University of Amsterdam 2015

Master Thesis

Brazilian cinema identity in the age of postcolonial globalization

Student: Ermeson Vieira Gondim

Thesis Supervisor: Dr. Emiel Martens Second reader: Dr. Kaouthar Darmoni

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my life partner, Markus Wolschlager, for all his love and support, for his incentive and trust, for all the good moments he is been able to offer me to make me happy.

Thanks to my parents, Zilmar Vieira Gondim and João de Aquino Gondim, for their unconditional love and for all they have given to me; especially education and respect for the truth and peoples’ rights.

A special thank to my supervisor, Emiel Martens, for his support, comprehension, generosity, and for his sense of humour that helped make our meetings easier to bare.

And finally, I would like to thank all the professors I met at the University of Amsterdam, who have helped to broaden my knowledge even further in this new step of my academic life.

Thanks for all!

2

Contents

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 2 CONTENTS ...... 3 TITLE ...... 4 ABSTRACT ...... 4 1 INTRODUCTION TO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 5 2 THEORY I: MODERN WORLD ...... 10 2.1 OVERVIEW ...... 10 2.2 FROM THIRD WORLD TO THE THIRD CINEMA ...... 12 2.3 CINEMA NOVO: THE “CANNIBAL CINEMA” (1960S) ...... 21 2.4 WORLD CINEMA ...... 31 3 THEORY II: POST-MODERN WORLD ...... 35 3.1 FROM NATIONAL TO GLOBAL CINEMA ...... 35 3.2 BRAZILIAN CINEMA (THE RETOMADA PERIOD - 1990S) ...... 40 3.3 NEW-NEW-BRAZILIAN CINEMA (2010S)...... 47 4 CASE STUDIES ...... 59 4.1 METHODOLOGY ...... 59 4.2 FILM 1: “ONCE UPON A TIME I, VERÔNICA” (DIR. BY MARCELO GOMES; 2012) ...... 61 4.3 FILM 2: “ARTIFICIAL PARADISES" (DIR. BY MARCOS PRADO; 2012) ...... 63 4.4 FILM 3: “FUTURO BEACH” (DIR. BY KARIM AÏNOUZ; 2014) ...... 65 4.5 RESUMÉ ...... 68 5 CONCLUSION ...... 69 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 73 FILMOGRAPHY ...... 78

3 Title

Brazilian cinema identity in the age of postcolonial globalization

Abstract

Brazilian society until the 1980s and most especially in the 1950s and 1960s was seen through a modernist and nationalist lens. Cinema Novo (1960s/early- 1970s) reverberated this view of Brazil in its films. The political and economic changes during the 1980's collaborated to change Brazilian cinema in its re- emergence in the 1990s after the dismantling of EMBRAFILME by the former president Fernando Collor de Mello. It was transforming thus, its political and ideological inclinations as well as its aesthetics into a less political, more commercial and globalized cinema. In the late-2000s Brazilian cinema started to diversify its production rejecting old clichés about its traditional territories: the sertão (backlands) and the favela (slum), as well as searching for more realistic narratives for those spaces. Unlike the past, it has invested more on personal stories and affect than on national allegories to report social problems. These new developments point to the necessity of re-mapping Brazilian cinema’s political and aesthetic choices to assess its current identity, taking in consideration the processes of globalization and internationalization of Brazilian cinema. This thesis seeks to know how globalization has shaped Brazilian cinema identity from the third-worldist cinema perspective to a more post-modern global one. The research method is based on gathering information provided by theorists who discussed Brazilian cinema in three different periods: in the 1960s, 1990s and late 2000s onwards to trace a map of its political, historical and aesthetic choices today. The idea of Cinema Novo involved in a national-political- ideological project as it is supported for example by Randal Johnson, will be contrasted, with the notion of a Brazilian cinema more inspired on the idea of cosmetic of hunger in a globalized economy as supported by Ivana Bentes. The thesis argues that Brazilian cinema has turned away from the political cinema of the 1960s but also from making ‘parody’ or recycling old stories, territories and mythical figures of earlier times. By comparing aesthetics, politics, and means of production in three different periods the thesis seeks to assess a clear picture of the Brazilian cinema identity in the present time.

Key Words Third Cinema, Cinema Novo, New Brazilian cinema, globalization, identity.

4 1 Introduction to Theoretical Framework

Brazilian cinema today is notably a worldwide phenomenon. People are watching Brazilian films from New York to London, from Amsterdam to Berlin in commercial movie theatres, in film festivals or via stream.

The increased production in the last 20 years is remarkable; not even less how much Brazilian cinema has managed to diversify its themes, genres, styles and become globalized. However, some questions still should be answered in order to assess current Brazilian cinema identity. How has it entered into this process of globalization? What effects and consequences it produces on a cinema that has been historically related with the national struggles against decolonization and neo-colonialism in the Third World? Has this objective completely been abandoned or it has found other forms of dealing with ethic and aesthetics? In short, what are the consequences of globalization on Brazilian cinema identity? This is the research question that this thesis seeks to answer.

Counting from the 1960s, it could be argued that Brazilian cinema has lived three phases. A first period that encompasses the militant cinema of Cinema Novo ranges around the 1960s to the early 1970s; a second period represented by the phase of the ‘rebirth’ or ‘retomada’ of Brazilian cinema (1990s to late 2000s), represented by the period after the dismantling of the Brazilian Film Company – EMBRAFILME – by the former president Fernando Collor de Mello in 1990, and a new period from the late 2000s until now that I will refer as post-retomada period.

Through a critical study the thesis assesses questions about politics and nation building paradigms; first due to Cinema Novo’s commitment with a nationalist and anti-colonial project and because it has been considered synonymous of Brazilian cinema as Randal Johnson has argued (“Brazilian Cinema Novo” 96); In addition, due to the fact that those paradigms have been very important to shape

5 the perception on how the nations should be understood and constructed, how national identity is constructed, and without a doubt, it has influenced on how cinema builds its narratives.

Once the notion of national cinema and the representation of national identity are in dispute in this theoretical discussion on what constitutes Brazilian cinema today, this thesis assesses the very paradigms and critical analysis on the emergence and notion of nation and nationalism. It introduces the work of Tatiana S. Heise where she proposes two camps for the debate on the advent of nations: the modernist paradigm and the anti-modernist critique (11).

Heise argues that “the modernist paradigm emerged in the 1960s” and that it “envisaged the nation as the ideal agent and framework for social development” (Heise 12). However, the modernist project requires from citizens a loyalty should surpass other differences and affiliations that according to Heise, can only be mobilized through the sentiment of nationalism (Heise 12). However, that “from the early 1980s onwards there was a remarkable shift” due to “important changes in the world order” that “inspired a whole new debates on nations and nationalism, much of which involved a criticism of the modernist paradigm and its canonical formulations” (Ibid).

