 83 (+) (-) (+) Negative Positive Negative 2 2 22 2 1 11 2 1 17 (-) (+) (-)

Total 9 100 Total 9 100 Total 6 100

Pertaining to the semantic prosody investigation, a further analysis is done

by both examining the positivity or negativity of the degree adverb collocations

and the wider context of the related sentences. As proposed by Hunston and

Francis (2000), a word is considered having particular semantic prosody if it co-

occurs typically with other words belonging to a particular semantic set. The

process of figuring out the semantic prosody is done by analyzing the general

nuance constraining the environments where the investigated degree adverbs

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exist. The result reveals that the degree adverb collocation appears largely in a positive environment or context with 7 occurrences. As examples, the word low and uncommon usually sounds bad or unfavored. However, by seeing the contexts in the example (4) and (5), the appearance of such words constructs favorable environments in which there were less respiratory distress and disease incidence.

The degree adverb extremely, therefore, tends to build up favorable nuance.

In sum, the types of the semantic sets which appear in this discipline are not varied. All of the sets generally belong to the sense of evaluation. Further, the degree adverb collocations mostly appear in positive environments.

4.1.2.2 Social Discipline

In contrast to the variation of semantic sets in both health and physical discipline, semantic sets in the social discipline is quite varied with six groups of semantic preference. Those six groups cover words denoting ‘measurement’,

‘importance or significance’, ‘judgement: personality’, ‘judgement for substance’,

‘easiness’, and ‘pain’.

From the result, the semantic set ‘measurement’ exists in all of the discipline including the social discipline. More specifically, the types of words covered by this semantic set in social discipline are similar with the ones in the health discipline namely ‘height’ and ‘frequency’. The example (6) demonstrates how the word low referring to height collocates with the degree adverb.

Next, the second semantic preference is the one which also occurs in health discipline namely ‘importance or significance’. The example (7) presents

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one of the occurrences. The example establishes how the adjective phrase extremely important describes the word instruments.

Contrast to the two previous disciplines, there is a semantic set denoting

‘judgement: personality’. The possibility on how this semantic set occurs in this discipline is indeed quite high as the nature of this discipline explores human life and the relationships among the people in a society. The example (10) shows how the word denoting a personality of ambivalent co-occurs with the degree adverb to describe a particular person.

Besides, there are also three semantic sets which merely exists in social discipline. They are groups of word denoting ‘judgment for substance’,

‘complexity’, and ‘pain’. The first one refers to types of typical words used to describe concrete things yet used to describe abstract things in the data. The second one is the semantic preference which covers words depicting whether a particular condition is considered as or not. Then, the last one refers to the group of words is related to distressing situation caused by intense stimuli. The examples of those three semantic groups are demonstrated in the example (9), (8), and (11) respectively.

(6) …which merchants have been forced to accept extremely low prices advertised by mistake… (S/A/001) (7) …these instruments have become extremely important in the regulation… (S/A/002) (8) This procedure is extremely rigid and complicated. (S/A/004) (9) I do not think the procedure is extremely flexible. (S/A/005) (10) …reconfigure another poet about whom he was extremely ambivalent. (S/A/008) (11) …be suspected of treason, of course, had extremely unpleasant consequences in these states. (S/A/009)

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As seen in the table 4.6 which explains the results of the semantic prosody analysis, different from the tendency in the health discipline, the degree adverb collocations have a higher tendency to occur in negative environment as in the example (8) and (11). The adjective complicated and unpleasant clearly build up unfavorable or negative conditions in the sentences.

Thus, the social discipline has a range of semantic sets compared to the other disciplines. Besides having semantic sets denoting evaluation, this discipline also has other variety of semantic groups. In addition, the occurrences are largely occurred in negative environments.

4.1.2.3 Physical Discipline

Same as the health discipline, the semantic sets collocated with the degree adverb extremely in physical discipline are also not varied with two groups of semantic sets merely. Those two sets include words denoting ‘measurement’ and

‘constraint’. Even though it is stated before that the ‘measurement’ semantic set occurs in all of the three disciplines, this semantic set covers different type of words compared to what it does in two other disciplines. In physical discipline particularly, the semantic set ‘measurement’ covers the groups of words focusing on ‘intensity’, ‘range’, and ‘speed’. One of the occurrences is presented in the example (13) which specifically involves an adjective rapid referring to ‘speed’.

After having ‘measurement’ semantic set, the next semantic set is

‘constraint’. This semantic group covers words which denote something related to limitations such as limited. One of the examples is shown in the example (12) below.

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(12) …wavelengths from the Earth’s surface are extremely limited by the large atmospheric opacity… (P/A/005) (13) …a region of very high relief and extremely rapid present-day exhumation… (P/A/006)

With respect to the semantic prosody, the analysis shows that the degree adverb collocation appears largely in positive environments or contexts as seen in the table 4.6. The examples of such occurrences can be seen in the example (13) and (14)

(14) This is clearly an extremely powerful tool… (P/A/002)

To conclude, similar to the situation in the health discipline, the types of the semantic sets which exist in the physical discipline are not varied. Moreover, all of the sets also generally have the sense of evaluation. The degree adverb collocations also have more occurrences in the positive environment.

After examining all discipline, it can be concluded that the type of pattern with the degree adverb extremely is not varied with only one type of combination:

Highly + Adjective. With regard to the typical objects which are modified by the related adjective phrases, the result shows that real-world domain referring to abstract things are highly preferred among the three disciplines. Further, in line with the nature of the discipline, the social discipline has another type of object which does not appear in other discipline. The type of object is real-world domain referring to people.

Regarding the analysis of the semantic preference, it might be concluded that the semantic sets pertaining to evaluation including ‘measurement’ and

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‘importance/significance’ have been quite favored among the disciplines.

Compared to other disciplines, the various semantic sets that the social discipline has might imply that this discipline is more flexible to collocate with more variety of semantic sets. There seems no strict constraint to limit what kind of semantic sets which can co-occur with the extremely degree adverb in this discipline.

Further, the health and physical discipline has more spaces for the degree adverb collocations to occur in positive environment whereas the social discipline tends to have the collocations to appear in negative environment.

4.2 Degree Adverb Strongly

Similar to the previous parts, this section will be devoted to a further discussion on the degree adverb strongly. There will be 2 subsections. The first one discusses the result and analysis of the degree adverb strongly in terms of the lexical pattern. The second subsection, then, will deal with the result and analysis of the degree adverb strongly in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.2.2 Collocation Patterns

In contrast to the variation of collocation patterns of the degree adverb extremely explained before, the collocation patterns of degree adverb strongly observed in the data are more varied. In total, there are 46 occurrences with four types of combinations. Compared to other disciplines, it is evident that the health discipline is not flexible enough to let the degree adverb strongly occur in various patterns or combinations. In terms of the subject and object references, the characteristics of each discipline seem influential to the preferences.

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Table 4.7 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Strongly Type of No. Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Subject Object Real-world Strongly + Verb domain 12 43 (passive) (Abstract, Concrete) Real-world domain Strongly + Verb 9 32 (Abstract) Physical 1 Real-world Strongly + domain 5 18 Adjective (Abstract, Concrete) Real-world domain Verb + Strongly 2 7 (Abstract) Real-world domain Strongly + Verb 5 45 (Abstract, People)

Strongly + Verb Real-world domain 4 36 (passive) (Abstract) Social 2 Real-world Strongly + 1 9 domain Adjective (Abstract) Real-world domain Verb + Strongly 1 9 (Abstract) Participant domain Strongly + Verb 5 71 (Interactive participant, Health Participant viewpoint) 3 Real-world Strongly + 2 29 domain Adjective (Abstract)

Among those varied types, there are two types of pattern which exist in all of the

three disciplines. Those two types of pattern include Strongly + Verb and Strongly

+ Adjective. Despite those similar types occurring in all disciplines, there are

some differences regarding the typical reference as the grammatical subjects or

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objects of the investigated sentences. Those differences are explained in the following sections.

4.2.2.1 Physical Discipline

The table 4.8 reveals that there is a considerable difference in the occurrence of the typical lexical categories the degree adverb strongly collocates with. The result shows that the degree adverb mostly co-occurs with verbs instead of adjectives in the physical discipline. The list of the collocated verbs can be observed in the table 4.9.

Table 4.8 Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Strongly Word Category Physical Social Health No. Freq. % No. Freq. % No. Freq. % Disc. Disc. Disc. 1 Verb 23 82 1 Verb 10 91 1 Verb 5 71 2 Adj. 5 18 2 Adj. 1 9 2 Adj. 2 29 Total 28 100 Total 11 100 Total 7 100

Table 4.9 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Physical Discipline No. Verb Collocation Freq. % No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % 1 Support 4 17 1 Deformed 2 40 2 Suggest 4 17 2 Asymmetric 2 40 3 Influenced 4 17 3 Saturated 1 20 4 Diffracted 1 4 Total 5 100 5 Noise limited 1 4 6 Preferred 1 4 7 Correlate 1 4 8 Diminished 1 4 9 Warped 1 4 10 Preserve 1 4

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11 Contested 1 4 12 Foliated 1 4 13 Affected 1 4 14 Controlled 1 4

Total 23 100

With regard to the types of pattern, the combinations which involve the degree adverb strongly are quite varied in this discipline. The result shows that there are four types of patterns including Strongly + Verb (passive), Strongly + Verb,

Strongly + Adjective, and Verb + Strongly with 12, 9, 5, and 2 occurrences respectively.

Among those types, the most frequent one is the first type which is

Strongly + Verb (passive). The further analysis on this type shows a result that the typical direct object of the passive verb is always abstract nouns referring to specialized technical terms of physical disciplines. One of the occurrences can be observed in the example (15). By presenting the sentences in the passive construction, it focuses on the readers’ attention on the important idea, observation, result, or conclusion being discussed over the agent. Therefore, the presentation of the ideas would be more neutral and objective by allowing the authors to lessen their visibility in the sentences (Baron, 1989). Such passive constructions are typically implemented in natural sciences as the authors are urged to let the facts of the nature speak for themselves without any human intervention

(15) …an atmosphere model that contains a temperature inversion is strongly preferred… (P/B/003)

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The second frequently used type of pattern is Strongly + Verb. Although this type also exists in the health discipline, this type of combination tends to place real-world domain referring to abstract nouns instead of both real-world or participant domain referring to people as the subjects of the sentences. It is a clear indication that the authors of such natural disciplines have a certain convention pertaining to how to represent themselves by limiting the employment of personal positions explicitly. As stated by Hyland (2011), the writing in the natural sciences typically disguise the authority of the texts and let the facts from the nature speak for themselves. By doing so, the authors will be able to create more impersonal and objective writings. Further, such a feature also suggests that the particular knowledge of natural science areas is often constructed and conveyed in succinct and precise writings (Hyland, 1999).

Next, the third type is Strongly + Adjective. Focusing on this type, it is necessary to examine the nouns which are modified by the related adjectives. The investigation finds out that the modified nouns are either abstract or concrete thing. Those abstract and concrete things surely refer to physical-related.

Then, the most rarely used type of combination is Verb + Strongly with two occurrences merely. Similar to the second type of combination which also has verbs, the subjects of the sentences are in the form of abstract nouns.

In conclusion, there are various types of combination which involve the degree adverb strongly in this discipline with the Strongly + Verb sequence as the prominent one. From those explanations, then, it seems justified to conclude that all of the constructions or patterns occurred in the physical discipline tend to have

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either abstract or concrete nouns as their subjects or objects. Those subjects and objects, then, always refer to any physical-related terms.

4.2.2.2 Social Discipline

Same as the physical discipline, the social discipline also has four types of sequence which involve the degree adverb strongly. Those patterns include

Strongly + Verb, Strongly + Verb (passive), Strongly + Adjective, and Verb +

Strongly. Existing in those combinations implies that the degree adverb strongly has the greater tendency to collocate with verbs. The tendency can be observed in the table 4.8. Those types of combination, further, vary with a different order of predominance compared to the physical discipline.

Table 4.10 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Social Discipline No. Verb Collocation Freq. % No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % 1 Suggest 3 30 1 Religious 1 100 2 Warn 1 10 Total 1 100 3 Corroborated 1 10 4 Contend 1 10 5 Emphasize 1 10 6 Want 1 10 7 Held 1 10 8 Incorporated 1 10 Total 10 100

Discussing about the first type of pattern, there is a difference with respect to the preferences of subjects executing the verbs in the type. Besides having abstract things as the subjects, there are also cases which involve real-world domain referring to people as the grammatical subjects of the related sentences.

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As explained before that any occasional involvement of such real-world domain possibly exists as human aspects might also take a role in the scopes of the discipline.

However, such a higher tendency to involve real world domain referring to people in sentences seems not to occur in other patterns. There is a higher occurrence for real-world domain referring to abstract things to be either subjects or objects in the data. This is evidently observed in the Strongly + Verb (passive),

Strongly + Adjective, and Verb + Strongly. Below are the examples of the types of pattern.

(16) …what is merely suggested here is more strongly corroborated by the poems that follow. (S/B/002) (17) …audience would not have missed their strongly religious language. (S/B/006) (18) …the correspondence between the two is sufficient to suggest strongly that both translations have the same source. (S/B/003) In sum, there are also various types of combinations which involve the degree adverb strongly in the social discipline. All of the combinations, then, prefer to have real-world domain referring to abstract things and people which is related to the nature of each discipline as the subjects or objects of the related sentences. Among those combinations, the Strongly + Verb sequence is also the most prominent one.

4.2.2.3 Health Discipline

If there are varied types of pattern which exist in the physical and social discipline, a different situation happens in the health discipline in which only two types of combinations occur in this discipline. They are Strongly + Verb and

Strongly + Adjective with five and two occurrences respectively.

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Table 4.11 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Strongly in Health Discipline No. Verb Collocation Freq. % No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % 1 Agree 2 40 1 Associated 2 100

2 Disagree 2 40 Total 2 100 3 Recommend 1 20

Total 5 100

Since the former type of collocation appears in all discipline with a quite high frequency, it implies that the degree adverb strongly has a big tendency to collocate with verbs as showed in the table 4.8. This result brings the researcher to put a further investigation on the subjects of those verbs since the projection of subject is one of the key features on how particular meaning is constructed and emphasized within sentences. Interestingly, the analysis figures out that the subjects of the verbs belong to participant domain referring to interactive participant which is respondents and participant viewpoint which is we. As the scope of health discipline also covers any aspects of human, it might allow the possibility of human involvement to emergence in the research. Hence, there are some sentences in the data which involve respondents as their grammatical subjects since they are needed to initiate the related research. Such cases typically occur in methodology or result section where there are more possibilities for the authors to take place on the subject position and elaborate the analytical method directly.

The example (19) shows that the subjects supposed to conduct the verb phrase strongly agree and strongly disagree are the respondents. Further, their

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involvement has a significant role to initiate and run the related research. Moving on to the appearance of reference we as a subject, the case can be seen in the example (20). The reference we in the example refers to the author of the research.

Further, the reference occupies a position as the subject of a performative verb recommend. Apparently, such a performative verb and author involvement do not typically exist in natural sciences since typical writings in the disciplines often prefer author invisibility and let the truth from the nature speak for themselves without any human intervention (Hyland & Guinda, 2012). However, the case which is demonstrated in the example (20) appears in the conclusion section of the writing. This result suggests that there are still possibilities in finding such a case, yet very limited. Moreover, if there is one, it might occur in conclusion or recommendation section where the author has more spaces to directly convey professional advice for any people who are interested in conducting research in the same areas.

Another type of pattern which exists in this discipline is Strongly +

Adjective. In the occurrences, the type of objects which are modified by the related adjective phrases belongs to real-world domain, particularly, abstract objects referring to specialized technical vocabularies of the discipline. One of the cases can be seen in the example (21) where the adjective phrase strongly associated modifies the abstract thing MDR Tuberculosis Preventive Therapy.

(19) Educational needs were rated using a three-point Likert scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Respondents could score between 39 (minimum) and 117 (maximum). (H/B/003) (20) …upper ureteric ≤2 cm in size and we strongly recommend ESWL as the first… (H/B/005)

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(21) …poor adherence to preventive therapy was strongly associated MDR Tuberculosis Preventive Therapy… (H/B/006)

Thus, the types of combination involving the degree adverb strongly are limited in the health discipline. Not to mention, there are possibilities to find human involvement as the objects or subjects of the sentences since human aspects might also be one of the areas in this discipline. Further, there are some occasional instances to find author presence as the subjects in particular sections.

4.2.3 Semantic Preference and Prosody

The investigation on how the degree adverb strongly collocates in terms of semantic preference figures out that all disciplines share several semantic sets.