Some of the problems noted were that “in African and Asian states, the [nationalist] nation-building project proved to be more problematic than expected and the democratic dream was not realized”, there were ethic conflicts even in Western countries and “in the East the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 encouraged new ethno-national formations which escaped the ‘civic’ model proposed by modernists” (Heise 12). In addition and in the same direction, Anthony D. Smith argues that “the great tides of immigration and the massive increase in communications and information technology have brought into question the early beliefs in a single civic nation with a homogeneous national identity which could be used as a model for ‘healthy’ national development” (3).

6 The debates about geopolitical changes after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, globalization and the questions about supra-national institutions and economic power also contributed for the weakening of the modernist discourse.

Such a “failure” of the nationalism and the modernist paradigm gave room for a critique of this model and new formulations about the way nations emerged. In this sense, the research presents other alternatives on how to understand nations in contemporary (post-modern and post-nationalist) times especially through the work of theorists like Anthony D. Smith, Hamid Naficy and Benedict Anderson.

This discussion on the nature of ‘national-building project’ is important due to the fact that Cinema Novo was in a large extent influenced by the modernist ideas proposed “by the formulations of the Instituto Superior de Estudos Brasileiros (Higher Institute of Brazilian Studies), which was created by [former president] Kubitschek in 1955 with the express purpose of formulating a national ideology of development” (Johnson, “Brazilian Cinema Novo” 98); New Brazilian cinema from the mid-1990s onwards is already a post-nationalist, post- modern cinema, settled in a new age of global communication, marketing and for consequent, hybrid in form and content.

In general terms this thesis is divided into three parts according to the three mentioned periods of Brazilian cinema. The first part (chapter 2) starts with an introduction of the political and historical context where Third World Cinema and by consequence Brazilian Cinema Novo was embedded in the 1960s (the Cold War, the emergent division of the world into three blocs – First, Second and Third World etc.). Cinema Novo can be seen as a proposal for the construction of a political-ideological cinema that would contribute for the modernist national project and its demise. Still in this chapter a section on World Cinema seeks to deconstruct a discourse that aims to perpetuate a dichotomy that constructs Hollywood cinema as superior to other forms of cinema and argues for

7 internationalization of national cinema in the form of hybrid, diasporic, accented, exilic, etc. cinemas.

Chapter 3 starts with a discussion on early cinema as a supranational cinema, and how nationalism has pushed it into a nation discourse and how this discourse has collapsed in the 1980s allowing national cinemas to enjoy the international scene once again from then on. Caring to provide a materialist account on how the globalization manifests itself in film industry it provides some examples, such as, diaspora, accented, exilic, etc. types of filmmaking. Still in this chapter, the thesis offers an outline of the so-called “New Brazilian cinema” represented by the period between 1990s to late 2000s. It aims to contextualize it political and economically and present some of its aesthetic features.

The second part of chapter 3 focuses on the third period of Brazilian cinema. It aims to give an account of the ‘post-retomada’ cinema around the year 2010, the political, ideological and economical facts that may be influencing in the production of new aesthetic and narrative choices that are shaping this new phase of Brazilian Cinema.

Chapter 4 represents the case studies. It analyses three films: Artificial Paradises (Paraisos Artificiais; Marcos Prado; 2012), Once Upon A Time I, Verônica (Era Uma Vez Eu, Verônica; Marcelo Gomes; 2012) and Futuro Beach (Praia do Futuro; Karim Aïnouz; 2014). The method chose is David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson’s narrative poetics analysis based on character psychology because the research due to the importance of personal identity for this thesis. The films will be analysed in the above order.

The conclusion presents several findings; from the paradigms of modernity and post-modernity and their relation with the notion of nation and nationalism to how globalization has influenced Brazilian Cinema. It starts presenting the

8 research question and its general timeframe. Then it assesses that there have been ethic and aesthetic changes from each period to the other and that in all cases they were related with the necessity of attract and please audiences.

It shows the intrinsic relation between modernism and nationalism and that nationalism started to decline from the 1980s, what contributed to the end of a dichotomy between national and international cinema. Moreover, that with globalization Brazilian cinema has diversified, increased its production and distribution in order to reach audiences world widely.

The conclusion also points out for the fact that the post-retomada as a globalized cinema is a cinema that invests more in personal stories, identities and universal values as a way to produce identification and attract audiences.

9 2 Theory I: Modern World

2.1 Overview

This chapter will explore the theoretical and historical basis for the discussions around Third World cinema, especially in Latin America. The concept of Third World Cinema was introduced in order to contextualize the position of Brazilian cinema in the 1960s and 1970s. The outline of which will later be used in this thesis to help understand the evolution of Brazilian cinema in the posterior periods, its political choices and its aesthetics. Therefore, this thesis starts by making an overview of the concepts of Third World, Third Cinema, World Cinema and their relation with the so-called Cinema Novo.

Concepts such as orientalism and neo-colonialism are introduced in the second section of this chapter to show how those theories have influenced post-colonial cinema, the notions of national identity and national cinema. At this point it is argued that the term “‘Third World’ refers to the colonized, neocolonized or decolonized nations and minorities…”, and that neo-colonialism is exerted by economic, political, military, and techno-informational-cultural means as argued by Shohat and Stam. Third World nations and artists struggled against neo- colonialism and strive to promote a national culture that reflect a national identity which is the case of Brazilian Cinema Novo in the 1960s (Shohat and Stam 25, 17).

It is also argued that orientalism is used as a discursive practice that positions the 'non-Western' into a narrative of difference which tends to be inferior. This can be also be compared to the idea from Lúcia Nagib that World Cinema “is not usually employed to mean cinema worldwide”, that “on the contrary, the usual of defining it is restrictive and negative as a non-Hollywood cinema”, to Shohat and

10 Stam’s idea that “in film studies, one name for Eurocentrism is Hollywoodcentrism” (Nagib, “Towards a Positive…” 30, and Shohat and Stam 29). The aim of this comparison is to show that the term ‘Third Cinema’ as well as ‘World Cinema’, are based on a discourse used to justify a position of power from one over the others.

The third part of this chapter explores how historical, political and ideological aspects have influenced of Brazilian Cinema Novo's (1960-1970s) political and aesthetical choices. It is argued that Cinema Novo as a Third World and Third Cinema movement was part of a national and modernist project that aimed to fight against neo-colonial, political and cultural forces with the view of construct an autochthone culture and identity. However, it is also argued that Cinema Novo has always incarnated the spirit of the post-colonial cinema “eating” like a cannibal external influences to construct its own identity (hybridity, syncretism, etc.).

Due to many failures to construct the national cinema industry based in the Hollywood studio system, Cinema Novo represented at once a way to fight against domination of Hollywood and the construction of an alternative national film “industry” in the modes of the cinèma d'auteur from France.

The last section is devoted to the discussion on the concept of World Cinema. The research has shown an epistemological problem related with the term since its meaning is determined by a discourse that works similarly to the notion of the West and East in Orientalism; in other words, a dichotomic formulation that implies a relationship of inferiority to the other, to the non-Hollywood cinema. This idea is formulated by using the arguments of theorists like Shohat and Stam, Edward W. Said or Dennison and Hwee.