The most exist ones are the semantic set ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’ by appearing in all investigated disciplines. Moreover, the distribution of the semantic sets is inseparably affected by the nature of each discipline. However, most of the occurrences in all disciplines employ positive prosody instead of the negative one. The table 4.23 below presents the semantic sets preferred by the degree adverb strongly in health, physical, and social discipline.

Table 4.12 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Strongly Discipline Health Physical Social Concord Concord Recommendation Recommendation Recommendation Be related Be related Be related Support Support Managing/ Directing Semantic Change Judgement: Personality Preference Constraint Caution Managing/ Giving opinion Directing Importance/ Comparing Significance

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The result shows that the degree adverb strongly co-occurs with verbs or adjectives that share common semantic features and can be grouped into several semantic sets such as ‘concord’, ‘recommendation’, ‘be related’, and other semantic sets. As shown in the table 4.23, the distribution of those semantic sets or groups among the three disciplines share some uniformity. It is proved by the emergence of some semantics in either two or all of the disciplines. Among the varied semantic preference, the most predominantly and typically used semantic sets are ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’. The more detailed explanation regarding the variation of semantic preference among the three disciplines will be presented below.

4.2.3.1 Physical Discipline

In this discipline, the degree adverb strongly in the physical discipline typically co-occurs with verbs and adjectives which belong to three semantic sets:

‘concord’, ‘recommendation’, and ‘be related’.

The semantic set ‘concord’ covers any words related to agreement, disagreement, or congruity. In this discipline, this semantic set is not realized in any performative verb but process experiential verb. The example (22) shows how the process experiential verb ‘diffracted’ collocates with the degree adverb strongly. To be more specific, the verb ‘diffracted’ refers to the physical process of breaking up light or sound waves. Thus, such a process entails to the notion of congruity or incongruity. In the execution of such an experiential verb, however, does not prefer to involve any personal intrusion as the subjects to describe the

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agent of certain physical processes. It can be observed in the example (21) that the focal plane which is an abstract noun comes as the active agent of the verb.

(22) In addition, since the light is strongly diffracted out- wards by the focal plane. (P/B/001)

Meanwhile, the second semantic set which is ‘recommendation’ mostly appears in the form of performative verbs. The example of such cases is demonstrated in the example (24). From the example, it can clearly be observed that the abstract word lines of evidence appear as the subject of the performative verb ‘suggest’. It is clear that the typical sentences which cover such a performative verb in the physical discipline will implement author omission. Yet, there is an occurrence in the data that this semantic set is also realized in non- performative verb as in the example (23). From the example, the omission of the agent is still favored in order to offer impression that the information is still objective.

(23) …an atmosphere model that contains a temperature inversion is strongly preferred… (P/B/003) (24) The lines of evidence given above strongly suggest that the Rosillos Laccolith… (P/B/028)

Another semantic set which typically appears in all disciplines is ‘be related’. In social discipline, there is a case which shows the appearance of this semantic set. In the example (25), the passive verb ‘incorporated’ belongs to the semantic set ‘be related’ as it depicts how ‘democratic-egalitarian ideals’ have a relation and been included as a part of ‘the immigrant…’.

(25) …framework as democratic-egalitarian ideals are strongly held and incorporated in the immigrant… (S/B/007)

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Besides those three semantic sets, it turns out that there are other kinds of semantic set which exist in the physical discipline. Those semantic sets include

‘support’, ‘change’, ‘constraint’, ‘managing or directing’, and ‘comparing’.

Despite the semantic set ‘support’ exists in the physical discipline, it apparently emerges in the form of mental verb instead of physical or material verb. The example (26) is one of the quite high instances with an abstract thing referring to a technical term of the discipline the 14C AMS ages from 20 to 40 ka as the subject.

(26) The 14C AMS ages from 20 to 40 ka strongly support the chronology detailed here… (P/B/005) (27) These rocks are strongly deformed and preserve structures… (P/B/016)

The next typical semantic set which appears in the physical discipline is

‘change’ semantic group. This semantic group covers any words which are associated with any processes of physical science such as deformed. One of the instances can be seen in the example (27). There might be lots of possibilities to find such a semantic set since the physical discipline studies no-living systems and the processes happen in them. The last three semantic sets which exist in the data include ‘constraint’, ‘managing or directing’, and ‘comparing’ semantic set. those three semantic sets, however, do not occur significantly in the data.

Table 4.13 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Strongly Semantic Prosody Health Social Health No Freq % No Freq % No Freq % Disc. Disc. Disc. Positive Positive Positive 1 19 68 1 12 100 1 5 71 (+) (+) (+) Negative Negative 2 9 32 Total 12 100 2 2 29 (-) (-)

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Total 28 100 Total 7 100

With regard to the notion of semantic prosody, the table 4.13 indicates that there is a significant difference on the occurrence of positive and negative prosodies built in the data. Therefore, it seems justified to conclude that the semantic sets exist in this discipline typically build up favorable enviroments instead of the negative ones. The examples can be observed in the example (26) and (23).

From the explanation above, it seems justified to conclude that the physical discipline has a quite various semantic set which collocate with the degree adverb strongly. Besides the high frequency to co-occur with performative verbs, the degree adverb strongly also often collocates with semantic sets which are related to experimental verbs, both active and passive ones. Moreover, those semantic sets appear largely in favorable environments. Being affected by the nature of the discipline, those experimental verbs typically do not involve personal intrusion as the subjects to describe the agent of certain physical processes.

4.2.3.2 Social Discipline

In account for the variation of semantic set which collocates with the degree adverb strongly, the social discipline has a more varied semantic. Among those semantic sets, there are two semantic sets which also exist in the health and physical discipline including ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’. In addition, there is a semantic set which also appears in the physical discipline namely ‘support’.

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The case is demonstrated in the example (16). This semantic group realized through a passive mental verb corroborated.

Discussing about the notion of semantic prosody, there is a clear evident from the table 4.13 that all of the semantic sets in the social discipline typically appear in favorable environments. The instances are demonstrated in the example

(16) and (17).

Among the various semantic sets elaborated above, what can be emphasized is that the degree adverb strongly typically collocates with semantic sets which are associated with more performative verbs and also personality.

Besides the ‘recommendation’ semantic set, the semantic sets which are related to performative verbs cover ‘caution’ and ‘giving opinion’. With regard to the basic nature of this discipline, there are also possibilities to find ‘judgment: personality’ semantic set to perpetuate any typical human aspects. All of the semantic sets, further, exist in favorable environments. Besides having possibilities to find abstract things as the subjects, there are lots of chances to find real-world domain referring to people since this nature’s context is inseparable from any human intervention.

4.2.3.3 Health Discipline

Similar to the physical discipline, the degree adverb strongly in the health discipline co-occurs typically with three semantic sets: ‘concord’,

‘recommendation’, and ‘be related’. The semantic set ‘concord’ covers any words denoting agreement, disagreement, or congruity. Different from the cases of

‘concord’ semantic set in the physical discipline, this kind of semantic set is often

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realized in the form of performative verbs such as agree and disagree. Actually, the emergence of any performative verbs is rather not suitable in natural sciences since the typical writing in the disciplines prefers author invisibility. By this means, the authors of natural disciplines tend to let the truth from the nature report itself without any human intervention. However, there are some cases which involve the performative verb existence in the health discipline as shown in the example (19). Most of the cases appear in the result section and involve respondents as the active subjects. The involvement of respondents as the interactive participants needed to initiate the research by questionnaires signifies the need of human involvement as the data resources.

After having the semantic set ‘concord’, the next semantic set is

‘recommendation’ which refers to words pertaining to any suggestion whether something is suitable or good for a particular purpose. Similar with the previous semantic set, ‘recommendation’ semantic group is often realized in performative verbs such as recommend and suggest. In the health discipline, particularly, the emergence of such a semantic set happens in the conclusion section as shown in the example (20). From the example, the word ‘we’ refers to a participant domain referring to the author particularly. Basically, the existence of such a proposition involving the author and a performative verb is very limited or rare in the health discipline. Not to mention, the author intrusion associated with a performative verb shows that the author’s decision to emphasize the issues which he or she sees as necessary or interesting and also to take a personal stand over the object studied. If there is such a case, then it might have a high probability to be found in

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conclusion or recommendation section which open more possibilities for the authors to directly deliver professional advices.

The third semantic set which is ‘be related’ refers to a group of words which denotes any relationship or connection between particular things. The example of the words that belong to the group includes correlate, incorporated, and associated. The example (21) shows how such a semantic set collocates with the degree adverb strongly.

Next, drawing attention to the notion of semantic prosody, the table 4.13 might lead to the conclusion that the semantic sets have more preferences to appear in favorable environments such as in the example (20) and (21).

From the elaboration above, it could be concluded that the health discipline does not have various semantic sets as the other two disciplines.

However, there is a same preference to have the semantic sets to mostly appear in favorable situations.

To conclude, there are four type of pattern exist among the disciplines.

Nevertheless, every discipline tends to have its own preferences with respect to the objects and subjects needed in the sentences. From all of the analysis, it seems evident that the health discipline has less varied types of pattern compared to other disciplines. Further, social discipline has four identical types of pattern as the physical discipline. Yet, both of the disciplines have their own order of predominance. Moreover, the social discipline has a higher tendency in having

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real-world domain referring to person as the subjects compared to the other disciplines.

Moving on to the next topics, the investigation figures out verbs or adjectives which share semantic features ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’ exist in all disciplines. It comes with more variety of semantic preferences in the social discipline. The analysis reveals that the semantic sets in each discipline are tied to the nature of the discipline. In the physical discipline, there are more semantic sets which are associated to experimental verbs such as ‘change’ and

‘managing/directing’. Those kinds of semantic sets are used to describe any process which is related to physics. Meanwhile, there are more semantic sets which are associated to performative verbs such as ‘caution’ and ‘giving opinion’ in the social discipline. This tendency is due to the language use of the social discipline which is more opiniated. In addition, there is also a typical semanatic set which typically appears in the social discipline which is ‘personality’. Further, the preferences of more words which are associated with experimental verbs in the physical discipline and more words which are associated with performative verbs and personality in the social discipline signify that some semantic sets are inseparably tied to the nature of each discipline. Regarding the notion of semantic prosody in all disciplines, it can be said that the degree adverb has the higher tendency to co-occur in positive environments.

4.3 Degree Adverb Highly

After discussing the degree adverb extremely and strongly, this part will move the attention to the discussion on the degree adverb highly. Similar to the

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previous sections, there will be two subsections in this part. The first one deals

with the result and analysis of the degree adverb highly in terms of the lexical

pattern. The second subsection, then, discusses the result and analysis of the

degree adverb highly in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.3.2 Collocation Patterns

In all disciplines, the degree adverb highly shows a very significant

tendency to collocate with adjectives rather than other word categories. There are

frequent references to real-world domain, especially abstract things, as the

grammatical subjects or objects of the related sentences.

As can be noticed from the table 4.30, there are three types of patterns

containing degree adverb highly.

Table 4.14 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Highly Type of No. Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Subject Real-world domain Highly + (abstract, concrete, people), 25 89 Adjective Participant domain Health 1 (interactive participant)

Highly + Real-world domain Verb 3 11 (abstract) (passive) Highly + Real-world domain 21 81 Adjective (abstract, concrete) Highly + Real-world domain Physical Verb 3 12 2 (abstract) (passive) Real-world Verb + 2 8 domain Highly (abstract) Social Highly + (Real-world domain) 3 12 100 Adjective Abstract

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Those types are Highly + Adjective, Highly + Verb (passive), and Verb + Highly.

Among those three patterns, the first one is the most frequently used combination in all disciplines.

4.3.2.1 Health Discipline

In health discipline, there are two types of patterns which contain the degree adverb highly. Those patterns are Highly + Adjective and Highly + Verb

(passive) with 25 and 3 occurrences respectively. It means that there are more occurrences for the degree adverb extremely to collocate with adjectives than verbs.

Table 4.15 Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Highly Word Category Health Physical Social No. Freq. % No. Freq. % No. Freq. % Disc. Disc. Disc. 1 Adj. 25 89 1 Adj. 21 81 1 Adj. 12 100

2 Verb 3 11 2 Verb 5 19 Total 12 100 Total 28 100 Total 26 100

Table 4.16 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Highly in Health Discipline No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % No. Verb Collocation Freq. % 1 Competent 8 32 1 Affected 1 33 2 Significant 5 20 2 Recommended 1 33 3 Stressful 2 8 3 Sought 1 33 4 Variable 2 8 Total 3 100 5 Desirable 1 4 6 Prevalent 1 4 7 Compliant 1 4 8 Experienced 1 4 9 Virulent 1 4

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10 Sensitive 1 4 11 Specific 1 4 12 Effective 1 4 Total 25 100

As seen in the table 4.16, there are 25 adjectives and 3 verbs which co-occur with the degree adverb highly in the data.

As previously mentioned, it is clear that Highly + Adjective sequence is the one which is mainly used in the data. With respect to the typical objects modified by the adjectives, real-world domain referring to abstract things is highly preferred to occupy the object position. In addition, participant domain referring to interactive participant and real-world domain referring to concrete entities and people also exist as the objects although with very low frequencies. In these cases, the nouns which are in the form of abstract things refer to abstracted technical terms of health-related discipline such as disease, fever, and others. The example

(28) shows that the phrasal noun kidney stones disease belongs to an abstracted technical term of health-related discipline and exists as the object which is described by the adjective phrase highly prevalent.

Next, there are some occurrences in which interactive participants become the objects modified by the adjective phrases. The example (29) shows a case where the object refers directly to the people that initiated the investigation of the related research.

Further, real-world domain referring to concrete entities and people also exist in the data with low frequencies. The example (30) shows that the technical

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term the Hib conjugate vaccine belongs to a concrete entity modified by the adjective phrase highly effective. Further, the example (30) proves that there is a case where the real-world domain referring to people can also appear and become the object which is modified by the adjective phrase highly effective. Then, focusing on the example (30), that is the only case where a noun referring to people which is population becomes an object modified by the adjective phrase highly educated and compliant. Basically, the health discipline is a field of study which generally focuses on all aspects of health and healthcare. Needless to say, the scopes of this discipline are somehow related to people. However, the extremely low occurrence of the case where the real-world domain referring to people becomes the object of the related adjective phrase might imply that this particular domain is not really preferred and very limited in this discipline. The examples are demonstrated below.

(28) Kidney stones disease was relatively not highly prevalent among patients in HUSM with a prevalence of 1.8% in the period of 2012–2016. (H/B/013) (29) The majority of respondents (67%, n = 85) perceived themselves as highly competent in basic skills… (H/B/003) (30) Overall, the Hib conjugate vaccine remains highly effective in preventing invasive disease… (H/B/028) (31) Since our hospital is located in the urban area draining population who is highly educated and compliant,… (H/B/019) In contrast to the first type which occurs with a very high frequency, the

Highly + Verb (passive) sequence exists with a very low frequency which is three occurrences. Regarding the kinds of object of the sentences, real-world domain referring to abstract things particularly is occurred and becomes the objects of passive verbs in the sentences. More specifically, all of the occurrences show that

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the abstract things refer to technical terms of health-related discipline: resuscitation unit, surgery, PPV (Positive Predictive Values) and NVP (Negative

Predictive Values). An example is presented below.

(32) PPV (Positive Predictive Values) and NPV (Negative Predictive Values) of any test are highly affected by disease prevalence. (H/B/021)

The example (32) above demonstrates how abstract things PPV and NPV become the objects of the action verb affect.

In conclusion, there are only two types of pattern which occur in this discipline. With respect to the frequency of occurrence, both types have a very contrast frequency where the Highly + Adjective sequence is more favored than the Highly + Verb (passive) sequence in the data. Further, abstract things are predominantly used to be the modified objects in the former sequence and the objects of passive verbs in the latter sequence. Furthermore, the result shows that real-world domain referring to concrete entities and people are merely used in several cases with a very low frequency.

4.3.2.2 Physical Discipline

Compared to other disciplines, the physical discipline has a wide range of types of combination. Those varied combinations include Highly + Adjective,

Highly + Verb (passive), and Verb + Highly with the frequency of 21, 3, and 2 respectively.

Table 4.17 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Highly in Physical Discipline No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % No. Verb Collocation Freq. % 1 Sensitive 4 19 1 Optimized 1 20 2 Correlated 3 14 2 Concentrated 1 20

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3 Variable 2 10 3 Constrained 1 20 4 Specific 2 10 4 Contrast 1 20 5 Fractured 2 10 5 Correlate 1 20 6 Dependent 1 5 Total 5 100 7 Undesirable 1 5 8 Stable 1 5 9 Inflated 1 5 10 Heterogenous 1 5 11 Asymmetric 1 5 12 Nonunique 1 5 13 Ionized 1 5

Total 21 100

As noticed in the table 4.17, the degree adverb highly has a higher tendency to collocate with adjectives more than verbs.