Drawing on the work of Dennison and Hwee, it is argued that the power structure that involves the discourse on the World Cinema and its supposed

11 inferiority in relation to Western cinema is being jeopardized by the changes experienced in the world since 1980s. This idea is fundamental to understand that the cinema from this period is undoubtedly a global cinema. This concept is important to deconstruct the idea that the cinema from the Third World has obligatorily to be national, political or even inferior.

The chapter finishes showing some propositions from theorists like Dennison and Hwee, Shohat and Stam and Lúcia Nagib, on how World Cinema could be reassessed in film studies to allow other formulations that would go beyond the dichotomy ‘Hollywood and the others’.

2.2 From Third World to the Third Cinema

Geopolitical Context

Despite the fact that some nations had already achieved independence before the World War II, the mid-1940s and the 1950s represented a time where the political and ideological basis of the big struggle for national independence in the colonial world begun. In the context of the Cold War from the mid-1940s onwards, the fear that new independent countries could get allied with the communist Soviet Union grew. “Events such as the Indonesian struggle for independence from the Netherlands (1945–50), the Vietnamese war against France (1945–54), and the nationalist and professed socialist takeovers of Egypt (1952) and Iran (1951) served to reinforce such fears, even if new governments did not directly link themselves to the Soviet Union” (“Decolonization of Asia and Africa, 1945-1960”).

From both sides there were pressures and measures to attract new nations in an effort to avoid that those new states leaned to the contrary side; However, many of them resisted the impulse to be allied with one bloc or another, instead they constituted in the 1955’s during the Bandung conference the so-called “Third World” nation bloc (Ibid). The formation of this new bloc consolidated the

12 division of the world into three big blocs: the First World represented by the capitalist nations of NATO (Europe, USA, Australia, and Japan); the Second World represented by the communist nations (USSR, Cuba, and China)1; and last, the Third World, representing the rest of the nations that had a position of neither allied nor communist and that the history was marked by colonization (former colonies of Asia, Africa and Latin America) (“Third World…”).

The term Third World itself was introduced by Alfred Sauvy in an article in 1952, in which he compared the First State (the nobility) with the First World nations (“Tiers Monde”); the second (the Clergy) with the communist block and the third one (the Commoners) with the Third World nations (Shohat and Stam 25). For Shohat and Stam, “‘Third World’ refers to the colonized, neocolonized or decolonized nations and ‘minorities’ whose structural disadvantages have been shaped by the colonial process and by the unequal division of international labor” (Ibid). Due to the obstinacy of those nations to be casted apart of the major two blocs we can note that the term Third World had been used as a strategy to reinforce those non-allied nations’ fight for consolidating decolonization and to defeat neo-colonialism.

In an attempt to demystify and clarify the “colonizing” use of the term, Stam affirms that the notion of the Third World was imprecise because the Third World is not necessarily poor in resources (Mexico, Venezuela, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Iraq are rich in petroleum), nor culturally backward (as witnessed by brilliance of Third World cinema, literature, and music), nor non-industrialized (Brazil and Singapore are highly industrialized), nor non-white (Ireland, perhaps the first British colony, is predominantly white, as it is Argentina) (ibid).

What this treatment of the third world nation reveals is an effort to position those nations as poor, culturally backward, non-industrialized, or even non- white. It reveals itself as an economic and ideological power that the coloniser

1 About this latter, Ella Shohat and Robert Stam argue that “China’s place in the schema was the object of much debate” (25). This is due to China’s split with the Soviet Union in 1960 and later decision to ally itself with the Third World (in 1974) (Marxists.org).

13 nations impose over the colonised. The term thus, is more related with the “structural economic domination than” with what he calls “crude humanistic categories (‘the poor’), developmental categories (‘the non-industrialized’), (‘binary’) racial categories (‘the non-white’), cultural categories (‘the backward’), or geographical categories (‘the East’)” (Stam 93).

However, this discussion leads us to draw two conclusions: one, that colonizer and neo-colonizer nations manifest their power through economic control; and two, that there is also an ideological work that tries to position the colonized or neo-colonized country as inferior mainly in economic and cultural aspects. This perception has been very important especially to those Third World filmmakers from the 1960s and 1970s who wanted to create a national cinema as a way of fighting against the oppression of those colonizer and neo-colonizer countries and their ideologies.

Neo-colonialism and Orientalism

Once the process of decolonization became unstoppable around the 1950s, the challenge that all decolonized countries faced was the so-called neo-colonialism. Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of the independence and first prime minister of

Ghana, argues that existing colonies may linger on, but no new colonies will be created. In place of colonialism as the main instrument of imperialism we have today neo- colonialism. (Nkrumah ix)

For him, neo-colonialism is a system where an apparent independent state is controlled from outside by means of economic and political mechanisms that finally destroy the sovereignty of the other country (Nkrumah ix). In Shohat and Stam’s words, “Neocolonial domination is enforced through deteriorating terms of trade and the ‘austerity programs’ by which the World Bank and the IMF, often with the self-serving complicity of Third World elites, impose rules that First World countries would never tolerate themselves” (17). They explain that this control is exercised in many levels: This domination is economic (‘the Group of Seven,’ the IMF, the World Bank, GATT); political (the five veto-holding members of the UN Security Council);

14 military (the new ‘unipolar’ NATO); and techno-informational-cultural (Hollywood, UPI, Reuters, France Presse, CNN). (Shohat and Stam 17)

This latter one has been very important to those culture makers in the colonised, decolonized and neo-colonized nation since they soon understand that their fight against imperial domination could not be reduced to a political or even military struggle against empire; their fight had to pass through the production of a native or autochthonous culture that would help the ‘country’ to be sovereign.

And yet, another subtle form of exerting power by ideological control that leads to political and economic domination is by producing the nation or subject as economically, culturally, technologically inferior and dependent of the Western nations. This is what Edward W. Said refers as Orientalism. In the following statement he explains what Orientalism is and when it is produced. Taking the late eighteenth century as a very roughly defined starting point Orientalism can be discussed and analyzed as the corporate institution for dealing with the Orient - dealing with it by making statements about it, authorizing views of it, describing it, by teaching it, settling it, ruling over it: in short, Orientalism as a Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient. (Said 3)

However, one may ask what is the connection of Orientalism with film studies and the Third (World) Cinema? And I would argue that in the same way that the Western nations have produced the East as inferior and subordinated, film studies at least until recent, has produced the Third (World) Cinema as dependent and qualitatively inferior to Hollywood and European Cinema. In this sense, Hollywood domination (Western) is synonymous to the Orientalist power exerted by U.S. and European nations over the Orient and its ultimate aim is to avoid Third (World) Cinema to exert its influence internationally, in a truly global cinema market. Orientalism and “Hollywoodcentrism” as Shohat and Stam have referred, is not only a way of creating an inferior identity for the Eastern or the non-Hollywood cinema but also serves to make the West (or Hollywood) as superior (29). One can conclude that both Orientalism and “Hollywoodcentrism” is a construction, a discourse aimed to sustain a relationship of power and of self- affirmation through unbalanced difference.