Similar to what happens in the health discipline, Highly + Adjective sequence predominantly occurs in the data. However, the types of object modified by the adjective phrase are more varied in this discipline including real-world domain referring to abstract and concrete entities. To be more specific, the abstract objects predominantly appear in the data and tend to refer to technical terms of physical-related discipline such as radii, fractal dimension, Precambrian basement, and others. Similarly, the concrete entities also refer to similar technical terms such as Lacollith and Eastern Chalk Draw Fault but appear in a low frequency. Some examples on those types of object are presented in the example

(33) and (34) below. The example (33) demonstrates how the abstract thing radii occupies the object position and gets modified by the adjective phrase highly

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inflated. Meanwhile, the example (34) shows how the concrete entity laccolith becomes the object and gets modified by the abstract phrase highly fractured.

The second most frequently used combination is Highly + Verb (passive) with the preference to have real-world domain referring to abstract objects. Those abstract objects, specifically, refer to specialized terms of the physical-related discipline such as FFT Algorithm, condition of coefficient, PBHs, and others. An example of this type can be seen in the example (35). From the example, it is clearly seen that the physical-related abstract term PBHs becomes the object of the passive verb concentrate.

(33) …with a radius of 1:69 0:03 RJup and a mass of 0:43 0:04 MJup, belongs to the group of planets with highly inflated radii… (P/B/009) (34) …stress at the fault tip within the highly fractured laccolith… (P/B/023) (35) … PBHs can be highly concentrated in galaxies… (P/B/005)

Another pattern which is used in the physical discipline is Verb + Highly with a very low frequency. With regard to the type of subject in the sentence, the two occurrences show a big tendency to use real-world domain referring to abstract subjects. Here is the example.

(36) …G-WA and EG values should correlate highly… (P/B/020)

The example (36) shows evidently how the abstract things G-WA and EG values become the subject of the verb phrase correlate highly and give the impression of information objectivity.

To sum up, the physical discipline has more varied types of combinations compared to other disciplines. However, the Highly + Adjective sequence keeps being the most frequently used pattern among any other patterns. Regarding the

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preference of subjects and objects in the sentences, real-world domain referring to abstract and concrete entities is favored in this discipline.

4.3.2.3 Social Discipline

Every discipline must have its own technical terminologies that might be inaccessible to people outside of the related interest. Being compared to natural sciences which often deliver meanings in highly compressed codes to share common goals of the disciplines, it might be assumed that social discipline has the higher tendency to be exposed to everyday terms and sentence patterns besides the social-related terminology (Hyland, 2011). This assumption is based on the fact that the major object of social discipline is human life. Therefore, it seems justified to assume that this discipline tends to have more varied types of combination compared to the exact disciplines. Nevertheless, this assumption does not happen in the result as there is only one type of pattern containing the degree adverb highly in the discipline.

Similar with the two disciplines explained before, the Highly + Adjective sequence occurs with a high frequency which is 12 times. The list of the adjective collocated with the degree adverb highly can be observed in the table 4.18.

Table 4.18 Adjective Collocation of the Degree Adverb Highly in Social Discipline No. Adjective List Frequency % 1 Abstract 1 8 2 Apparent 1 8 3 Distinctive 1 8 4 Figurative 1 8 5 Limited 1 8 6 Positive 1 8

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7 Prescribed 1 8 8 Probable 1 8 9 Regulated 1 8 10 Theoretical 1 8 11 Unified 1 8 12 Unlikely 1 8

Total 12 100

Pertaining to the typical objects which are modified by the adjective phrase, real- world domain referring to abstract things is favored in this discipline. As explained before, those abstract things refer to either social-related terminologies such as decorum or more common words such as introduction and ways. This result is in line with proposition from Bazerman and Becher (Hyland & Guinda,

2012) which declares that natural discipline often conveys meanings in a very compressed code which might be incomprehensible for uninitiated. Meanwhile, besides having its own specialized technical terms, social discipline also often employs more common words. This is principally affected by the aims of each discipline. The knowledge of natural discipline tends to be constructed in an established context and steady cumulative growth. In contrast, rather than focusing on the cognitive progression, the social discipline tends to be served in interpretative discourses which promote the readers’ sympathetic understanding and tolerance (Dillon, 1991). The example is demonstrated below.

(37) …when faced with a highly abstract introduction… (S/C/011)

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In sum, there is only one type of pattern occurring in this discipline:

Highly + Adjective. With a quite high frequency, this combination tends to take abstract nouns as its objects.

4.3.2 Semantic Preference and Prosody

Moving on the discussion of the semantic preference and prosody, the degree adverb highly is considered flexible enough to collocate with various words coming from a range of semantic sets. However, each discipline tends to have its own preferences in terms of the typical semantic sets collocated by the degree adverb. Those preferences, apparently, can be significantly noticed from the semantic prosody preferred by each discipline since the prosodic aspect of the degree adverb highly is greatly subject to specific discipline. The health and social discipline mostly deploy positive semantic prosody, whereas the physical discipline tends to deploy negative semantic prosody.

As can be seen in the table 4.19, the verb and adjective collocated with the degree adverb highly can be grouped into several semantic categories. The semantic categories include ‘ability or intelligence’, ‘affect or change’,

‘suitability’ ‘utility’ and other semantic sets.

Table 4.19 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Highly Discipline Health Physical Social Ability/ Affect/ Comparing Intelligence Change Importance/Signific Wanting/Planning ance Favorable /Choosing Practicability Semantic Importance/ Evaluation Preference Significance Measurement Comparing Suitability Utility Unfavorable Evaluation Judgment Chance/ Luck

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Semantic Disease Comparing Consent Preference Judgment Concord Wanting/ Evaluation Planning/ Choosing Correlation Constraint Concord

Among those various semantic groups, most of them are related to evaluation or judgment that might result into some degree of analysis. Interestingly, it can be noticed that those various semantic sets appear largely in a particular environment depending on the discipline. The more specific elaboration pertaining to the preferred environment in each discipline will be presented below.

4.3.3.1 Health Discipline

The result of analysis shows there are considerable variations of the words collocating with the degree adverb highly. However, an analysis focusing on the semantic prosody is useful to find a particular pattern of the semantic sets.

Table 4.20 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Highly Semantic Prosody Health Physical Social No Freq % No Freq % No Freq % Disc. Disc. Disc. Positive Negative Positive 1 22 79 1 18 69 1 7 58 (+) (-) (+) Negative Positive Negative 2 6 21 2 8 31 2 5 42 (-) (+) (-) Total 28 100 Total 26 100 Total 12 100

As seen in the table 4.20, there is clear evidence that the degree adverb highly occurs largely in semantic sets which indicate favorable environment. In other

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words, the degree adverb collocates with words which denote positive, promising, or preferable things or condition.

The table 4.19 shows that there are six semantic sets which occur in the favorable environment, including ‘ability or intelligence’, ‘wanting, planning, choosing’, ‘importance or significance’, ‘comparing’, ‘suitability’, and ‘utility’.

The degree adverb highly co-occurs with the words belong to those semantic sets with a high frequency which is 22 occurrences in total. Among those varied semantic sets, the ‘ability or intelligence’, ‘importance or significance’, and

‘wanting, planning, choosing’ semantic sets are highly preferred with the frequency of 10, 5, and 3 respectively. The cases of the semantic set ‘ability or intelligence’ are demonstrated in the example (29) and (31). Further, the cases of the semantic set ‘importance or significance’ and ‘wanting, planning, choosing’ are shown in the example (39) and (38) respectively.

(38) ACLS certification is a highly desirable qualification for emergency nurses… (H/B/011) (39) …there was a highly significant difference in… (H/B/015)

Despite those various favorable semantic sets, it does not mean that there is no preference towards unfavorable semantic sets. There are some occurrences where the degree adverb highly collocates with less favorable semantic sets even though in a very low frequency. Those unfavorable or less favorable semantic sets include ‘evaluation’, ‘disease’, and ‘judgment’ with the frequency of 2, 1, and 1 occurrence respectively. Some examples of those unfavorable semantic sets are demonstrated below in the example (40) and (41).

(40) …highly virulent strains circulate… (H/C/025)

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(41) Working in emergency care is commonly regarded as highly stressful. (H/C/001)

To conclude, there is a range of semantic category which co-occurs with the degree adverb highly. Among those various semantic categories, the ‘ability or intelligence’, ‘importance or significance’, and ‘wanting, planning, choosing’ semantic sets are more preferred than others. Further, most of the occurrences in the data tend to denote favorable situations.

4.3.3.2 Physical Discipline

Contrary to the result found in the health discipline, the investigation in the physical discipline figures out that there are various semantic sets collocated with the degree adverb highly but most of them are in an unfavorable environment. Those unfavorable semantic sets include ‘judgment’, ‘comparing’,

‘wanting, planning, choosing’, ‘correlation’, ‘constraint’, and ‘concord’ with the frequency of 16 occurrences in total. Among those semantic sets, the ‘judgment’ and ‘comparing’ semantic sets are the most preferred ones with 4 and 3 occurrences respectively. Some of the cases are presented in the example (42) and

(44).

Besides those unfavorable semantic sets, the degree adverb highly also tends to employ positive semantic prosody by collocating with a favorable semantic set

‘affect or change’ even though in a very limited frequency which is only 2 occurrences. One of the occurrences is shown in the example (42).

(42) …performance was highly sensitive to changing additive noise… (P/C/007) (43) ...measurements without requiring highly stable long exposures… (P/C/008)

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(44) …grain size trends and architectures are therefore highly nonunique in terms of… (P/C/026) Thus, it might be concluded that this discipline also has various semantic sets as the health discipline. However, most of them have more tendencies to exist in unfavorable situations. Regarding the most favored semantic sets, the

‘judgment’ and ‘comparing’ semantic set appear as the most frequently occurred ones.

4.3.3.3 Social Discipline

If the degree adverb highly in the two previous disciplines shows a particular tendency to mostly collocate with either favorable or unfavorable semantic sets, a quite different situation happens in the social discipline. In this discipline, the degree adverb highly demonstrates a rather equal tendency to collocate with both favorable and unfavorable semantic sets.

More specifically, there are five favorable semantic sets which collocate with the degree adverb highly. Those favorable semantic sets include ‘comparing’,

‘importance or significance’, ‘practicability’, ‘evaluation’, and ‘measurement’. In total, there are five occurrences when the degree adverb highly collocates with words belonging to those semantic sets. Besides, there are four semantic sets denoting unfavorable environments. The semantic sets are ‘chance or luck’,

‘consent’, ‘concord’, and ‘evaluation’. In total, there are 7 occurrences when the degree adverb co-occurs with words denoting those unfavorable semantic sets.

Some examples of those semantic sets are demonstrated below.

(45) …it enters the complicated and highly regulated field of the financial world. (S/C/003) (46) …architecture of the Republic makes this scenario highly unlikely. (S/C/006)

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(47) The present is the mode of access to the past and the future, though only in highly limited ways. (S/C/012)

The example (45) demonstrates how the degree adverb highly collocates with positive word and build up a favorable situation of the context. Meanwhile, the example (46) and (47) shows the contrast.

In short, the degree adverb highly is flexible enough to occur in a range of semantic sets. Those semantic sets, further, might be construed in both favorable or unfavorable situations.

After the explanation of all disciplines above, it seems justified to conclude that the most typically and predominantly used combination among all disciplines is Highly + Adjective. Further, real-world domain referring to abstract things is mostly used to be the subjects or objects of the sentences. Not to mention, those abstract things are tied to specialized or technical terminologies of each discipline.

Then, the results from all disciplines advice that each discipline tends to have its own preference with regard to the semantic sets collocated with the degree adverb highly. There is a range of semantic sets which exists in each discipline. Those semantic sets, however, can be further categorized based on the favorable or unfavorable situations they occurred in. To be more specific, the degree adverb highly has a higher tendency to collocate with favorable semantic sets in the health discipline. By contrast, the same degree adverb has a higher tendency to co-occur with unfavorable semantic sets in the physical discipline.

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Meanwhile, the degree adverb demonstrates an equal tendency to collocate with both favorable and unfavorable semantic sets in the social discipline.

4.4 Degree Adverb Fully

Moving on the next degree adverb, this section contains two parts which to have the further discussion on the degree adverb fully. The first part deals with the result and analysis of the degree adverb fully in terms of the lexical pattern. The second part, then, is devoted to discuss the result and analysis of the degree adverb fully in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.4.3 Collocation Patterns

Same as the previous degree adverb discussed before, in all disciplines, the degree adverb fully has a strong tendency to co-occur with adjectives rather than other word categories. The preferences of grammatical subjects and objects in the related sentences, however, are highly affected by the characteristics of each discipline.

The table 4.21 below shows that there are three kinds of combination which contain the degree adverb fully. Those types are Fully + Adjective, Fully +

Verb (passive), Fully + Verb, and Verb + Fully.

Table 4.21 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Fully Type of No. Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Subject Real-world domain Fully + Verb 9 45 (Abstract, People, Social 1 Concrete)

Fully + Verb Real-world 5 25 (passive) domain (Abstract) Fully + 3 15 Real-world

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Adjective domain (Abstract, People) Real-world domain Verb + Fully 3 15 (Concrete, People) Fully + Real-world 8 67 Adjective domain (Abstract) Fully + Verb Real-world Physical 3 25 2 (passive) domain (Concrete) Real-world Fully + Verb 1 8 domain (Concrete) Fully + Real-world 3 Health 1 100 Adjective domain (Abstract)

Those four types have different distribution and frequency in each discipline.

However, there first type which is Fully + Adjective appears in all disciplines.

The more detailed explanation will be elaborated below.

4.4.3.1 Social Physical

The table 4.22 indicates that the degree adverb fully tends to collocate more with verbs than adjectives in the social discipline. In total, there are 17 verbs which co-occur with the degree adverb fully.

Table 4.22 Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Fully Word Category Social Physical Health No Freq % No Freq. % No Freq % Disc Disc. Disc 1 Verb 17 85 1 Adj. 8 67 1 Adj. 1 100 2 Adj. 3 15 2 Verb 4 33 Total 1 100 Total 20 100 Total 12 100

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Table 4.23 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fully in Social Discipline No. Verb Collocation Freq. % No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % 1 Internalize 3 18 1 Aware 1 33 2 Resonate 1 6 2 Accountable 1 33 3 Belong 1 6 3 Divine 1 33

4 Adopt 1 6 Total 3 100 5 Defined 1 6 6 Know 1 6 7 Realize 1 6 8 Reassembled 1 6 9 Enjoy 1 6 10 Practice 1 6 11 Shaped 1 6 12 Implemented 1 6 13 Confronted 1 6 14 Account 1 6 15 Leverage 1 6

Total 17 100 Drawing attention to the types of combinations, the social discipline has various types of pattern. In total, there are four kinds of pattern including Fully + Verb,

Fully + Verb (passive), Fully + Adjective, and Verb + Fully with 9, 5, 3, and 3 occurrences respectively.

Among those types, Fully + Verb sequence is the one which predominantly appears in this discipline. Discussing about this pattern, it is necessary to examine what kind of subjects which conduct the verbs. The result shows that there are two kinds of subject which typically exist in the data. They are real-world domain referring to abstract things and people. The former one

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refers to any words which refer to technical terminologies of social discipline such as liberty in the example (48). Meanwhile, the latter one refers to real-world domain referring to people such as citizens in the example (49). Such instances have a high probability to exist in the social discipline as it covers human life as the study scope.

(48) …the liberty which fully belongs to the woman both in view… (S/D/003) (49) …make the citizens who fully enjoy and practice their social… (S/D/010) (50) Since Jesus did not know fully about the twelve sparrows he sent reeling… (S/D/007) (51) …the regime was fully confronted… (S/D/014) (52) Is Pinsky’s Jesus fully divine, then? (S/D/006) (53) ‘‘Teresian Bard’’ whose lyre resonate fully to Teresa’s own song… (S/D/002)

The second type of pattern is Fully + Verb (passive). Focusing on the type of objects, the analysis shows that abstract nouns referring to technical terms of social science are preferred in this discipline as in the example (51).

The next one is the type of pattern, Fully + Adjective, which also appears in the two disciplines before. Yet, it is necessary to underline that the preference on typical objects modified by the adjectives is quite different from the two disciplines before. Besides abstract nouns, the Fully + Adjective sequence also tends to have real-world domain referring to people as the objects being modified by the adjectives. The case can be noticed in the example (52) where Pinky’s

Jesus occupies the noun which is modified by the adjective phrase fully divine.

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This is in line with the nature of social discipline to have more opportunities of people existence as the objects of study than other disciplines.

Another type of combination is Verb + Fully and it only exists in this discipline. For this pattern, the typical subjects of the verbs are real-world domain referring to people as in the example (50). Further, there is also a weak tendency to have concrete nouns as the subject as in the example (53). The example (53) shows that the concrete thing lyre is the subject of the verb phrase resonate fully.

Thus, it can be said that there is a weak tendency for the social discipline to have concrete noun appearance.

In short, the degree adverb fully has a much greater tendency to collocate with verbs than adjectives in the social discipline. Further, it also quite flexible to occur in various types of patterns which is four combinations in total. Not to mention, there are high occurrences of the real-world domain referring to people besides the abstract and inanimate things.

4.4.3.2 Physical Discipline

If the degree adverb fully has a greater tendency to co-occur with verbs in the social discipline, a different situation happens in the physical discipline. In this discipline, the degree adverb mostly collocates with adjectives.

Table 4.24 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fully in Physical Discipline No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % No. Verb Collocation Freq. % 1 Achromatic 1 13 1 Crystallized 2 50 2 Characterized 1 13 2 Illuminate 1 25 3 Constructive 1 13 3 Specified 1 25 4 Destructive 1 13 Total 4 100 5 Efficient 1 13

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6 Marine 1 13 7 Physical 1 13 8 Transmissive 1 13 Total 8 100

Further, the types of combination which exist in this discipline is not as various as the the ones in the social discipline. In total, there are 3 combinations including

Fully + Adjective, Fully + Verb (passive), and Fully + Verb with the frequency of

8, 3, and 1 occurrence respectively.

The first type is the one which is mostly occurred in this discipline. the result of analysis shows that the adjectives of this combination tend to modify abstract nouns which refer to specialized terms of the physical discipline such as interference and science image. The instance of this type can be seen in the example (54).

(54) …traditional FTS at ZPD, one output has fully constructive interference while the other… (P/D/005) (55) The diorite was fully crystallized, and the second intrusion… (P/D/011) (56) The incandescent lamp can be used with the diffuser slide to fully illuminate the CCD… (P/D/007) The second type of pattern is Fully + Verb (passive). The deeper investigation finds out that this combination tends have concrete objects associated with physical-related terms such as diorite in the example (55).

Another type of pattern which appears in this discipline is Fully + Verb with only 1 occurrence. This type of pattern has a concrete thing as the subject which does the action verb as seen in the example (56). However, it is admitted

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that such a weak tendency is not enough to make any reliable conclusion of the typical subject. However, the preference to have concrete thing as the subject of the sentence proves the theory of author invisibility in the physical discipline.

Thus, it can be concluded that the types of pattern in the physical discipline is varied enough with the more tendencies for the degree adverb to collocate with adjectives. Furthermore, abstract and concrete things are highly preferred to appear as the subjects and objects in the sentences.

4.4.3.3 Health Discipline

Being contrast to the social and physical discipline, the health discipline only has one type of combination which is Fully + Adjective. It has to be admitted that the combination which contains the degree adverb fully appears with an extremely low frequency which is only once. The word category collocation of the degree adverb fully is adjective which is resistant.

Pertaining to the type of object being modified by the adjective, abstract noun referring to any health-related terminologies is used in the data. Below is the instance.

(57) All emm 11.0 isolates were tetracycline resistant and fully or intermediately erythromycin resistant… (H/D/001)

The result, then, leads to the conclusion that the tendency to use the degree adverb fully in the health discipline is not favored with a very low frequency.

Further, the very limited occurrence shows the tendency of the degree adverb to collocate with an adjective which modifies an abstract noun.

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In sum, it seems justified to conclude that each discipline has its own typical degree adverb combinations. More specifically, it has to be admitted that the pattern containing the degree adverb fully appears with an extremely low frequency in the health discipline. By contrast, such pattern exists with a quite high frequency and variation in the social discipline. This result suggests that the degree adverb fully seems a little bit colloquial and not preferred to be used in the natural disciplines. Moreover, a brief investigation on Corpus of Contemporary

American English (COCA, 2019) supports the proposition by revealing that the degree adverb fully tends to have less occurrences in formal genres than the degree adverb extremely, strongly, and highly.

4.4.4 Semantic Preference and Prosody

Similar to the aspect of the subject and object references, the notion of semantic preference of this degree adverb is highly tied to the characteristics or nature of each discipline. Different discipline might have different typical semantic sets which occur in it. Within those disciplines, however, construing sentence contexts in positive semantic prosody is significantly preferred.

As seen in the table 4.25, the degree adverb fully shows a clear tendency to co-occur differently with semantic sets which are highly tied to the nature of each discipline.

Table 4.25 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Fully Discipline Health Physical Social Health- Physical-related term Common words related Semantic term - Movement - Establishment preference - Physical - Making - Affect/ Change

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Utility Judgement: Personality Making Incoming oriented Particular/ General - Be related Establishment - Implementation Knowledge Affect/ Change Concord

It implies that each discipline has its own characteristic affecting what kind of semantic sets which can collocate with the degree adverb fully. How the degree adverb’s preferences differ in each discipline will be elaborated below.

4.4.4.1 Social Discipline

As seen in the table 4.25, there is a high tendency for the degree adverb fully to co-occur with more common or everyday words such as enjoy, practice, and defined in the social discipline. This result might imply that the typical words which collocate with the degree adverb fully are highly affected by the nature of the discipline. Those typical words can be grouped into two semantic sets:

‘establishment’ and ‘making’. Since the nature deals with human life and inseparable from any terms which are familiar to human society, therefore the language of the social discipline is typically able to be accessed even by people outside of the discourse community. Further, the degree adverb also tends to collocate with words denoting a semantic set ‘judgment: personality’ which is one of the most typical semantic sets in the social discipline.

Besides those preferences, the result shows that the degree adverb also mostly collocates with words denoting ‘incoming oriented’. This semantic set

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refers to any words which have the sense of possession to oneself. Those words can be grouped into two semantic sets including ‘be related’ and

‘implementation’. One of the instances can be seen in the example (48) in which the concept liberty is oriented directly towards the woman.

Then, the next semantic set which occurs in the data is ‘knowledge’ which specifically refers to mental words such as know and realize. Such mental verbs commonly occur in the social discipline merely since the typical writing is more opiniated or related to human aspects. Those issues, hence, might entail to the condition which requires people as the agents of the verbs than natural disciplines.

One of the instances can be seen in the example (58) where Percy, Dewey, and

Eubanks refer to particular people and become the agent of the related verb.

Next, the social discipline also has the tendency to have the semantic set

‘affect or change’ appear in the data. Different from the typical words coming from this semantic set which exist in the physical discipline, this semantic set is used to describe any processes related to social aspects in this discipline such as in the example (59).

(58) What Percy, Dewey, and Eubanks do not seem to realize fully enough.. (S/D/008) (59) …fully leverage their inevitable and accelerating… (S/D/017) (60) …in which the regime was fully confronted with its economic failures… (S/D/014) The last semantic set which exists in this discipline is ‘concord’. This semantic set appears with a very low frequency. The case is presented in the example (60) in which the specialized term of social discipline regime appears to be the thing which is confronted.

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Drawing the attention to the notion of the semantic prosody, the semantic sets explained before have a higher tendency to build up favorable environments than the unfavorable ones as in the example (50) and (49).

Table 4.26 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Fully Semantic Prosody Health Physical Social No Freq % No Freq % No Freq % Disc. Disc. Disc. Positive Positive Negative 1 8 80 1 10 83 1 1 100 (+) (+) (-) Negative Negative 2 2 20 2 2 17 Total 1 100 (-) (-) Total 10 100 Total 12 100

In short, the semantic categories existing in the social discipline is characteristically situated by the nature of the discipline. There semantic sets are highly related to more common or everyday words, personality, knowledge or mental. Those semantic categories, then, are mostly occurred in favorable envirnoments.

4.4.4.2 Physical Discipline

In line with the result of the previous discipline where the nature of the discipline does matter to the typical words collocated with the degree adverb, any physical science terms are; therefore, typically collocated with the degree adverb fully in this discipline. The physical science terms appearing in the data share three semantic features: ‘movement’, ‘physical’, and ‘change’. One of the instances is presented in the example (55).

Besides those physical science terms, there are some other words belonging to four semantic sets which co-occur with the degree adverb fully.

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Those semantic sets include ‘utility’, ‘making’, ‘particular or general’, and

‘establishment’. One of the instances can be seen in the example (54).

In sum, the preferences of the semantic sets in this discipline are affected by the nature of its discipline. The semantic sets are highly related to physical things such as ‘movement’, ‘physical’, ‘affect/change’, and ‘making’.

Pertaining to the typical nuance built by the occurrences, as seen in the table 4.26, most of the instances tend to construe positive contexts such as in the example (54) and (61).

(61) The resulting albedos corrected for thermal emission for 2, and fully efficient redistribution, 3, of heat from planetary day to nightside are shown… (P/D/004)

In other words, the degree adverb fully largely appears and collocates with words which denote positive or preferable situations.

In short, this discipline has quite varied semantic sets as the social discipline. In addition, those semantic sets also mostly appear in favorable enviroments.

4.4.4.3 Health Discipline

Being contrast to the quite high occurrences of the degree adverb fully in the two disciplines before, it has to be admitted that any pattern with the degree adverb fully appears in the health discipline with an extremely low frequency which is one instance merely. As discussed before, it indicates that such a degree adverb might not be preferred to be used in this discipline. From the very limited occurrence, it is found that the degree adverb co-occurs with any health science term which is in line with the proposition stated before that the typical words

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collocating with the degree adverb fully are highly affected by the nature of each discipline. The occurrence is demonstrated in the example (57).

Interestingly, different from the other disciplines, the occurrence builds up unfavorable nuance. However, such a very weak tendency or frequency is not enough to bring any reliable conclusion about the degree adverb collocation.

Pertaining to the mostly occurred type among the disciplines, Fully +

Adjective sequence appears in all disciplines. With regard to the subjects or objects of the sentences, those aspects tend to have different preferences depending on the nature of each disciplines. To be more specific, exact disciplines including health and physical discipline tend to have real-world domain referring to abstract or concrete things as the subjects or objects of the sentences.

Meanwhile, the real-world domain referring to abstract things and people are more preferred to be used in non-exact discipline which is the social discipline.

Further, all of the elaboration above might indicate that there is a clear tendency for the degree adverb fully to co-occur differently with semantic sets which are highly tied to the nature of each discipline. It means that each discipline has its own characteristic affecting what kind of semantic sets which can collocate with the degree adverb fully. Moving on to the aspect of semantic prosody, the analysis reveals that most preferences of the semantic sets in all disciplines tend to build up favorable nuance than unfavorable nuance.

4.5 Degree Adverb Fairly

Different from all disciplines explained before, the degree adverb fairly is absent in one of the fields which is the health discipline. Therefore, this section

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will not be as long as the other sections before. There will be two subsections in this part. The first subsection elaborates the result and analysis of the degree adverb fairly in terms of the lexical pattern. The second one, then, discusses the result and analysis of the degree adverb fairly in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.5.4 Collocation Patterns

Different from all degree adverbs explained before, the degree adverb fairly is not as favored as them to be used in academic writings. If all of the previous degree adverbs appear in all disciplines, the degree adverb fairly merely exists in the physical and social discipline with limited occurrences and pattern variations.

Table 4.27 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Fairly Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Physical Fairly + Adjective 4 80 Real-world domain (Abstract) Fairly + Adverb 1 20

Social Fairly + Adjective 1 100 Real-world domain (Abstract)

As seen in the table 4.27 above, the types of combination include Fairly +

Adjective, Fairly + Adverb, and Fairly + Adverb. Those three patterns only have low frequencies with 4, 1, and 1 occurrence respectively.

4.5.4.1 Physical Discipline

In this discipline, the degree adverb fairly tends to collocate with adjectives. In the data, it also occurs with an adverb but with a very weak tendency. The frequency of the occurrences is shown in the table 4.28 below.

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Table 4.28 Word Category Collocation of the Degree Adverb Fairly Word Category No. Physical Disc. Freq. % No. Social Disc. Freq. % 1 Adjective 4 80 1 Adjective 1 100 2 Adverb 1 20 Total 1 100 Total 5 100

Table 4.29 Collocations of the Degree Adverb Fairly in Physical Discipline No. Verb Collocation Freq. % No. Adjective Collocation Freq. % 1 Constant 2 50 1 Slowly 1 100 2 Typical 1 25 Total 1 100 3 Weak 1 25 Total 4 100

There are two types of pattern including Fairly + Adjective and Fairly + Adverb.

Pertaining to the type of objects modified by the adjective phrases of the first pattern, there is only one type of object which is real-world domain referring to abstract things. Those abstract things, specifically, refer to any technical terminologies of physical-related discipline such as a mode-hop, lines for calibration, and others. The example (62) demonstrates that the adjective phrase fairly weak appears to describe the abstracted thing the useful lines for calibration in the reddest orders. Besides the type explained before, another type of combination which is Fairly + Adverb appears only once and describes an experimental word. Compared to the other degree adverbs investigated in this study, the appearance of such an adverb to be collocated with only happens in the degree adverb fairly. The appearance, however, exists once merely. Such a case can be seen in the example (63). The example shows that the adverbial phrase

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fairly slowly describes how the subject does an experimental verb scan. The existence if such an experimental verb is supported by Hyland and Guinda (2012) that there are more possibilities to find words referring to experimental activities than other kinds of words. However, it might be admitted that the very limited frequency of occurrence results in an unreliable conclusion.

(62) A bigger issue is that the useful lines for calibration in the reddest orders (λ ≳ 7800, red order number less than 44) are fairly weak. (P/E/003) (63) Since we scan fairly slowly, the power dissipation in- side the… (P/E/002)

In conclusion, there are two types of combination which exist with low frequencies in the physical discipline: Fairly + Adjective and Fairly + Adverb.

The former type tends to have real-world domain referring to abstract things as the objects which are modified by the related adjective phrases. Further, the latter type has the adverbial phrase to describe an experimental verb.

4.5.4.2 Social Physical

Different from the physical discipline, the social discipline only has one type of combination with one occurrence merely. The type of combination is

Fairly + Adjective. Hence, the occurrence implies that the degree adverb has a tendency to collocate with an adjective which is extensive.

In addition, the typical objectwhich is modified or described by the adjective is also real-world domain referring to an abstract thing. Below is the evidence.

(64) Despite the fact that the list of maritime liens under Mexican law is fairly extensive,.. (S/E/001)

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From the example (64), it can be noticed that the adjective phrase fairly extensive attempts to describe a conceptual thing related to a particular fact.

Thus, the appearance of the degree adverb fairly in the social discipline happens once. Further, the occurrence happens in the Fairly + Adjective sequence with a preference to have the real-world domain referring to an abstract concept as the modified object.

4.5.5 Semantic Preference and Prosody

As mentioned before that any patterns containing the degree adverb fairly only appear in the physical and social discipline. The typical semantic sets which are favored are generally related to any assessment and mostly emerges in positive semantic prosody. The occurrences can be noticed in the table 4.30 below.

Table 4.30 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Fairly Discipline Physical Social Semantic Preference Measurement Measurement Comparing Judgment

It has been explained before that this tendency might occur since the degree adverb fairly is too colloquial to be found in the health discipline. Moreover, the variation of semantic set in those two disciplines is very limited with only three kinds of semantic groups: ‘measurement’, ‘comparing’, and ‘judgment’. The more specific explanation regarding those preferences is presented below.

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4.5.5.1 Physical Discipline

In the physical discipline, any pattern which contain the degree adverb failry is very low with 5 occurrences merely. From those limited occurrences, the patterns co-occur typically with adjectives which share semantic features

‘measurement’, ‘comparing’, and ‘judgment’.

The semantic set ‘measurement’ in the data covers words denoting speed and frequency particularly as in the example (63). The semantic set ‘comparing’, particularly, refers to any words which are associated with the notion on how things are usual or unusual. The example (65) below demonstrates the occurrence of this semantic group. The last semantic set is ‘judgment’ which specifically refers to any words associated with the act of assessing any situation or thing. one of the cases is presented in the example (66) below.

(65) For laser diodes without antireflection (AR) coating on the output facet, like the one used here, a mode-hop free tuning range of 1–2 GHz is fairly typical. (P/E/001) (66) …the useful lines for calibration in the reddest orders (λ ≳ 7800, red order number less than 44) are fairly weak. (P/E/003) (67) …the Indus Fan (Clift and Blusztajn 2005) show fairly constant eNd values around 210… (P/E/004)

Table 4.31 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Fairly Semantic Prosody No. Physical Disc. Freq. % No. Social Disc. Freq. % 1 Positive (+) 3 60 1 Positive (+) 1 100

2 Negative (-) 2 40 Total 1 100 Total 5 100

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Generally, those three semantic sets have the same characteristic related to any evaluation towards particular things which leads to some degree of analysis.