15 Third (World) Cinema

The notion of Third Cinema was gestated inside the same political, ideological, economical and historical turmoil of the late 1940s to the late 1960s and shares many of the ideas and ideals of those who were committed with the liberation from capitalist power exert by colonialism and neo-colonialism in that age; but at the same time trying to differentiate this cinema from the “imperialistic” Hollywood cinema and the beautiful but “innocuous” cinema d’auteur from Europe.

Its political and ideological influences were multiple. The very division of the world into political-geographical blocs promoted the process of resisting and fighting against imperialism, neo-colonialism in an increasing effort for independence.

Before continuing, I would like to differentiate between the terms “Third World cinema” and “Third Cinema” because even if they share the word ‘world’ and their realms overlap, they are not necessarily synonymous. Shohat and Stam argue that “what we now call “Third World Cinema” did not begin in the 1960s, as it is often assumed”. Third World cinema represents in fact the production of films done by the “Third World” – what is to say, the majority of the film world production. They also argue that Third World cinema existed well before the influence of Hollywood reached Third World countries, because cinema has been a “world-wide phenomenon” “even before the beginning of the twentieth century” (Shohat and Stam 28). Thus, it is necessary to understand Third World cinema as the totality of the production of films from the Third World countries - all kind of films made by and about the Third Cinema.

The idea of an ideological and revolutionary cinema was with many filmmakers of the 1950s and 1960s that thought it was the time for rising consciousness and fighting for political, economic and social changes. It is important to draw attention to three Latin American countries where the idea of Third Cinema

16 flourished: Brazil, Argentina and Cuba, more concretely personalized in the figures of the Brazilian filmmaker Glauber Rocha, the Argentinians Octavio Gentino and Fernando “Pino” Solanas, and the Cuban Julio García Espinosa.

Third Cinema received many political ideological influences, from the idea of the “Third Position” or the “Third Way” represented by the Argentinian Peronism which reject both capitalist and communist extremes, Frantz Fanon’s ideas about the fight against colonialism, neo-colonialism and the need to rethink national culture.

It is important to note that the term Third Cinema itself was coined by the Argentinians Gentino and Solanas in their manifesto entitled “Towards a Third Cinema” in 1969 just after the release of their militant film Hour of Furnaces (1968). Gentino and Solanas were activists resisting against the military regime that overthrown Juan Perón in a coup d’êtat in 1955. Michael Chanan remarks that Hour of Furnaces was subtitled “ ‘Notes and experiences on the development of a cinema of liberation in the Third World’ ” and that “the wordplay comes from the analogy with the term ‘Third World’, meaning the underdevelopment of countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America” (373-374). Thus, Third World, Third Way and Third Cinema where that same spite of that age: the fight for national sovereignty and identity, and the independency of the capitalist and communist projects.

Third Cinema had problems conceptualizing the difference between what would constitute First, Second and, ironically, Third Cinema (Chanan 374). The first problem is related to the terminology itself, in that it would cause the misconception that Third Cinema is a cinema produced in the Third World, excluding even the cinema produced by exilic, diasporic and committed filmmakers in the First and Second World; Chanan explains that the “geographic confusion” only “dissolves when the Argentinians explain what they mean by First and Second Cinema, which correspond not to First and Second Worlds but

17 constitute a virtual geography in their own”, that by First cinema they refer for a “model imposed by the US film industry, the Hollywood movie – whose the domination is such that even the ‘monumental’ films, like Bondarchuk’s War and Peace (USSR, 1967), which had begun to appear in Second World countries, submit to the same propositions” (374-375).

In artistic terms Third Cinema was initially influenced by Italian neo-realism. Later Third World filmmakers tried to distance their films from it in order to create a style that could adapt more to the needs of each individual country. However, Robert Stam suggests that Italian neo-realism fitted so well with the Latin American social conditions that “even the “social geography of Italy”, with the north rich and the south poor favoured to mimic the situation in Latin America and in the world as large (Film Theory 93). In fact, he argues that the similarities were so abundant that it promoted a great exchange of experiences between Latin American filmmakers and Italian neo-realists (ibid). Some examples of those exchanges are the visit of Italian scriptwriter Cesare Zavattini to Cuba and Mexico in 1953 to discuss the possibility of Latin America implementing neo-realism, and that filmmakers like Fernando Birri, Julio García Espinosa, Tringueirinho Neto, Tomás Gutiérrez Alea, all studied in Italy at the Centro Sperimentale in Rome (Stam, Film Theory 94).

Of course, there existed films with a social and political character even before the existence of Third Cinema - which have been later associated with such movement - films from India, Egypt, Brazil or Argentina. However, as Stam argues, “it was only in the sixties that Third World Cinema as a self-aware movement emerged on the international scene by winning prizes and critical praise in Europe and North America” (Film Theory 50). Indeed, we can read the manifestos produced by Glauber Rocha (“The Aesthetics of Hunger”; 1965), Julio García Espinosa (“For an Imperfect Cinema”; 1969) and Octavio Getino and Fernando “Pino” Solanas (“Towards a Third Cinema”; 1969) as responses to success and expectations that Third Cinema caused in Europe and in the United

18 States. Glauber Rocha, for example, begins his manifesto questioning the reception of Cinema Novo’s films by the European audiences; Espinosa questions “why they applaud us?”. Meanwhile, Getino and Solanas took opportunity to call for more action and to express their political and ideological ideas.

One could argue that all three manifestos share the fight against colonialism, neo-colonialism and for the construction of a national identity in the post- colonized countries. This commitment is expressed in the following Gentino and Solanas’ words contained in their manifesto: The anti-imperialist struggle of the people of the Third World and their equivalents inside the imperialist countries constitutes today the axis of the world revolution. Third Cinema is, in our opinion, the cinema that recognizes in the struggle the most gigantic cultural, scientific, and artistic manifestation of our time, the great possibility of constructing a liberated personality with each people as the starting point – in a word, the decolonization of culture (37). (Italics in the original)

In those words we can notice three big ideas about Third Cinema: first, that for them, Third Cinema is not only another cultural manifestation, but it has a purpose in the process of construction of a national culture and identity; second, that this process of construction of national culture is involved in a bigger process that is the liberation of people from the subjugation of Imperialism; and the third is implicit in the other two, that Third Cinema, is above of all, an ideological movement. In fact when we talk about the aesthetics of Third Cinema it gets difficult to categorize, or better, to unify the its traits into a simple and single classification because for the Third Cinema filmmaker ideology is more important than the form. For example, in an article entitled “The Tricontinental Filmmaker: That Is Called The Dawn” (1967) Glauber Rocha argues that, Cinema is an international discourse and national situations do not justify, at any level, denial of expression. In the case of Tricontinental cinema, esthetics have more to do with ideology than with technique, and the technical myths of the zoom, of direct cinema, of the hand-held camera and of the use of color are nothing more than tools for expression. The operative word is ideology, and it knows no geographical boundaries (80).