In addition, the table 4.31 gives the insights that the degree adverb collocations emerge largely in more positive nuance than the negative one as in the example

(67) and (65). However, the difference in the frequency between favorable and unfavorable contexts is not too significant to make a strong conclusion on the preference.

In sum, all semantic categories which collocate with the degree adverb fairly tend to have a rather similar characteristic. The characteristic is related to any evaluation of certain aspects or things which, then, can lead to some degree of analysis. Most of the occurrences, further, tend to occur in more favorable contexts.

4.5.5.2 Social Discipline

Same as the physical discipline, the pattern which contains the degree adverb fairly in the social discipline is very limited with only one occurrence. The data shows that there is only one combination which co-occurs with a semantic feature ‘measurement’ and appears in a positive environment.

Despite having the same semantic set as the physical discipline, the semantic set ‘measurement’ existing in the social discipline only covers the measurement which refers to size. The occurrence is shown in the example (64).

To conclude all of the occurrences in all disciplines, any combination containing the degree adverb fairly does not have any tendency to appear in health

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discipline. Further, it occurs in the physical and social discipline with very low frequencies and variations. This result may imply that this degree adverb is not suitable and favored to be used in academic writings. Taking a brief research on

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA, 2019), the result shows that the degree adverb fairly has less occurrences to exist in formal genres such as review and journal compared to other examined degree adverbs. The very limited occurrences of the degree adverb fairly in the data, then, might give some insights that degree adverb is too colloquial and not preferably used in academic writing.

Although there are some possibilities to find such a degree adverb, the frequency might not be high. Pertaining to the semantic sets favored by this degree adverb, the existed semantic sets share a typical characteristic relating to assessment towards things or situation and tend to appear in positive environment.

4.7 Degree Adverb Utterly

Lastly, this section is devoted to have a discussion on the degree adverb utterly. Contrast to other degree adverbs which have been discussed previously.

This degree adverb only appears in the social discipline. This section will be divided into two subsections. The first one belongs to the discussion on the result and analysis of the degree adverb utterly in terms of the lexical pattern. Then, the second one deals with the result and analysis of the degree adverb utterly in terms of the semantic preference and prosody.

4.7.4 Collocation Patterns

Compared to other investigated degree adverbs, the degree adverb utterly can be considered as the least preferred one to be used in such academic writings.

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There are some possibilities to find the degree adverb in the social discipline, yet with a very limited instance and variation.

As can be seen in the table 4.70, it is evident that any patterns containing the degree adverb utterly is absent in the health and physical discipline. Such constructions only appear in social discipline as this discipline is assumed being the most flexible discipline for having less-formal features with only one type of pattern which is Utterly + Adjective. That means that all of the occurrences show the tendency of the degree adverb to collocate with adjectives merely.

Table 4.32 Patterns of the Degree Adverb Utterly Discipline Pattern Freq. % Type of Object Real-world domain (Abstract, Utterly + Social 5 100 People) Adjective

Table 4.33 Adjective Collocation of the Degree Adverb Utterly in Social Discipline No. Adjective List Frequency % 1 Different 2 40 2 Distressed 1 20 3 Divine 1 20 4 Unexpected 1 20 Total 5 100

The Utterly + Adjective pattern only exists with five occurrences. The typical objects modified by the adjective phrases are real-world domain referring to abstract things and people. An example is demonstrated below.

(68) Oddly enough, Infancy Thomas’s Jesus looks utterly divine in comparison… (S/F/004)

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The example (68) above presents that infancy Thomas’ Jesus belongs to person who is involved in the topic of the academic writing. Further, he becomes the object which is described by the adjective phrase utterly divine. The appearance of such domain referring to people is apparently supported by the nature of social discipline which explores society and the relationship of the people among it.

A finding from a brief investigation on COCA, then, might explain why the degree adverb is absent in the natural disciplines. According to COCA, the degree adverb utterly appears more in less formal genre such as magazine than formal genres (COCA, 2019). This result might suggest that this degree adverb utterly is too colloquial to be used in the natural disciplines.

4.7.5 Semantic Preference and Prosody

The limited occurrences of the degree adverb, then, entails the limited variations of semantic sets. Among the semantic sets, however, the words denoting judgment and assessment are preferable. Further, most of the occurrences tend to build up favorable contexts.

As presented in the table 4.34, the degree adverb utterly co-occurs typically with four semantic sets: ‘comparing’, ‘judgment: personality’, ‘wanting, planning, choosing’, and ‘unhappiness’.

Table 4.34 Semantic Preference of the Degree Adverb Utterly Discipline Social Comparing Judgment: Personality Semantic Preference Wanting/ Planning/ Choosing Unhappiness

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All of the semantic sets appear with a very weak tendency. To be more specific, the semantic set ‘comparing’ refers to the words which are associated with the notion whether something is similar or dissimilar. One of the cases is presented in the example (69). Then, the semantic set ‘judgment: personality’ refers to the words associated with the act of assessing or judging a person as shown in the example (68). This kind of semantic set is quite predictable to exist in academic writings on social science as the discipline deals with human society as the topic.

Next, the semantic set ‘wanting, planning, choosing’ refers to the words which are associated with preferable or unpreferable things, situation, or decisions. The last semantic set which is ‘unhappiness’ refers to any unfavorable situation. One case is demonstrated in the example (70).

Table 4.35 Semantic Prosody of the Degree Adverb Utterly No. Semantic Prosody Frequency % 1 Positive (+) 4 80 2 Negative (-) 1 20

Total 5 100

Regarding the notion of semantic prosody, a further analysis reveals that the degree adverb collocations mostly appear in negative environment such as in the example (69) and (70).

(69) …cultural imagination of the subject with something utterly different. (S/F/002) (70) … it I was utterly distressed in seeing him that way… (S/F/001)

In sum, the result might suggest that this degree adverb utterly is too colloquial to be used in the natural disciplines. It has to be admitted that the very limited occurrences may result in unreliable conclusions. However, what can be

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underlined is that the very low occurrences might imply that the degree adverb utterly is too colloquial or not preferably used in academic writings even for social discipline.

Traditionally, academic writings have been constructed typically to be objective and focused on delivering factual information. Mauranen and Bondi proposes:

Academic discourses carry the special weight of older traditions and ideals of scientific objectivity, which supposedly were to be reflected in academic writing as neutral, detachedly descriptive stances, as far removed from the human touch as possible (Mauranen & Bondi, 2003).

When it comes to the production of academic writings in different disciplines, any appropriate writing strategies in situating knowledge and arguments in the interaction of the related academic communities should be taken into consideration. Not to mention, any discourse community has established conventional styles which are tied to the purposes of each discipline and used to perpetuate the community’s values and beliefs related to knowledge and knowing

(Hyland & Bondi, 2006). Natural sciences, basically, deal with the study of natural phenomena according to empirical evidences from any experiments.

Physical discipline belongs to the natural sciences and it specifically covers the study of nature and the properties of non-living matters. Health discipline also belongs to the natural sciences and it deals with the application of science to human and animal health. Comparing those both disciplines, physical discipline is assumed having more objective data than the health discipline since there is

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inseparable correlations between living and non-living matters in the health discipline.

The authors in natural sciences, then, are urged to produce public knowledge which is able to withstand over failed falsification as the related research is developed through highly conditioned and concentrated equipment, environment, and other aspects of investigation. Therefore, the language of such disciplines more focuses on the truth discovery with more control of variables and unequivocal bases for accepting claims (Hyland, 2011). In addition, the typical discourses are construed to simply report natural facts with more authorial absence to promote objectivity. However, considering the objects studied between the physical and health science, there is an assumption that the urgency to promote objective evidences in the health discipline is less than what is in the physical discipline.

On the contrary, social discipline deals with full of living matters leading to more unobjective data. The writings in social fields are highly tied to more contextual factors and less control of variables which entail to more possibilities for different outcomes and less unequivocal claims to emerge. Not to mention, the typical writing of such discipline is more interpretative with various forms of argument which depend more on a claim-making negotiation (Hyland, 2011).

Despite the natural science’ great potential and social science’s lower potential for credible and unequivocal claim establishment, both fields should be able to persuade them about the correctness and credibility of their claims. The arguments need to be expressed in certain ways to make them meaningful, acceptable, and

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plausible to the readers (Hyland, 1998). The need to express those cautions is to some extent proved in the data. The result clearly shows that degree adverbs exist in the data as a linguistic feature to accomplish rhetorical objectives.

In the natural science including health and physical discipline, particularly, degree adverbs appear to express the authors’ degree of certainty in presenting their claims. Despite the suggestion that typical writings in natural science should be constructed as purely objective and impersonal with unequivocal facts, the effectiveness of the writings also relies on how successful the authors in accommodating what the readers find plausible and convincing since academic writings are supposed to trigger specific responses of the readers (Hyland, 1998).

Although the physical discipline belongs to the natural discipline and is supposed to have more unequivocal claims, the result of this study clearly reveals that this discipline is, apparently, quite flexible for various collocation patterns and semantic sets. Interestingly, the health discipline has the least tendencies to use degree adverbs with more limited collocation patterns and semantic sets.

Meanwhile, the health discipline is supposed to have more tendencies to be subjective than the physical discipline.

Compared to the presence of degree adverbs in the health and physical discipline, the use of degree adverbs to express the authors’ certainty in the claims is more frequent in the social discipline. Social discipline, particularly, has less potential to report the research with the same confidence as natural discipline.

Hence, the authors highly need to express more persuasive arguments cautiously in claim-making negotiations. Therefore, it suggests that the presence of degree

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adverbs is quite helpful for the authors to establish their credibility and construct an understanding with the readers. In sum, the degree adverbs are more frequent to appear in the social discipline with more various collocation patterns and semantic sets since there are more needs for the discipline to express persuasive arguments cautiously in claim-making negotiations. The natural disciplines, in contrast, has less degree adverbs as they are able to produce public knowledge which is able to withstand over failed falsification. However, the result of the analysis figures out that the physical discipline, which actually belongs to the natural disciplines, is also flexible enough for collcation patterns and semantic sets, following the social discipline.

Regarding the combination types of the degree adverbs occurred in the data, the result demonstrates that the social discipline has more varied types of patterns. The social discipline is, then, followed by the physical discipline. More specifically, each degree adverb has typical combination which commonly appear in every discipline. The degree adverb extremely is not flexible enough to occur in various patterns as there is only one type of pattern which is Extremely +

Adjective. In contrast, the degree adverb strongly is quite flexible to occur in various patterns. The most exist ones are Strongly + Verb and Strongly +

Adjective as they occur in all disciplines. However, there is only 2 types of pattern occurring in the health discipline which might signify that the discipline is not too flexible to have more varied collocation patterns. Next, the degree adverb highly also has several types of pattern yet not as varied as the degree adverb strongly.

The most frequent type of pattern is Highly + Adjective. Interestingly, the

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physical discipline has various types of collocation pattern whereas the social discipline has one type of pattern merely instead. Coming to the next degree adverb, the degree adverb fully comes in various types of patterns with the Fully +

Adjective as the most exist one to occur in all disciplines. The more various types of pattern are found in the social discipline whereas less types of pattern are found in the health discipline. After that, the degree adverb fairly is absent in the health discipline. It appears in the physical and social discipline with limited types of patterns. The most frequent type of pattern is the Fairly + Adjective sequence.

Lastly, the degree adverb utterly exists in the social discipline merely with very limited types of pattern. The most frequent type is the Utterly + Adjective sequence.

When investigating such patterns, it seems necessary to have a deeper analysis on the topic of subject and object references in the related sentences. In all discipline, there are frequent references to abstract real-world domain as the subjects or objects in the related sentences. Those abstract nouns are usually the technical terms of the related disciplines. Further, the object and subject reference is very subject or tied to the nature of each discipline. In the health discipline, most of the sentences involving the examined degree adverbs are impersonal with real-world domain referring to abstract or concrete things as the subjects or objects of them. Further, there are limited possibilities to find real-world domain referring to people and participant domain referring to interactive participant as the scope of the discipline might be inseparable from any human aspects as well.

Next, the physical discipline has frequent reference to the real-world domain

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referring to abstract and concrete things as the subjects or objects of the related sentences. Interestingly, the social discipline shows a frequent reference to the real-world domain referring to abstract things and people as the subjects or objects. Actually, according to some research, this discipline is supposed to have more participant domain referring to the authors as this discipline is characterized by more opiniated claims. In all disciplines, including the social discipline, most of the propositions are apparently done by nominalization, passive constructions, abstracted things and other ways to omit any personal intrusion, offer the impression of objectivity, and make them more topic-oriented.

When it comes to the notion of semantic preference and prosody of the investigated degree adverbs, the results reveal that there are different distribution and preferences of the degree adverb collocation in terms of the semantic preference and semantic prosody across disciplines as the nature of each discipline affect the typical occurrences of those notions. In general, the most various semantic sets are found in the social discipline, which then followed by the physical discipline. In addition, there are some semantic sets which exist in particular disciplines merely due to discipline-specific constraint. Not to mention, those aspects are partly affected by the nature of each discipline.

More specifically, the degree adverb extremely commonly collocates with words related to judgment or evaluation such as ‘measurement’ and ‘importance or significance’ semantic set. From the data, the social discipline is the most flexible discipline with more occurrences of the degree adverbs and various semantic sets. Further, a tendency for a semantic set ‘judgment: personality’ to

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merely appear in the social discipline has been being a typical characteristic of this discipline. It signifies that the nature of each discipline highly affects what kinds of semantic sets which occur in particular discipline. Those semantic sets of the degree adverb extremely, however, have different preferences on the nuance that they prefer to build up. Same as the notion of semantic preference, the notion of semantic prosody is also subject to specific discipline. The finding suggests that the examined degree adverbs might frequently co-occur with positive words in one discipline while collocating with negative words in other disciplines. The semantic sets in the health and physical discipline tend to employ positive semantic prosody whereas the semantic sets in the social discipline tends to occur in more negative contexts.

Next, the degree adverb strongly commonly co-occurs with words denoting ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’. Similar with the previous degree adverb, it comes with more variety of semantic preferences in the social discipline. Further, the semantic sets in each discipline are tied to the nature of each discipline. There is the existence of more words belongs to experimental verbs in the physical discipline to describe any process related to physics.

Meanwhile, there more semantic sets which are associated to performative verbs such as ‘caution’ and ‘giving opinion’ in the social discipline as the language use in this discipline is more opiniated. In addition, there is also a typical semantic set in the social discipline which is ‘personality’. All of those preferences confirm about how some semantic sets are inseparably tied to the nature of discipline.

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Further, those semantic sets tend to construe favorable environments or contexts in all disciplines.

Moving on the degree adverb ‘highly’, it exists and collocates with a range of semantic preferences in all of disciplines. Similar to the degree adverb

‘extremely’, most of the semantic sets are associated with evaluation and also comparison. The highly diverse semantic sets make it hard to seek the typical sets of each discipline. A further classification of those sets can be created based on the tendency whether the semantic set refers to favorable or unfavorable things of conditions. The result reveals that the degree adverb more frequently co-occurs with favorable things or conditions in the health discipline. In contrast, it frequently collocates with words denoting unfavorable things or conditions in the physical discipline. Interestingly, the social discipline does not perform any leaning as the degree adverb co-occurs equally with both favorable and unfavorable things or conditions in this discipline.

Next, the degree adverb fully shows a clear tendency to collocate differently with semantic sets which are highly tied to the nature of each discipline. The most various semantic sets are found in the social discipline, and then followed by the physical discipline. In the physical discipline, the semantic sets are highly related to physical things such as ‘movement’ and ‘affect/change’.

Whereas, the semantic sets in the social discipline are highly related to more common or everyday words, personality, and knowledge/mental aspects. The semantic sets, further, tend to occur in favorable contexts.

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The two last degree adverbs, fairly and utterly, can be regarded as colloquial linguistic feature as they only appear in physical or social discipline with very limited frequencies. The degree adverb fairly is absent in the health discipline. Meanwhile, the degree adverb utterly exists in the social discipline merely. Both degree adverbs tend to have similar kinds of semantic sets which are generally related to judgment and assessments. Moreover, those semantic sets are typically built up in more favorable contexts or nuance.

Thus, the results confirm that the authors of both disciplines tend to downplay their personal role as the agent of action in sentences including the investigated degree adverbs. Hence, impersonal sentences are more favored to deliberately disguise the authors’ role and persuade the readers that the given information is objective rather than subjective. However, they still need particular linguistic features to express their attitudes or certainty towards the propositions.