What Rocha claims is for a compromised filmmaking above of techniques. For him, “all other discourse is beautiful but innocuous; rational but fatigued; reflexive but impotent; ‘cinematic’ but useless” (Rocha, “The Tricontinental

19 Filmmaker…” 78). In fact, the aim of Third Cinema filmmkers was not to establish a competition with Hollywood in its same modes but to oppose it, to create an alternative to a system that for them was problematic by nature.

For Gentino and Solanas the adoption of the Hollywood mode of production was problematic because cinema is a singular kind of industry that its models of production “has been created and organized in order to generate certain ideologies” (41). So even if a Third World filmmaker decides to adopt only Hollywood’s models to tell a story, her story will make use of a cinematic language that is designed to uniquely satisfy the audience and its capitalist system of production. In their words, the cinema as “hermetic structures that are born and die on the screen… The cinema as a spectacle aimed at a digesting object is the highest point that can be reached by bourgeois filmmaking”(41-42). Julio Garcia Espinosa has a similar approach when he argues in his manifest “For an Imperfect Cinema” (1969) that, “nowadays, perfect cinema — technically and artistically masterful — is almost always reactionary cinema” (71).

This is a twofold discussion that on the one hand concerns ethical content, and on the other, aesthetics that would be in accordance to such a political cinema. This discussion has always been inseparable to the question: "what would really constitute a Third Cinema"? And what is the limit for a filmmaker to express her- / himself and her/his cinema in order to be considered Third Cinema?

A good conclusion about what would constitute First, Second and Third Cinema comes from Michael Chanan and Solanas who affirms that: First Cinema responds to the interests of transnational monopoly capital, be it movie as spectacle, auteur cinema, or film as information; … Second Cinema, on the other hand, expresses the aspirations of the middle layers, the petit bourgeoisie. Consequently Second Cinema is often nihilist, pessimist, mystifactory. …all categories of films may be found, including the political, although 'In neocolonial and dependent countries, the middle sectors are generally aligned with the thinking of the metropolis'. (Solanas qtd in Chanan 378) …

20 Third Cinema, …'is the expression of a new culture and of changes in society. In a general way, third cinema renders account of reality and history.' (Solanas qtd in Chanan 378-379)

In the words of Solanas, What determines Third Cinema is the conception of the world, and not the genre or an explicitly political approach. Any story, any subject can be taken up by Third Cinema. In the dependent countries, Third Cinema is a cinema of decolonization, which expresses the will to national liberation, anti-mythic, anti- racist, anti-bourgeois, and popular. (qtd in Chanan 379)

It is interesting to note that at the moment the notion of Third Cinema becomes more flexible, more related with the specificity and need of each country, it becomes more international as it admits a larger diversity of films and countries that can constitute Third Cinema. So, Third Cinema is not a category defined by a geographic area but it has to do with a political-ideological enterprise. This conception has two implications; one that contradicts the assumption that Third Cinema is restrict to the Third World and the other defines it as a committed cinema independently of the country.

2.3 Cinema Novo: the “Cannibal Cinema” (1960s)

Cinema Novo was the most successful intent to create a national and nationalist cinema in Brazil to challenge neo-colonialist practices, including of course, Hollywood domination, and denouncing social imbalance and inequality in Brazil from the 1960s to early-1970s. It was part of a movement that aimed to construct a stronger nation and emerged as a response to the failures of some intents of creating a national film industry in the modes of Hollywood studio system in Brazil. Cinema Novo has above of all attempted to contribute to the emancipation of a modernist national project that aimed to build a unified Brazilian modern society. Relating it with the main question of this thesis, how globalization has shaped Brazilian cinema identity from the ‘third-worldist’ cinemas perspective to a more post-modern global one, this chapter seeks to describe the political and aesthetical commitments of Brazilian cinema in this period.

21 Two main ideas are related with this national and modernist approach supported by filmmakers from the 1960s. First, that the very idea of a nationalist cinema is intrinsically related to modernism; and second, that contradictorily Cinema Novo has constructed its identity by hybridizing forms and tendencies with foreign cinemas.

History

Brazilian Cinema Novo was mainly influenced by the nationalist and modernist ideas developed in Brazil basically since the beginning of the twentieth century that were embraced by the national bourgeoisie as well as the Left wing as a way of fighting against (neo-)colonial forces and building the nation.

In general terms, the research points out five main driving forces of Cinema Novo related with this nationalist and modernist ideas: one, Brazilian position as a colonized country and its position into the Third World category; two, the ideological and aesthetic influences of the Modernist Movement in Brazil from the 1920s; three, the nationalist principles of Getúlio Vargas’ regime; four, the modernist and developmental ideas from the Instituto Superior de Estudos Brasileiros (Higher Institute of Brazilian Studies - ISEB) created by the government of Juscelino Kubitschek in 1955; and five, the Italian neo-realist cinema that was quite well accepted in Brazil in the 1950s.

Cinema Novo and the Third World The Brazilian history marked by its colonial past seems to have been enhanced by the ideas that have given support for the struggles against imperialism, (neo- )colonialism in countries from Latin America, Africa and Asia especially in the period around 1950s and 1960s. This period was marked by many countries’ independencies in Africa and Asia, the Cuban Revolution, the Vietnam War, the Algerian War, etc.

22 As it has been shown in the previous paragraph, these ideas and the political effervescences were jointly responsible for the emergence of Third (world) cinema movements like in Argentina with Solanas and Getino’s manifesto “Towards a Third Cinema” (1969); in Cuba, with García Espinosa and his manifesto “For an Imperfect Cinema” (1969) and in Brazil, represented mainly by Glauber Rocha and his manifesto “Aesthetic of Hunger” (1965). All these movements fought for the construction of a national, popular, anti-imperialist and anti-Hollywood cinema capable of elevate people’s political consciousness.

Vargas’ Estado Novo, the Week of Modern Art and the developmentalist ideas of Kubitschek’s Higher Institute of Brazilian Studies (ISEB) Brazilian economy from the beginning of the twentieth century was still quite agricultural and Brazilian politics was dominated by the sectors linked to the production of coffee in the state of São Paulo and milk in the state of Minas Gerais (“Política Do Café Com Leite”/ “Coffee and Milk Politics”). The progressive bourgeoisie was eager for modernization and unification of the country and supported the 1930s coup d’état that replaced the oligarchies of “coffee and milk” for a new centralizer form of government, - Getúlio Vargas’ government and later Estado Novo (New State), an authoritarian regime that lasted from 1937 to the end of the Second World War II (Heise 23, 32).

Tatiana Signorelli Heise argues that “from the 1870s onwards, Brazilian social thought had been dominated by the positivism and Social Darwinism” which represented the idea that other races than the white were inferior and for this reason less apt for the development of capitalism in Brazil (27). Heise affirms that “up until the 1920s, race was perceived as the main obstacle to the civilizing project of the First Republic” (Ibid). She points out two moments when these views were challenged; one “was the Brazilian Modernist Movement of the 1920s, originated by a group of artists aiming to create an identity for Brazil as a modern and culturally innovative society” and the second “was during the radical revision of Brazilian social theories and historiography by the ‘generation

23 of the 1930s’, a group of intellectuals who set themselves the task of leaving behind the oligarchic culture to promote a new interpretation of Brazil” (Heise 27). Modernism then, was a progressive force that represented a rupture with the oligarch forces, conservatisms and backwardness of the past.

In 1922 a Modern Art Week (Semana de Arte Moderna) was organized in São Paulo; an event that would attract artists from diverse sectors to participate in seminars and debates. The cinema was not represented in the event; however the modernist spirit would perpetuate to influence it in the years to come.

The poet Oswald de Andrade proposed in the event a ‘cultural anthropophagy’ (cultural cannibalism) as a metaphor for the construction of Brazilian national cultural identity. In colloquial language: he proposed to “eat” (like the old cannibal Indians that inhabited Brazil in the period of the discovery) the foreign cultures, to digest and assimilate only the part that would contribute for the strength of the national culture and identity (Heise 28).

This idea of constructing Brazilian identity from the hybridization with other cultures has been appealing due to the very idea that Brazilian people was formed by a mixture of races, but the modernist movement pledged for new possibilities which the elements could only come from outside. It may seem contradictory, but as Tatiana S. Heise argues: for the Brazilian Modernists, the terms ‘modern’ and ‘national’ were inseparable: in order to be ‘modern’, one had to be nationally distinct. This affirmation of ‘Brazilian-ness’ as a means of access to modernity gave the movement a simultaneously nationalist and internationalist aspect (27).

In fact this conception of modern Brazilian identity would influence practically all Brazilian culture and even politics (Heise 31). Some examples of it, are the romance Macunaíma, written by Mário de Andrade, friend of Oswald de Andrade, Gilberto Freyre’s romance Casa Grande and Senzala (The Masters and the Slaves) and even Glauber Rocha’s “Aesthetics of Hunger” in the 1960s, not only due to the metaphors of ‘cannibalism’ and ‘hunger’ but because their purposes of decolonizing the country through the national arts and culture.

24

The modernist ideas were so powerful that influenced even the social thought for nation building of Getúlio Vargas government in 1930 and his Estado Novo from 1951 to 1954, not only due to the need of modernization, but also the need of unify the country, to create (even if fictitious) the idea of a racial democracy in Brazil (Heise 31). For Heise, the main concern of artists and intellectuals of the 1920s and 1930s was to build a unified, national image for Brazil. Race was central to their project, but only in so far as it could be used to forge a national identity. The emphasis was on unity, integration and assimilation, not on difference or dispersion. For this reason, such topics as ‘discrimination’ were downplayed and subcultures, particularly black subculture, were rejected and seen as a threat to national unity (31).

Once the modernist project was charged of nationalist feelings, the main idea was to create a unified nation, with one history, one language, one culture, and one people even if for that internal differences had to be ignored of seen as subversive, contrary to the national project. Since races have been seen as a problem, whitening was promoted through miscegenation and governmental programs to encourage immigration from Europe and even Asia to Brazil (Heise 4, 35-36)

The modernist model for nation building and economic development did not stop with the end of Vargas’ Estado Novo. The fact that he committed suicide seems to have strengthened even more this political-ideological conception. Randal Johnson argues that in 1955 the government of President Juscelino Kubitscheck created the Instituto Superior de Estudos Brasileiros (Higher Institute of Brazilian Studies - ISEB), which was composed by a group of several intellectuals “with the express purpose of formulating a national ideology of development” (“Brazilian Cinema Novo” 98). He argues that, this group “saw autonomous, national, industrial development as an absolute value, as an unequestionable [sic] end to be achieved through a variety of means (Johnson, “Brazilian Cinema Novo” 99). Johnson goes on to say that, The members of ISEB formulated a nationalist thesis based on a radical awareness of Brazil's underdevelopment, which was caused by what they called the country's 'colonial situation', its relations of dependence to advanced industrial powers (Ibid).

25 Creating thus, the empirical idea that all the country’s problems were just a matter of industrial underdevelopment and uneven economic situation with other big countries that Brazil should make all the efforts to take over. However, as Johnson argues “they conceived the major contradiction of Brazilian society as being not capital versus labour, but rather as ‘Nation’ (that which is authentic) versus the ‘anti-Nation’ (that is alienated from the ‘Nation’s’ true historical being” (Ibid). Once again, the source of underdevelopment was not identified as outsider, for example, neo-colonialism or capitalist penetration, but internal; not in terms of economic and social injustice or other forms of discrimination and segregation but in two rather abstract terms – ‘nation’ and ‘anti-nation’. The ‘Nation’, seen as the modern, progressive sector of society, included the industrial bourgeoisie, the urban and rural proletariat, and the productive sector of the middle-class. The ‘anti-Nation’, or the traditional, retrograde, archaic sector of society, included large landowners, export-import groups, the non- productive sector of the middle-class and certain portions of the proletariat, in other words, sectors whose interests lie not with national development but rather with the continued foreign domination of the nation's economy (Johnson, “Brazilian Cinema Novo” 99).

In political terms this is a position that focuses on the interests of the national bourgeoisie that obviates the social problems in order to boost its economic power. However, those ideas were not only supported by the right wing, but as Johnson argues, it had been supported even by the Brazilian Communist Party (Ibid). Despite these contradictions, Randal Johnson suggests a relation between the ideas supported by the ISEB and the emergent Cinema Novo. He argues that, Although it would be simplistic to see Cinema Novo merely as a reflection of the ideology of ISEB - indeed, at times Cinema Novo films directly or indirectly revealed the contradictions of that ideology… (Johnson, “Brazilian Cinema Novo” 98).

Nonetheless, it is not to say that Cinema Novo allied with the national bourgeoisie. In fact, the very ideology of the moment was quite ‘black and white’; to fight for a national developmental project simply meant to fight for unity and against international economic domination and in this sense both Right and Left agreed. Those ideas were especially present in the films from the preparatory and first phase of Cinema Novo, a period where Cinema Novo had not yet faced the most national conservative forces - the country’s dictatorship.

26 The phases of Cinema Novo Cinema Novo is divided into three phases: the first phase from 1960 to the coup d’état in 1964, the second phase from 1964 to the implementation of the AI-5 – Institutional Act number 5 that strengthened the dictatorship in 1968, third phase from 1968 to 1972, the hardest period of the military regime. Cinema Novo should therefore be understood as a complex phenomenon.

Inspired on the debates about the ‘national question’, that is nothing more than a preoccupation in constructing a homogeneous identity for a country marked by the heterogeneity of its people and the construction of an economic project for a country with these characteristics, the directors of Cinema Novo produced in the first phase of the movement (from 1960 to 1964), films that intend to denounce the situations that kept the country underdeveloped – the so-called, anti-nation situations. Such films include: Cinco Vezes Favela (lit. “Favela Five Times” - 1962), a compilation of five shorts films where five young filmmakers (Marcos Farias, Miguel Borges, Carlos Diegues, Joaquim Pedro de Andrade and Leon Hirszman) denounce the unfair situation lived by people in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro; Barravento (lit. “The Turning Wind" - 1962), directed by Glauber Rocha, where he denounces the alienation provoked by the excess of religiosity in a fishermen village of former slaves descendants in the state of Bahia; or Vidas Secas (Barren Lives. Lit. Dry Lives - 1963) directed by Nelson Pereira dos Santos. It denounces the situation of abandonment and injustice that a family from the dry northeast region of Brazil suffers.