Degree adverbs, then, are able to be one of the linguistic features to rhetorically make the information more convincing for the readers. Hence, the information looks more objective by the authorial absence yet still persuasive in function by the degree adverb involvement. The notion of degree adverbs’ lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody are then subject to the nature of each discipline. This investigation; therefore, reveals the deeper insights into the variation of how degree adverbs are carried across disciplines.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This is the last chapter of the thesis which presents two parts to be elaborated. The first one stands for the summary of the discussion and analyses of the previous chapters based on the research questions that have been formulated before. The second part consists of several recommendations for other researchers who are interested in analysing the similar area of research.

5.1 Conclusion

In conveying knowledge within academic writings, language cannot be regarded as a neutral medium which is separable from the authors’ intentions towards the readers (Hyland & Guinda, 2012). This proposition is supported by

Hyland (2004) that the successful academic writing is defined by the ability of the authors to evaluate claims and establish a connection with the readers. In transforming certain claims into knowledge, the authors need to trigger the readers’ acceptance. In other words, the discourses should attempt to deliver knowledge persuasively. Nevertheless, how knowledge is constructed and conveyed in and around academia is socially conditioned and often differs significantly across disciplines. The notion of discipline, in this case, can be treated just like genre and it affects particular linguistic resources of language. Not to mention, the linguistic features are tied to particular points of view, approaches, forms of thinking, nuances, and other characteristics of a given discipline

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(Bakhtin, 1981). The authors, then, need to work harder in considering any certain strategies which are suitable and accepted in particular disciplinary cultures.

This current study, specifically, focuses on one of linguistic features namely the degree adverbs. As mentioned before, the authors are urged to deploy the linguistic features, including the degree adverbs, with appropriate accuracy, caution, and humility according to the conventions and readers’ expectations within a given discipline. The problem is that not everyone has the same access to the appropriate and conventional forms of any particular discipline. In consequence, any incongruence in adopting the features, conventions, and expectations of particular disciplinary communities might result in the authors’ incapability to participate effectively in the appropriate and contextual consensus of the related communities (Blommaert, 2005). This execution of this current study, then, is needed to explore those cautions and promote the authors’ awareness and competence in dealing with considerable challenges in academic writings across disciplines.

This current research aims to analyze the distribution and preferences of degree adverb collocations in various disciplines pertaining to the patterns of the lexical collocations, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. The selected degree adverbs consist of extremely, highly, strongly, fairly, utterly, and fully.

There data were taken from 60 journals consisting of 20 research articles from each discipline. A corpus-based study then was operated to process and analyze the data. The research questions are: (1) What patterns of degree adverb collocations are observed in research articles across disciplines? (2) How is the

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semantic preference of the lexical collocations represented in the research articles across disciplines? (3) How is the semantic prosody of the lexical collocations represented in the research articles across disciplines?

The earlier suggestion that different discourse community tends to opt particular strategies for knowledge construction is to some extent accurate. It is proved by the results which reveal that there are various distributions of degree adverb collocation in terms of the pattern, semantic preference, and semantic prosody. There are some established conventional styles which are affected by the nature of each discipline. With regard to the degree adverb combinations and semantic sets, the types of pattern and semantic sets related to the investigated degree adverbs are commonly more varied in the social discipline, and then followed by the physical discipline. There are some degree adverbs which are absent in the health discipline or both health and physical discipline. More specifically, those degree adverbs might be regarded as colloquial. This finding implies that the social discipline has been the most flexible discipline which can let variety of degree adverb types occur in the writing even the less formal ones.

Although the physical discipline belongs to the natural discipline and is characterized by the more possibilities for unequivocal claims, the result, nevertheless, figures out that this discipline is also flexible enough for collocation patterns and semantic sets.

As mentioned before, the notion of semantic preference also tends to more vary in the social discipline over the other disciplines. This result might also support that the examined degree adverb can flexibly collocate words belong to

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more various semantic sets in the social discipline. Further, there are some semantic sets which exist in particular disciplines merely due to discipline- specific constraint. Regarding the semantic prosody, the finding suggests that this notion might be subject to specific discipline. Some degree adverbs might show more frequent occurrences to collocate with positive words in one discipline while collocating with negative words in other disciplines. Leading the attention to the more specific result, the degree adverb extremely is regarded as not flexible enough since it only appears in one type of pattern which is Extremely +

Adjective. By contrast, the degree adverb strongly is quite flexible to appear in various types of pattern. The most exist ones are the Strongly + Verb and Strongly

+ Adjective pattern. Similarly, the degree adverb highly also occurs in various types of pattern yet not as varied as the degree adverb strongly. Among those types of patterns, the most frequently used one is the Highly + Adjective sequence. Next, the types of pattern involving the degree adverb fully are as various as the types of pattern involving the degree adverb strongly. The Fully +

Adjective sequence comes as the most exist one as it occurs in all disciplines.

Different from the degree adverbs explained above, the degree adverbs fairly and utterly are not preferably used in specific disciplines. Specifically, the degree adverb fairly is absent in the health discipline and appears with very limited frequencies and types of pattern. The most occurred type of pattern is the Fairly +

Adjective. Similarly, the degree adverb utterly has a very weak tendency to occur in the data. It only emerges in the social discipline with very limited types of pattern. The most frequent one is the Utterly + Adjective. Further, the subject and

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object references which are preferably used in each discipline is highly tied to the characteristics or nature of each discipline.

With regard to the notion of semantic preference, the result shows that there are considerable distributions of semantic sets in each discipline. This issue is, somehow, partly affected by the discipline-specific constraint. The degree adverb extremely commonly co-occurs with the semantic sets related to judgment or evaluation such as ‘measurement’ and ‘importance or significance’ semantic sets. Pertaining to the notion of semantic prosody, the semantic sets in the health and physical discipline have more tendencies to occur in positive contexts whereas the semantic sets in the social discipline have more tendencies to appear in more negative contexts. Next, the degree adverb strongly typically collocates with words belonging to ‘recommendation’ and ‘be related’ semantic category. In all disciplines, this degree adverb, however, commonly appears in favorable contexts. Then, the degree adverb highly collocates with a range of semantic sets associated with evaluation or comparison. Those semantic sets, nevertheless, can be classified based on the favorable or unfavorable contexts they occur in. In the health discipline, the degree adverb highly commonly occurs in more favorable environments. Meanwhile, it has more occurrences to collocate with words associated with unfavorable things in the physical discipline. In the social discipline, however, the degree adverb equally co-occurs with words construing both favorable and unfavorable contexts. Moving on the degree adverb, the degree adverb fully has an obvious tendency to co-occur differently with semantic sets which are highly tied to the nature of each discipline. Further, most of the

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occurrences happen in more favorable contexts. As explained before, the degree adverbs fairly and utterly only appear in very limited frequencies. Both degree adverbs tend to have similar types of semantic set which are generally associated to judgment and assessments and occurred in more favorable contexts or nuance.

From all the distributions explained above, it could be concluded that the most various semantic sets are usually found in the social discipline, and then followed by the physical discipline.

The conventional styles or preferences found in each discipline, then, are being the strategies to express the community’s values and beliefs pertaining to how certain knowledge or information is constructed. The authors of each discipline highly need to adjust those convention in order to meet the effective writings within particular disciplinary communities.

Natural discipline, particularly, has been characterized by the writings which contain more unequivocal claims. Despite the less debatable claims, the authors of the natural discipline are urged to make effective writings by establishing rhetorical linguistic features. By doing so, the authors will be able to convince the readers about the correctness and credibility of their claims. With regard to this issue, the results, particularly, show that the natural discipline including the health and physical discipline establishes degree adverbs as the linguistic resource to achieve the rhetorical objectives. However, the occurrences of the investigated degree adverbs are not as frequent and various as the occurrences in the social discipline. This result can be explained by the

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proposition that this discipline needs more persuasive arguments in claim-making negotiations than the natural discipline.

Regarding the contribution of this research, it can be divided into three groups including theoretical, practical, and pedagogic contribution. Theoretically, this research is expected to bring any contribution to the development of lexical collocation analysis of degree adverbs. more specifically, it is expected to figure out what syntactic and semantic patterns which typically co-occur with the investigated degree adverb. Therefore, it might be helpful to reveal whether different disciplines entail different writing-convention. Besides, this research might also be a means to examine the previous research with the same scope.

Practically, this research is conducted to help readers comprehend the language use in how collocation patterns, semantic preference, and semantic prosody of the investigated degree adverbs work in sentences. Besides, this research might be helpful for academic writers to promote their accuracy in degree adverb deployment across disciplines. Pedagogically, this research is expected to enlighten English educators on the best way to teach how particular degree adverbs work and construct meanings in sentences.

There are extensive studies focusing on degree adverbs. Nevertheless, studies which particularly take the degree adverb semantic preference and prosody across disciplines into account might be regarded very limited. Thus, this current study wants to explore a relatively new scope in the semantic area. Further, many studies often decide to examine three up to four degree adverbs merely. This study, however, brings up six degree adverbs and aims to underline how they

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differ across disciplines. From those six degree adverbs, all of the occurrences are included as the research data. Furthermore, the selected journals are deliberately chosen to cover various scopes from each discipline. Those things are done in order to enhance the reliability and convincing generalization of the data.

Despite those strengths, the current research also has some weaknesses.

First, some data of particular degree adverb occurs with a very limited frequency which results in less reliable conclusion. Due to the time-constraint, not too many scopes of each area can be covered and examined. Next, this current research examines all sections of academic writings. Deeper analysis on particular section is merely done in some occasional instances. Focusing on each section, apparently, might reveal how every section of writing differs in the degree adverb deployment.

5.1 Recommendations

Taking the weaknesses of this study into consideration, the future research, therefore, is suggested to focus on more scopes or areas of every discipline and specifically compare the occurrences in every section. The reliability of the finding might also be raised by covering more data to examine. In addition, the related research might also be brought to examine expanded disciplines with more various degree adverbs. Further, investigating the writings of English as second or foreign language speakers might also be interesting as they tend to have different background language. The interest of taking a research chronologically might also be done towards this related area to explore the change on the degree adverbs deployment during particular time. The last one, this area of study might also be

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taken into a pedagogic scope by investigating learners’ tendencies, problems, and errors in using particular degree adverbs.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Data Analysis of Extremely Degree Adverb EXTREMELY Health Discipline Code Data Lexical Semantic Subject/ Prosodic Pattern Preference Object Reference Level H/A/001 1 physically at the hospital. It is thus Extremely + Importance or Real-world domain: + extremely important that junior doctors are well-t adj significance Abstract (It: the fact HealthAfricanJournal3.txt 2 that…) 1 H/A/002 2 but likely un- necessary burden on an Extremely + Measurement Real-world domain: - extremely limited resource. adj Concrete (resource) (resuscitation unit and the like) On the other hand, tox HealthAfricanJournal3.txt 2 2 H/A/003 3 However, knowledge of stone Extremely + Importance or Real-world domain: + analysis in Malaysia adj significance Abstract (analysis) would be extremely useful for epidemiologists HealthAfricanJournal4.txt 3 1 H/A/004 4 Respiratory distress Extremely + Comparing: Real-world domain: + (3/1718 [<1%]) and cyanosis due to profound shock adj usual/unusual Abstract (10/1714 [<1%]) were extremely uncommon. HealthOxfordJournal (5).txt 14 1 H/A/005 5 1238 of 1714 (72%), whereas a palpable Extremely + Comparing: Real-world domain: - 138

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spleen was extremely uncommon (only 5 adj usual/unusual Abstract cases documented). Alm HealthOxfordJournal (5).txt 14 2 H/A/006 6 consistent with The case fatality rate was Extremely + Measurement Real-world domain: + extremely low (0.5%). Most patients adj (height) Abstract (fatality rate) other studies HealthOxfordJournal (5).txt 14 3 H/A/007 7 to decline rapidly and have now become Extremely + Measurement Real-world domain: + extremely rare. The clinical and epide adj (number/ quantity) Abstract miological HealthOxfordJournal (9).txt 18 1 H/A/008 8 teristically associated with Hib [22]—has Extremely + Measurement Real-world domain: + become extremely rare in children, with only 4 adj (number/ quantity) Abstract cases rep HealthOxfordJournal (9).txt 18 2 H/A/009 9 suggesting Extremely + Measurement Real-world domain: + that this age group may still have some protection adj (number/ quantity) Abstract (disease after being incidence) immunized in infancy, as supported by the extremely low dis ease incidence in this age group [26]. HealthOxfordJournal (9).txt 18 3 Physical Discipline P/A/001 10 in the photon noise regime and is Extremely + Trait: toughness Real-world + extremely powerful as noncommon path adj domain: errors are PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 Concrete 1

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P/A/002 11 in 2″ seeing (Garrel 2012). This is clearly Extremely + Trait: toughness Real-world + an extremely powerful tool and we pro- adj domain: pose to PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 Abstract (tool) 2 P/A/003 12 Erickson et al. 2008). This laser driver Extremely + Measurement Real-world + provides extremely low noise and narrow line adj (intensity) domain: width, typical PhysicalAstronomiJournal.txt Abstract 21 1 (noise) P/A/004 12 Erickson et al. 2008). This laser driver Extremely + Measurement (range) Real-world + provides extremely low noise and narrow line adj domain: width, typical PhysicalAstronomiJournal.txt Abstract (line 21 1 width) P/A/005 13 wavelengths from the Earth’s surface are Extremely + Constraint Real-world - extremely limited by the large adj domain: atmospheric opacity PhysicalAstronomiJournal7.txt Abstract 27 1 (wavelengths) P/A/006 14 a region of very high relief and Extremely + Measurement (speed) Real-world + extremely rapid present-day exhumation adj domain: (Burbank et PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt Abstract 34 1 (exhumation) Social Discipline S/A/001 20 which merchants have been forced to Extremely + Measurement: Real-world - accept extremely low prices advertised by adj (height) domain: mistake.123 O SocialMexicanJournal5.txt Abstract 54 1 (prices) S/A/002 21 rictly enforceable, these instruments have Extremely + Importance or Real-world + become extremely important in the regulation of adj significance domain: interna SocialMexicanJournal5.txt 54 Abstract (these 2 instruments)

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S/A/003 22 again by a 2/3 vote. This procedure is Extremely + Judgement for Real-world - extremely rigid and complicated. The adj substance but used to domain: Constitutio SocialMexicanJournal8.txt describe abstract Abstract (this 57 1 thing procedure) S/A/004 22 again by a 2/3 vote. This procedure is Extremely + Easy/ difficult Real-world - extremely rigid and complicated. The adj domain: Constitutio SocialMexicanJournal8.txt Abstract (this 57 1 procedure) S/A/005 23 . I do not think the procedure is Extremely + Judgement for Real-world - extremely flexible. However, given that adj substance but used to domain: potential SocialMexicanJournal8.txt 57 describe abstract Abstract (the 2 thing procedure) S/A/006 16 grieving Smith children and to counsel Extremely + Personality trait Real-world - the extremely anxious Kate Cutrer Bolling in adj domain: the novel SocialChristianity&LitJournal (7).txt X UM People (Kate 46 1 Cutrer Bolling) S/A/007 17 Auden’s work has been seen as Extremely + Measurement Real-world - extremely limited. Lycidas is an adj (number/quantity) domain: acknowledged pres SocialChristianity&LitJournal Abstract (10).txt 49 1 (Auden’s work) S/A/008 18 reconfigure another poet about whom he Extremely + Judgment: Real-world - was extremely ambivalent. After endorsing adj personality domain: Milton’s par SocialChristianity&LitJournal People (10).txt 49 2 S/A/009 19 be suspected of treason, of course, had Extremely + Capability of giving Real-world - extremely unpleasant consequences in adj pain; cause or source domain: these states. SocialChristianity&LitJournal of pain Abstract (10).txt 49 3 (consequences)

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Unfavorable thing/ situation

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Appendix 2: Data Analysis of Strongly Degree Adverb STRONGLY Health Discipline Code Data Lexical Semantic Prosodic Subject/ Pattern Preference Level Object Reference H/B/001 1 using a three-point Likert scale from Strongly + Concord/ not - Participant domain: strongly disagree to strongly agree. verb interactive Respondents c HealthAfricanJournal2.txt participant (respondent) H/B/002 1 using a three-point Likert scale from Strongly + Concord/ not + Participant domain: strongly disagree to strongly agree. verb interactive Respondents c HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 participant 1 (respondent) H/B/003 2 -point Likert scale from strongly disagree to Strongly + Concord/ not - Participant domain: strongly agree. Respondents could score verb interactive between 39 HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 participant 2 (respondent) H/B/004 2 -point Likert scale from strongly disagree to Strongly + Concord/ not + Participant domain: strongly agree. Respondents could score verb interactive between 39 HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 participant 2 (respondent) H/B/005 3 upper ureteric ≤2 cm in size and we Strongly + Recommendation + Participant domain: strongly recommend ESWL as the first verb participant viewpoint ch HealthAfricanJournal7.txt 6 1 (we)