The second phase starts with the instauration of the dictatorship in 1964. Cinema Novo’s filmmakers who had previously focused on problems within underdeveloped areas of the country, now turned more critical of the political situation. Films like Paulo Cesar Saraceni’s O Desafio (The Challenge - 1966), Glauber Rocha’s Terra em Transe (Land in Anguish - 1967), Gustavo Dahl’s O Bravo Guerreiro (Brave Warrion - 1968), Nelson Pereira dos Santos’ Fome de

27 Amor (Hunger of Love -1968), or Rogério Sganzerla’s O Bandido da Luz Vermelha (The Red Light Bandit - 1968).

All those films make reference in one way or another to the national political situation. The first thing we notice is the shift form those sceneries of poverty and underdevelopment principally in the interior of Brazil (the sertão, favela, poor littoral) to the urban environment. The ‘criticism’ could be more explicit as in The Brave Warrior or more symbolized as in Land of Anguish or Hunger of Love. Even The Red Light Bandit that is a thriller movie and sometimes considered part of the so-called Marginal Cinema, makes its political point with repeated references to dirt, crime, the country, the politics and the Third World in an apocalyptic tone. Carim Azeddine in an article for the magazine Contra Campo called A Estética Do Lixo Do Bandido Sganzerla (The Bandit Sganzerla’s Aesthetic of Rubbish) comments about the film in the following terms: Pierrot Le Fou in São Paulo does not suicide in an idyllic scenery. He dies electrified in a landfill. As the references to Godard’s cinema multiplies, Sganzerla makes more than a carnival swallowing, a parodic inversion of a First World cinema, aesthetically ambitious. Beyond cinephile’s erudition and membership marks, he engages in a dialogue on the conditions of doing art in a peripheral country. Living in a semi- industrial country in the third world, the only thing that is left to us is to make cinema with the rests of the First World. A cinema of jerry rigging, of the trigger, of recycling. (my translation)

In fact the film plays with many features of Cinema Novo such as use of the politics of author as a way of affirmation of its own independence before the studio system way of producing, fight against Hollywood domination reinforced by its ‘cultural cannibalism’ (the eating of tendencies and styles and reprocessing them), violence as a form of fighting against colonialism (as proclaimed by Glauber Rocha in his manifesto).

However, when the dictatorship in Brazil entered in its strongest period, after the enactment of the AI-5 (Institutional Act Number Five) in December 1968, Cinema Novo had it much more difficult to keep on with its political and ideological tone. It is not to say that filmmakers abandon completely their principles but they had to be more careful and use other strategies to keep

28 producing their film. Johnson also suggests that the films language was complicate and uninteresting for current audiences in Brazil (“Brazilian Cinema Novo” 103). He argues that Cinema Novo filmmakers took two measures to conquest more audience to their films: first, “with Luis Carlos Barreto, producers and directors” they created a cooperative for film distribution called Difilm, with the aim of incentive the international distribution of their films (Ibid). Johnson argues that it was important because “it is on the level of distribution that American cinema dominates Brazilian market” (Ibid). The second measure they took was “make films with a more popular appeal” by adapting literary classics to the big screen and on the other hand, by producing more comedies (Ibid).

Nonetheless, in its third and latest phase (1968 -19722), Cinema Novo also made political films about Brazilian history, or about the formation of Brazilian people and identity. However, filmmakers used predominantly allegory to do so since it was the hardest period of the dictatorship. Some of those films are: Glauber Rocha’s O Dragão da Maldade Contra O Santo Guerreiro (Antônio das Mortes; 1968), Carlos Diegues’ Os Heredeiros (The Heirs; 1969), Ruy Guerra’s Os Deuses e Os Mortos (Of Gods and the Undead; 1970), Arnaldo Jabor’s Pindorama (1970), and Nelson Pereira dos Santos’ Como Era Gostoso O Meu Francês (How Tasteful Was My Little Frenchman; 1971).

Cinema Novo has always been a cinema that had to deal with paradoxes. The first was how to create a sustainable system of production whilst distancing itself from the models of the most successful and hegemonic film industry on the planet. Cinema Novo overcame this in the most innovative way: fighting for the decolonization of Brazilian cinema by creating its own language and working out of the studio-system, by putting ideology before technique (as previously stated).

2 Randal points to as “stylistic and thematic pluralism” change from 1973 “under the aegis of Embrafilme” as an explication to the cease of Cinema Novo (Randal 98).

29 It seems that what gave strength to Cinema Novo also prevented their filmmakers developing further, or even continuing. It is argued that Cinema Novo filmmakers used auteur filmmaking to fight against dominant industrial cinema as a way of obtaining independence from the system, however as Johnson argues “its participants make no real attempt to create alternative or parallel exhibition circuits” (“Brazilian Cinema Novo” 103). Differently from the “third cinema” of Argentinians Getino and Solanas that proposed a social network for the distribution of the films in trade unions, school, etc., Cinema Novo only trusted the distribution of its films on the traditional commercial modes.

According to Randal Johnson one of the reasons for the fall of Cinema Novo is related with the reception of the films. He points out that, The Brazilian public, long conditioned by Hollywood’s products, was generally unreceptive to the films of Cinema Novo, which became in many ways a group of films made by and for an intellectual elite and not for broad sector of the Brazilian people or even of the filmgoing public (Johnson, “The Rise and Fall…” 362-386).

And as consequence of this contradictory position of Cinema Novo, that on the one hand made films to promote political awareness, and on the other hand was incapable to speak people’s language, was that exhibitors were not also interested in promote films that they were rejected by the public (Johnson, “The Rise and Fall…” 380).

In conclusion, it could be said that Cinema Novo was a product of its time; a time marked by a great awareness about the national and the global situation, but also a time where the ideals of changing the nation and the world were intertwined with many passions and misconstructions. However, Cinema Novo with the fight against imperial forces, such as the proper penetration of one of its most powerful ideological tools, namely, Hollywood, was able to produce a cinema that was unique, as Rocha himself argues: “We do not have broader points of contact with the rest of the world cinema, except for the technical and artistic origins” (61). And it is exactly the capacity of “eating” these influences and to assimilate them that made Cinema Novo a free and strong as the cannibals

30 Indians once were. However, at the same time it was naïve about business matters and showed a disinterest in making real contact with people.

Despite its many contradictions Cinema Novo and its national project received international recognition and proved that World Cinema could be original and explore modern, and even post-modern ways of making cinema.

2.4 World Cinema

‘World Cinema’, as in the common sense of the word, is one of those ideas, which has more to do with the position that one occupies than with an inherent reality itself. Its meaning is constructed more from a relation of difference between the subject and his or her direct Other.