H/B/006 4 12], and poor adherence to preventive therapy Strongly + Be related + Real-world domain: was strongly associated MDR Tuberculosis adj abstract Preventive HealthOxfordJournal (7).txt 16 Incoming oriented

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1 H/B/007 5 raftment. able that cardiac dysfunction was also Strongly + Be related + Real-world domain: strongly associated with mortality in our adj abstract cohort. HealthOxfordJournal (8).txt 17 1 Incoming oriented Physical Discipline P/B/001 6 achieved. In addition, since the light is Strongly + Disjoin (physical - Real-world domain: strongly diffracted out- wards by the focal verb (passive) term) abstract (light) plane PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 1 Concord/ not P/B/002 7 fν ≳ 570 Jy 1=2 : Δtpulse 1 s (29) ETA is Strongly + Constraint (physical + Real-world domain: strongly noise limited by Galactic synchrotron verb (passive) term) abstract (ETA) emi PhysicalAstronomiJournal3.txt 23 1 P/B/003 8 an atmo- Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: sphere model that contains a temperature inversion is verb (passive) abstract (model) strongly preferred PhysicalAstronomiJournal5.txt 25 1 P/B/004 9 order over most of the optical range. Strongly + (physical term - Real-world domain: Strongly saturated lines dominate the adj abstract (lines) appearance o PhysicalAstronomiJournal8.txt 28 1 P/B/005 10 . The 14C AMS ages from 20 to 40 ka Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly support the chronology de- tailed here verb abstract (t PhysicalGeologyJournal1.txt 30 1 P/B/006 11 deglacial sea level change. This assumption is Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly supported by the absence of a verb (passive) abstract (assumption) continental PhysicalGeologyJournal1.txt 30 2 P/B/007 12 rock record includes a thick succession of Strongly + Change - Real-world domain: strongly de- formed Pliocene and less adj abstract

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tectonically PhysicalGeologyJournal2.txt 31 1 P/B/008 14 environmental vari- ables that do not correlate Verb + Be related + Real-world domain: strongly with bathyme- try, such as variation in strongly abstract PhysicalGeologyJournal2.txt 31 3 Incoming oriented (environmental variables) P/B/009 15 single-phase Heart Mountain slide are most Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly supported by these data. Multiphase verb (passive) abstract or gr PhysicalGeologyJournal3.txt 32 1 P/B/010 16 in the eastern Mojave and Yavapai provinces Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly suggests that they represent the same verb abstract def PhysicalGeologyJournal4.txt 33 1 P/B/011 17 : those of the Kohistan-Ladakh arc diminished Verb + Change - Real-world domain: strongly in favor of Karakorum and Himalayan strongly abstract sourc PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt 34 1 P/B/012 18 et al. 2003). The Main Mantle Thrust is Strongly + Change - Real-world domain: strongly warped by the Nanga Parbat– verb (passive) abstract (The main Haramosh mass PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt 34 mantle thrust) 2 P/B/013 19 -order observation of our study. This similarity Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly suggests that the Indus drainage verb abstract (similarity) pattern PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt 34 3 P/B/014 20 during the Miocene and at present, which Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly suggests that no ma- jor reorganization verb abstract o PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt 34 4

P/B/015 21 abundant mudstone and shale. These rocks are Strongly + Change - Real-world domain: strongly deformed and preserve structures, sug- adj concrete (these

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ge PhysicalGeologyJournal6.txt 35 1 rocks) P/B/016 21 abundant mudstone and shale. These rocks are Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly deformed and preserve structures, sug- verb concrete (these ge PhysicalGeologyJournal6.txt 35 1 rocks) P/B/017 22 along the Betsimisaraka Suture. This view is Strongly + Concord + Real-world domain: strongly contested by Tucker and coworkers verb (passive) abstract (this view) (e.g., PhysicalGeologyJournal8.txt 37 1 P/B/018 23 domains. One of the do- mains is Strongly + Physical-related - Real-world domain: strongly foliated, with the foliation plane verb (passive) term concrete defined PhysicalGeologyJournal8.txt 37 2 Change P/B/019 24 of the grains, core regions are more Strongly + Change + Real-world domain: strongly affected by the alteration, which verb (passive) concrete proceed PhysicalGeologyJournal8.txt 37 3 P/B/020 25 -Pecos Texas have been interpreted to be Strongly + Change + Real-world domain: strongly influenced by pre- existing structures, verb (passive) abstract in PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 1 P/B/021 26 on the eastern Chalk Draw Fault is Strongly + Comparing: - Real-world domain: strongly asymmetric, decreasing rapidly as it adj similar/different abstract ente PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 2 P/B/022 27 within the highly fractured laccolith and (2) the Strongly + Comparing: - Real-world domain: strongly asymmetric distribution of slip due to adj similar/different abstract a PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 3 P/B/023 28 extensional province has been interpreted to be Strongly + Change + Real-world domain: strongly influenced by pre- existing geologic verb (passive) concrete featu PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 4 P/B/024 29 and evolution has been interpreted to be Strongly + Change + Real-world domain: strongly influenced by preexisting structural verb (passive) abstract fea- PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 5 P/B/025 30 We propose that this preexisting fracture Strongly + Change + Real-world domain:

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network strongly influenced the kinematic evolution and verb abstract (preexisting fau PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 6 fracture network) P/B/026 31 These trans- Strongly + Managing/directing + fer zones correlate with east-west gravity trends in- verb terpreted to represent Paleozoic basement structures that were active as late as the Permian (Ammon 1981; Keller et al. 1985; Henry 1998) and that are interpreted to have strongly controlled the geometry and location of the transfer zones. PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 7 P/B/027 32 Fault.The lines of evidence given above Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly suggest that the Rosillos Laccolith was verb abstract (the lines of r PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 8 evidence) Performative P/B/028 33 surface. Regardless, we feel that our evidence Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly supports our con- clusion that the verb abstract (our Rosill PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 9 evidence) Social Discipline S/B/001 34 —something Calvin, and no doubt Edwards, Strongly + Caution + Real-world domain: would strongly warn against. But in this moment the verb (performative) People (Edwards) SocialChristianity&LitJournal (1).txt 40 1 S/B/002 35 what is merely suggested here is more Strongly + Support + Real-world domain: strongly corroborated by the poems that verb (passive) abstract follow. T SocialChristianity&LitJournal (2).txt 41 1 S/B/003 36 between the two is sufficient to suggest Verb + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly that both translations have the same strongly (performative) abstract sour SocialChristianity&LitJournal (2).txt 41

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2 S/B/004 37 bears important traces of Bouix’s involvement, Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: strongly suggests they may be his as well. verb abstract SocialChristianity&LitJournal (2).txt 41 3 S/B/005 In the third sense of the Strongly + Recommendation + Real-world domain: paradox, Jesus’ powerlessness is seen as a salvific and verb (passive) abstract transforming power; this sense is conspicuously absent from the first poem but strongly suggested via negativa by the second and is indeed prompted by Pinsky’s own philosophy of transformation. SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt 44 1 S/B/006 40 catechized audience would not have missed Strongly + Judgment: + Real-world domain: their strongly religious language. Early in the play, adj personality abstract (language) fo SocialChristianity&LitJournal (9).txt 48 1 S/B/007 42 amework as democratic-egalitarian ideals are Strongly + Managing/directing + Real-world domain: strongly held and incorporated in the adj abstract (ideals) immigrant i SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 1 S/B/008 42 amework as democratic-egalitarian ideals are Strongly + Be related + Real-world domain: strongly held and incorporated in the adj abstract (ideals) immigrant i SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 Incoming oriented 1 S/B/009 43 cid:81)- cal, social, and identitarian issue that Strongly + Giving opinion + Real-world domain: strongly contends and emphasizes the verb (performative) abstract (issue) provision of SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50

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2 S/B/010 43 cid:81)- cal, social, and identitarian issue that Strongly + Importance/ + Real-world domain: strongly contends and emphasizes the verb significance abstract (issue) provision of SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 2

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Appendix 3: Data Analysis of Highly Degree Adverb HIGHLY Health Discipline Code Data Lexical Semantic Preference Prosodic Subject/Object Pattern Level Reference H/C/0 1Working in emergency care is commonly regarded as Highly + adj Evaluation: good/bad - Real-world: 01 highly stressful. This is also true in the Abstract HealthAfricanJournal1.txt 0 Unfavorable thing/ - 1 condition H/C 2Working in emergency care is commonly regarded as Highly + adj Evaluation: good/bad - Real-world: /002 highly stressful. This is especially true in Abstract the HealthAfricanJournal1.txt 0 Unfavorable thing/ 2 condition H/C/0 3 respondents (67%, n = 85) perceived Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 03 themselves as highly competent in basic skills domain: (e.g. assess HealthAfricanJournal2.txt Favorable thing/ interactive 1 1 condition partcipant H/C/0 4 respondents (45%, n = 57) perceived Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 04 themselves as highly competent in the domain: intermediate skills (e.g. Favorable thing/ interactive HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 condition partcipant 2 H/C/0 5 rate current competencies from least Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 05 competent to highly competent. Respondents domain: could score between HealthAfricanJournal2.txt Favorable thing/ interactive 1 3 condition partcipant H/C/0 6 respondents (67%, n = 85) perceived Highly + Ability, intelligence + Participant 06 themselves as highly competent in basic skills adj domain: (e.g. assess HealthAfricanJournal2.txt Favorable thing/ interactive

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1 4 condition partcipant H/C/0 7 respondents (45%, n = 57) perceived Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 07 themselves as highly competent in the inter- domain: mediate skills (e. HealthAfricanJournal2.txt Favorable thing/ interactive 1 5 condition partcipant H/C/0 8 artments Least competent % (n) Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 08 Competent % (n) Highly competent % (n) Able to domain: assess breathing: Health AfricanJournal2.txt interactive 1 6 Favorable thing/ partcipant condition H/C/0 9 respondents (67%, n = 85) perceived Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 09 themselves as highly competent for basic domain: skills, it is of HealthAfricanJournal2.txt Favorable thing/ interactive 1 7 condition partcipant H/C/0 10 study also indicated that they were not Highly + adj Ability, intelligence + Participant 10 highly competent for ‘Able to assess mental domain: status HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 Favorable thing/ interactive 8 condition partcipant H/C/0 11 continuing education [9]. ACLS Highly + adj Wanting; planning; + Real-world 11 certification is a highly desirable qualification for choosing domain: abstract emergency nurses HealthAfricanJournal2.txt 1 9 Recommendation

Favorable thing/ condition H/C/0 12The high percentage of low-acuity patients is Highly + verb Wanting; planning; + Real-world 12 worrisome. In district- (passive) choosing domain: concrete level health institutions, the resuscitation unit is often the only mon- Recommendation

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itored area outside of theatre and is thus reserved for the sickest pa- Favorable thing/ tients.. It is therefore a highly sought after condition and limited resource . Inapprop HealthAfricanJournal3.txt 2 1 H/C/0 13 Kidney stones disease was relatively Highly + adj Comparing: + Real-world 13 not a highly prevalent among Usual/unusual domain: abstract patients in HUSM with a prevalence of 1.8% in the period of Favorable thing/ 2012–2016. HealthAfricanJournal4.txt condition 3 1 H/C/0 14 ate, nephron sparing surgery (NSS) is Highly + verb Wanting; planning; + Real-world 14 highly recommended either by selective (passive) choosing domain: abstract emb HealthAfricanJournal5.txt 4 1 Recommendation

Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 15 histopathology, that meant there was a Highly + adj Importance or + Real-world 15 highly significant difference in the significance domain: abstract inci HealthAfricanJournal6.txt 5 + 1 Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 16 tabulated with adenocarcinoma, we Highly + adj Importance or + Real-world 16 find a highly significant difference in the significance domain: abstract

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inci HealthAfricanJournal6.txt 5 + 2 Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 17 ell as in others [14], there was a Highly + adj Importance or + Real-world 17 highly significant positive correlation significance domain: abstract betwe HealthAfricanJournal6.txt 5 + 3 Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 18 /ml or more [15]. Our study showed Highly + adj Importance or + Real-world 18 a highly significant positive correlation significance domain: abstract bet HealthAfricanJournal6.txt 5 + 4 Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 19 Since our hospital is located in the Highly + Ability/intelligence + Real-world 19 urban area draining population adjective domain: people who is highly educated and compliant, the + follow up schedule was Favorable thing/ strictly adhered to by the patients. condition HealthAfricanJournal7.txt 6 1 General: suitability +

Favorable thing/ condition

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H/C/0 20 re-PCNL. Vicentini et al. [3] found a Highly + Adj Importance or + Real-world 20 highly statistically significant significance domain: abstract difference b HealthAfricanJournal8.txt + 7 1 Favorable thing/ condition

H/C/0 21 PPV (positive predictive values) and NPV Highly + verb Change - Real-world 21 ( negative predictive values) of any test are highly (passive) domain: abstract affected by disease prevalence. True CMV G HealthOxfordJournal (2).txt 11 1 H/C/0 22 /hour and 11.1 (8.95, 13.8) L. Daptomycin Highly + Adj Comparing: variety + Real-world 22 CL was highly variable, and as shown in Figure 2, a domain: abstract HealthOxfordJournal (4).txt 13 1 H/C/0 23 and manage ment of this population are Highly + Adj Comparing: variety + Real-world 23 highly variable. Although dapto mycin domain: abstract TDM could b HealthOxfordJournal (4).txt 13 2 H/C/0 24 dengue PICU with management Highly + Ability/intelligence + Real-world 24 coordinated by a highly experienced fever in 357 adjective domain: abstract additional cases, HealthOxfordJournal (5).txt Favorable thing/ 14 1 condition H/C/0 25 wa Highly + Adj Disease - Real-world 25 s not enough evidence to be that highly domain: abstract virulent strains circulate in some househol Unfavored thing/

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HealthOxfordJournal (7).txt 16 situation 1 H/C/0 26 this is that TST is not a highly Highly + Adj Judgement - Real-world 26 sensitive test for M. tuberculosis infecti domain: abstract HealthOxfordJournal (7).txt 16 Unfavorable 2 H/C/0 27 children, and malnourished children; nor is Highly + Adj Particular/ detail - Real-world 27 it highly specif To conclusively determine the domain: abstract utili HealthOxfordJournal (7).txt 16 3 H/C/0 29 23]. Overall, the Hib conjugate vaccine Highly + Adj Utility + Real-world 28 remains highly effective in preventing invasive domain: concrete disease i HealthOxfordJournal (9).txt 18 Favorable thing/ 1 condition

Physical Discipline P/C/0 30 SCExAO, the performance of the system is Highly + Adj - Real-world 01 highly dependent on the stability of the PSF. Correlation domain: abstract PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 1 Unfavorable thing/ condition

P/C/0 31 change as a function of wavelength, a Highly + Adj Wanting, planning, - Real-world 02 highly undesirable feature in a calibration choosing domain: abstract etalon PhysicalAstronomiJournal.txt 21 1 Recommendation

Unfavorable thing/ condition

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P/C/0 32 . Since the FFT algorithm has already been Highly + verb Support + Real-world 03 highly opti- mized in the FPGA, the PDFT (passive) domain: abstract PhysicalAstronomiJournal2.txt 22 1 P/C/0 33 has been suggested that PBHs can be Highly + verb Importance/ significance + Real-world 04 highly concentrated in galaxies, specifically (passive) domain: concrete in t PhysicalAstronomiJournal3.txt 23 1 P/C/0 1282 Highly + verb Constraint - Real-world 05 Due to the limited spacecraft power budget, volatile (passive) domain: abstract memory is highly constrained, with 2 MB available Unfavorable thing/ for continuous opera- condition tion and with an additional 128 MB block activated for short intervals of 5–10 minutes for intensive processing. HUFFMAN ET AL. highly constrained, with 2 MB available for contin PhysicalAstronomiJournal4.txt 24 1 P/C/0 35 be a more effi- cient alternative to Highly + Adj Judgement - Real-world 06 highly sensitive instruments. In the NEASc- domain: concrete out mi PhysicalAstronomiJournal4.txt 24 Unfavorable thing/ 2 condition

P/C/0 36 as before. The results indicated Highly + adj Judgement - Real-world 07 performance was highly sensitive to changing domain: abstract additive noise, such PhysicalAstronomiJournal4.txt Unfavorable thing/ 24 3 condition

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P/C/0 37 S/N of instrument measurements without Highly + Adj Affect/ change + Real-world 08 requiring highly stable long exposures. At the same domain: abstract time, PhysicalAstronomiJournal4.txt 24 Favorable thing/ 4 condition

P/C/0 38 Kepler 12b (KOI 20.01, Fortney et al. 2011), with a Highly + Affect/ change - Real-world 09 radius of adjective domain: abstract 1:69 0:03 RJup and a mass of 0:43 0:04 MJup, belongs to the group of planets with highly inflated radii. PhysicalAstronomiJournal5.txt 25 1 P/C/0 39 planets (e.g., Doyle et al. 2011), and Highly + adj Comparing: variety + Real-world 10 highly variable host star systems. Excluded domain: abstract multip PhysicalAstronomiJournal5.txt 25 2 P/C/0 40 fringe patterns, whether temporal or spatial, Highly + Adj Judgement - Real-world 11 are highly sensitive to changes in the Doppler domain: abstract velocit PhysicalAstronomiJournal6.txt 26 Unfavorable thing/ 1 condition P/C/0 41 wavelength calibration error measurements Highly + verb Correlation - Real-world 12 are not highly correlated. See the electronic edition (passive) domain: abstract of t PhysicalAstronomiJournal6.txt 26 2 P/C/0 42 wavelength calibration error measurements Highly + verb Correlation - Real-world 13 are not highly correlated. 4. ERROR BUDGET (passive) domain: abstract The simulatio PhysicalAstronomiJournal6.txt 26 3 P/C/0 43 and performance of the OPD estimator are Highly + Adj Particular/ specific + Real-world

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14 highly implementa- tion-specific, but most domain: abstract balloon PhysicalAstronomiJournal7.txt 27 Incoming orientation 1 P/C/0 44 the error associated with each method is Highly + Adj Particular/ specific + Real-world 15 highly implemen- tation-specific. Here, we domain: abstract conside PhysicalAstronomiJournal7.txt 27 Incoming orientation 2 P/C/0 45 sually produces unsatisfactory results due to Highly + verb Correlation - Real-world 16 the highly correlated condition of the (passive) domain: abstract coefficients. T PhysicalAstronomiJournal8.txt 28 1 P/C/0 46 The residual Highly + verb Affect/ change - Real-world 17 gas has a temperature of about 2 MK (Phillips & Clegg (passive) domain: concrete 1992; Physical-related term Galeazzi et al. 2014) so the gas is highly ionized, including ions such as O VI and C II. PhysicalAstronomiJournal10.txt 29 1 P/C/0 47 ., den- sity contrast with seawater) that are Highly + Adj Judgement - Real-world 18 highly sensi- tive to climate conditions domain: abstract (Mulder a PhysicalGeologyJournal1.txt 30 Unfavorable thing/ 1 condition

P/C/0 48 ation and turbi- dite accumulation that Verb +highly Concord/ x - Real-world 19 contrasts highly with other recent studies conducted domain: abstract on turb PhysicalGeologyJournal1.txt 30 Unfavorable thing/ 2 condition

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P/C/0 49 G- Verb +highly Correlation + Real-world 20 WA and EG values should correlate highly domain: abstract PhysicalGeologyJournal2.txt 31 1 P/C/0 50 , L.; Rautela, C. S.; and Mallik, J. 2008. Highly + Adj Comparing: variety - Real-world 21 Highly heterogeneous Precambrian domain: concrete basement under th PhysicalGeologyJournal8.txt Unfavorable thing/ 37 1 condition

P/C/0 51 within the region. We suggest that the Highy + Damage - Real-world 22 highly fractured nature of the Rosillos adjective domain: concrete Laccolith PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 Unfavorable thing/ 1 condition

P/C/0 52 stress at the fault tip within the highly Highly + Damage - Real-world 23 fractured laccolith and (2) the strongly as adjective domain: concrete PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 Unfavorable thing/ 2 condition

P/C/0 53 along the eastern Chalk Draw Fault is Highly + Adj Comparing: similar/ - Real-world 24 highly asymmetric, with maximum throw different domain: abstract located alon PhysicalGeologyJournal9.txt 38 3 Unfavorable thing/ condition

P/C/0 54 fractal dimension for weath- ering products Highly + Adj Comparing: variety + Real-world 25 is highly variable for catchments underlain by domain: abstract Flysch PhysicalGeologyJournal10.txt 39 1

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P/C/0 55 grain size trends and architectures are Highly + Adj Comparing: usual/unusu - Real-world 26 therefore highly nonunique in terms of their forcing al domain: abstract mechani PhysicalGeologyJournal10.txt 39 2 Unfavorable thing/ condition

Social Discipline S/C/0 62 with social and collective problems has Highly + Adj Importance: + Real-world 01 become highly apparent in the scanty public support noticeability domain: abstract for SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 1 Favorable

S/C/0 63 to characterize the situa- tion it is Highly + Adj General/abstract: + Real-world 02 highly probable that only the maritime liens chance/luck domain: abstract provi SocialMexicanJournal2.txt 51 + 1 Favorable S/C/0 64 this law, it enters the complicated and Highly + permission/consent/auth + Real-world 03 highly regulated field of the financial adjective orization domain: abstract world.181 SocialMexicanJournal6.txt 55 + 1 Favorable S/C/0 65 1990 Ideological: as theorised by Highly + Adj Comparing -similar/ - Real-world 04 Saxonberg as a highly distinctive feature of different domain: abstract post-totalitarian SocialMexicanJournal7.txt 56 1 Unfavorable

S/C/0 66 uld be employed. However, this Highly + Adj Physical/mental: (level + Real-world

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05 argument is highly theoretical as Article 237 of) domain: abstract announces the cr SocialMexicanJournal8.txt practicality/abstraction 57 1

Favorable S/C/0 67 rchitecture of the Republic makes this Highly + Adj Evaluation: True/false - Real-world 06 scenario highly unlikely. The territory of the Federa- Evaluative terms domain: abstract tio SocialMexicanJournal8.txt 57 depicting truth 2 -

Unfavorable S/C/0 56 efore, ‘‘Spanish Catholicism repre- sented Highly + Concord / x + Real-world 07 less a highly unified structure of faith and practice adjective domain: abstract than SocialChristianity&LitJournal (3).txt 42 1 Favorable S/C/0 70 Christianity & Literature 65(1) highly Highly + Adj Evaluation: good/bad + Real-world 08 positive. A 1947 article by John Frey, for domain: abstract SocialChristianity&LitJournal (4).txt 43 1 Favorable S/C/0 58 often echoes the Book of Revelation, that Highly + Adj Noticeability - Real-world 09 highly figurative work of prime domain: abstract eschatological impo SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt 44 1 Unfavorable S/C/0 59 a very personal way untypical of the Highly + Permission/ consent + Real-world 10 highly prescribed decorum informing adjective domain: abstract monastic writi SocialChristianity&LitJournal (6).txt 45 1 favorable S/C/0 60 that is understandable when faced with a Highly + Adj Practicality/ abstraction - Real-world 11 highly abstract introduction to an exquisite domain: abstract

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lyric SocialChristianity&LitJournal (8).txt 47 1 Unfavorable S/C/0 61 The Highly + Adj Measurement (number) - Real-world 12 present is the mode of access to the past and the future, domain: abstract though only in highly limited Unfavorable ways; SocialChristianity&LitJournal (8).txt 47 2

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Appendix 4: Data Analysis of Fully Degree Adverb FULLY Health Discipline Code Data Lexical Pattern Semantic Preference Prosodic Subject/ Level Object Reference H/D/001 1 All emm 11.0 isolates were Fully + adjective Health-related term - Real-world domain: tetracycline abstract resistant and fully or intermediately erythromycin resistant; 10 HealthOxfordJournal (3).txt 12 1 Physical Discipline P/D/001 3 in the limit when the mask is Fully + adjective Movement + Real-world domain: fully transmissive, the IWA is abstract minimized at the Physical-related term PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 2 P/D/002 4 tip/tilt than the PIAA, and is Fully + adjective Physical-related term - Real-world domain: fully achromatic from y-K band. It is abstract PhysicalAstronomiJournal 9.txt 20 3 P/D/003 5 of 5 days). Furthermore, we ap- Fully + adjective Physical-related term + Real-world domain: plied a fully physical model with all abstract different phase-curv PhysicalAstronomiJournal5.txt 25 1 P/D/004 6 albedos corrected for thermal Fully + adjective Utility/ Inutility + Real-world domain: emission for 2, and fully efficient abstract redistribution, 3, of heat from pl

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PhysicalAstronomiJournal5.txt 25 2 P/D/005 7 traditional FTS at ZPD, one output Fully + adjective Making + Real-world domain: has fully construc- tive interference abstract while the other PhysicalAstronomiJournal7.txt 27 1 P/D/006 8 construc- tive interference while the Fully + adjective Damaging - Real-world domain: other has fully destructive interfer- ence, with abstract even symmet PhysicalAstronomiJournal7.txt 27 2 P/D/007 9 The incandescent lamp can be used Fully + verb Enlighten + Real-world domain: with the diffuser slide to concrete fully illuminate the CCD PhysicalAstronomiJournal8.txt 28 1 P/D/008 10 of the reduction, we finally have a Fully + adjective Affect/ change + Real-world domain: fully charac- terized science image abstract (i.e., flat- PhysicalAstronomiJournal8.txt 28 2 P/D/009 11 r mollusk samples independent of Fully + adjective ?? + Real-world domain: stratigraphy for fully marine settings. abstract When applied simultaneously PhysicalGeologyJournal2.txt 31 1 P/D/010 12 igneous materials that were not as Fully + verb Physical-related term + Real-world domain: yet fully crystallized were incorporated (passive) concrete into the basa Change/becoming

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PhysicalGeologyJournal3.txt 32 1 P/D/011 13 intrusions were sheared off. The Fully + verb Physical-related term + Real-world domain: diorite was fully crystallized, and the (passive) concrete second intrusion was n Change/becoming PhysicalGeologyJournal3.txt 32 2 P/D/012 14 weathering depends on the parent Fully + verb Particular/detail + Real-world domain: rock being fully specified in terms of (passive) concrete its mechanical properti Establishment PhysicalGeologyJournal10.txt 39 1 Social Discipline S/D/001 15 rituals, they are now used by one Fully + adjective Knowledge + Real-world domain: fully aware of their medicinal Mental process people purposes. The whisp SocialChristianity&LitJournal (1).txt 40 1 S/D/002 16 -described ‘‘Teresian Bard’’ whose Verb + fully Physical-related term + Real-world domain: lyre resonate fully to Teresa’s own concrete song. In conclusion, SocialChristianity&LitJournal (2).txt 41 1 S/D/003 17 deny or take away the liberty which Fully + verb Be related + Real-world domain: fully belongs to the woman both in Abstract view SocialChristianity&LitJournal (3).txt Incoming oriented 42 1 S/D/004 18 the narrative of Brede cannot, of Fully + verb Implementation + Real-world domain: course, fully adopt a divine perspective, this Abstract

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novel explo Incoming oriented SocialChristianity&LitJournal (4).txt 43 1 S/D/005 19 topics that have been mentioned but Fully + verb Establishment + Real-world domain: not fully defined within the story (646– (passive) Abstract 7)—indicates th SocialChristianity&LitJournal (4).txt 43 2 S/D/006 20 New Testament miracles. Is Fully + adjective Judgement: personality + Real-world domain: Pinsky’s Jesus fully divine, then? The people tension between the Word SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt 44 1 S/D/007 21 Jesus poems? Since Jesus did not Verb + fully Knowledge + Real-world domain: know fully about the twelve sparrows he people sent reeling Mental process verb SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt 44 2 S/D/008 22 , What Percy, Dewey, and Eubanks Verb + fully Knowledge + Real-world domain: do not seem to people realize fully enough Mental process verb SocialChristianity&LitJournal (7).txt 46 1 S/D/009 25 of Osiris [Truth]’’ that will never Fully + verb Making + Real-world domain: be fully reassembled until the (passive) abstract ‘‘Masters second commi SocialChristianity&LitJournal (10).txt 49 1 S/D/010 28 societies, and ultimately make the Fully + verb Common + Real-world domain:

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citizens who fully enjoy and practice people their social, political SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 3 S/D/011 38 regime that forces the bankruptcy Fully + verb Implementation + Real-world domain: estate to fully internalize the costs of abstract rejection is regar Incoming oriented SocialMexicanJournal10.txt 59 3 S/D/012 30 in December 2012.64 The new Fully + verb Making - Real-world domain: notion was not fully shaped, however, (passive) abstract until July 2013, when it w SocialMexicanJournal7.txt 56 1 S/D/013 31 21% of the Guidelines approved in Fully + verb Implementation + Real-world domain: 2011 had been fully implemented, 77% (passive) abstract were in process, and 2% had Incoming oriented SocialMexicanJournal7.txt 56 2 S/D/014 32 late stage, in which the regime was Fully + verb ?? - Real-world domain: fully confronted with its economic (passive) abstract failures –Fide Concord/ x SocialMexicanJournal7.txt 56 3 S/D/015 33 , I argue that no single cause Fully + verb ?? + Real-world domain: may fully account for this. Several Affect/ change abstract causes must be SocialMexicanJournal8.txt 57 1

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S/D/016 34 it to be impossible to make Fully + adjective Power, organizing?? + Real-world domain: hegemony fully accountable for the abstract amendments, it is proba Affect/ change? SocialMexicanJournal8.txt 57 2 S/D/017 35 a commitment tso “enhance this Fully + verb ?? + Real-world domain: cooperation to fully leverage their Change abstract inevitable and accelerating e SocialMexicanJournal9.txt 58 1 S/D/018 36 this rule the bankruptcy estate does Fully + verb Implementation + Real-world domain: not fully internalize the costs of abstract rejection. A contr Incoming oriented SocialMexicanJournal10.txt 59 1 S/D/019 37 . Because the bankruptcy estate is Fully + verb Implementation + Real-world domain: forced to fully internalize abstract (cid:92)(cid:80)(cid:77)(cid:3) Incoming oriented SocialMexicanJournal10.txt 59 2 S/D/020 28 societies, and ultimately make the Fully + verb Common + Real-world domain: citizens who fully enjoy and practice people their social, political SocialMexicanJournal1.txt 50 3

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Appendix 5: Data Analysis of Fairly Degree Adverb FAIRLY Physical Discipline Code Data Pattern Semantic Prosody Prosodic Subject/ Object Level Reference P/E/001 1 For laser di- Fairly + adj Comparing: usual/unusual + Real-world domain: odes without antireflection (AR) coating on the output abstract facet, like the one used here, a mode-hop free tuning range of 1– 2 GHz is fairly typical, PhysicalAstronomiJournal.txt P/E/002 2 to the Rb line. Since we scan fairly Fairly + Measurement? - Real-world domain: slowly, the power dissipation in- side the Adv Speed abstract PhysicalAstronomiJournal.txt P/E/003 3 A bigger issue Fairly + Toughness? - Real-world domain: is that the useful lines for calibration in the reddest Adj abstract orders UM (λ ≳ 7800, red order number less than 44) are fairly weak. PhysicalAstronomiJournal8.txt P/E/004 4 the Indus Fan (Clift and Blusztajn 2005) Fairly + Measurement? frequent + Real-world domain: show fairly constant eNd values around 210 (fig. Adj abstract 2). The PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt P/E/005 5 Since exhumation rates in the Kohistan- Fairly + Measurement? Frequent + Real-world domain: Ladakh Adj abstract arc, away from the Nanga Parbat–Haramosh mas- sif, appear to have remained fairly constant since Eocene times (van der Beek et al. 2009),

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PhysicalGeologyJournal5.txt Social Discipline S/E/001 6 of maritime liens under Mexican law is Fairly + Measurement : + Real-world domain: fairly extensive, national leg- Adj Size abstract (cid:81)(cid:91)(c SocialMexicanJournal2.txt

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Appendix 6: Data Analysis of Utterly Degree Adverb UTTERLY Social Discipline Code Data Pattern Semantic Preference Prosodic Subject/ Object Level Reference S/F/001 1 devotional so that beholding it I Utterly + Unpleasant thing - Real-world domain: was utterly distressed in seeing him that way adjective people . . .I SocialChristianity&LitJournal (2).txt S/F/002 2 ultural imagination of the subject Adj Comparing: similar/different - Real-world domain: with something utterly different. This abstract need to answer by transform SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt S/F/003 3 response that takes the form of Adj Comparing: similar/different - Real-world domain: ‘‘something utterly different.’’ abstract ‘‘Different’’ cannot mean merel SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt S/F/004 4 . Oddly enough, Infancy Adj Judgement: personality + Real-world domain: Thomas’s Jesus looks utterly people divine in comparison: both the ‘‘single co SocialChristianity&LitJournal (5).txt S/F/005 5 suggest that they are playing a Utterly + Wanting, planning, choosing - Real-world domain: role. Utterly unexpected, the pool is adjective abstract ‘‘filled with water SocialChristianity&LitJournal (8).txt

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