In “Situating world cinema as a theoretical problem”, Stephanie Dennison and Song Hwee Lim introduce the problem of conceptualizing what would be “World Cinema” as it is constituted basically from or as a discourse, and as such, it cannot be “essentialized” into a simple question: “what is World Cinema?” (Dennison and Hwee 1). This is due to an epistemological problem. A problem that, as it has already been said, cannot be answered from a “what question”. However its existence could be illuminate by questioning “how” – “how” is World Cinema? How is it articulated as a discourse? Or even what are the practices that involve World Cinema? Etc. Thus, to investigate about the ways World Cinema is constituted as a discourse or from a discourse is the aim of this section.

Lúcia Nagib highlights the problem of defining World Cinema and goes further to denounce the lack of a “positive definition” for it. She argues that “despite its all- encompassing, democratic vocation,” the term World Cinema, “is not usually employed to mean cinema worldwide. On the contrary, the usual way of defining it is restrictive and negative, as non-Hollywood cinema” (“Towards a Positive…” 30). This position constituted a structure that is very similar to that of Third Cinema in relation to film theory, Hollywood, and the West; a position that push

31 those cinemas (Third Cinema and World Cinema) into an ‘obliged’ differentiation, that ultimately imply on them a relation of inferiority. As Nagib argues, [it is…] needless to say, negation here translates a positive intention to turn difference from the dominant model into a virtue to be rescued from an unequal competition. However, it unwittingly sanctions the American way of looking at the world, according to which Hollywood is the centre and all other cinemas are the periphery (Ibid).

This dichotomy is perceived from the very classification of world music, literature and cinema in the department shops in the West3, to the very midst of Film Studies theory where it has been almost always marginalized despite it represents the majority of the world film production. Shohat and Stam argue that “even before the beginning of the twentieth century, cinema was a world-wide phenomenon, at least in terms of consumption”, and they adds that “the Lumière cinématographe, for example, went not only to London and New York but also to Buenos Aires, Mexico City, and Shanghai” (28). The dichotomy created by the introduction of nationalism into the discursive practice involving World Cinema has the objective of maintain or producing a position of power.

Making an analogy with Edward W. Said’s explanation about the distinction between Orient and Occident where he says that “the Orient is not an inert fact of nature”, that it “is not merely there” and that in the same way “the Occident itself is not just there”, I would say that World Cinema and Hollywood cinema are not just there (89). They are part of a discourse but it is much more that words, it is a practice that the ultimate aim is to legitimate a dichotomic position of “superiority” of one over the other. In this sense discourse is a political (and ideological) tool for domination and in this case film studies reproduce the neo- colonialist position of the colonizer country in relation to the Third World. As Shohat and Stam argue, “in film studies, one name for Eurocentrism is Hollywoodcentrism.” (29).

3 Similar idea in Dennison and Hwee’s 2000:1-2.

32 However, the problem of the dichotomization of World Cinema goes beyond of a mere question of tradition or in the best cases, tongue slippage; as it has been said, it is embedded in a macro structure of power; a structure that is being jeopardized ironically by changes that are being felt world-wildly, at least from the decade of the 1980s, as Dennison and Hwee suggest, In an age of globalisation and increased migration, spaces ranging from the geographical (such as national boundaries) to sites of cinematic exhibition (such as international film festivals) are invariably hybrid and plural, and distinctions between dichotomies such as Western and non-Western, self and other, although entrenched in the popular imagination, are beginning to dissolve (4).

It is curious to notice how ingenuous Hollywood and film studies are being in relation to post-modern and transnational changes in the world, at least when it privilege their position. However, scholars like Lúcia Nagib, Robert Stam, Ella Shohat, Dudley Andrew, Stephanie Dennison or Song Hwee Lim amongst other have started questioning the hegemonic position enjoyed especially by Hollywood cinema. Some of the arguments go in the direction of the valorisation of the films specificities, independently of their place of origin. For example, Dennison and Hwee argue that, to regard world cinema as the sum total of national cinemas is to presuppose and privilege an entity known as the nation or the nation-state. To view the world as a collection of nations (as in the United Nations) is to marginalise if not deny the possibilities of other ways of organising the world, whether by economic power, gender, sexuality, and in a more general sense, other identities or formations that cannot be defined by geopolitical boundary or by race and ethnicity (6-7).

Shohat and Stam, propose what they called “the multiculturalization of the film studies curriculum.” (30) To exemplify what they mean, they say: Even under the current rubrics of cinema studies (national cinemas, auteurs, genre, theory), one could easily devise national courses on the cinemas of India, China, Egypt, Mexico, Senegal; auteur courses on Ray, Sembene, Chahine, Rocha: genre courses on the melodrama that would include not only American but also Egyptian. Indian, Filipino, and Argentinian examples (along with Mexican or Brazilian telenovelas)';… (ibid).

In the same spirit, Lúcia Nagib proposes three new ways to start redefining World Cinema: • World cinema is simply the cinema of the world. It has no centre. It is not the other, but it is us. It has no beginning and no end, but is a global process. World cinema, as the world itself, is circulation.

33 • World cinema is not a discipline, but a method, a way of cutting across film history according to waves of relevant films and movements, thus creating flexible geographies. • As a positive, inclusive, democratic concept, world cinema allows all sorts of theoretical approaches, provided they are not based on the binary perspective (“Towards a Positive…” 35).

Dennison and Hwee’s argument about the issue of defining World Cinema as a collection or the sum of all the national cinemas in the world as a privilege to nation-state seems a plausible idea since we are living a moment where countries are more and more allying themselves in big continental and even transcontinental blocks (EU, MERCOSUR, EFTA, NAFTA, etc.) that start to constitute free spaces for exchange and hybridity. To pledge for another way of organizing the ‘world’ in film studies, taking in consideration other specificities such as gender, race, identity economic power etc., seems to me more viable and enormously more democratic and enriching.

One can contest or even refuse some of those ideas, but it is undeniable the changes that are taking place in the world that undoubtedly affect the dominant discourse on World Cinema based in the dichotomy Hollywood and the Other – discourse that is been challenged by the effects of the globalized world itself from at least the 1980s.

34 3 Theory II: Post-modern World

3.1 From National to Global Cinema

In the previous chapter important aspects have already been introduced to settle the bases to understand the developments of cinema from a global perspective. The first important aspect is that cinema has enjoyed in its early period an ephemeral global perspective as it is implied by some theorists like Tom Gunning, Shohat and Stam, Dudley Andrew, Annette Kuhn and Richard Abel amongst other. However, the global early phase was broken by the emergence of a new dimension, more rooted in a nationalist discourse that divided the world of cinema into a big bunch of national cinemas around the world and strengthened the power of Hollywood over the others.

Moreover, it has also been discussed how this position was challenged by the globalization of economy in the 1980s and the failure of the modernist paradigm that contributed to change the way nations and nationalism are perceived.

In this chapter, the discussion develops to show how those changes from the 1980s have affected cinema and pushed it into a post-national, post-modern and post-colonial global era. The main aim of this chapter is to assess the process of changes from a modern/national cinema (for example, Brazilian Cinema Novo in the 1960s) to a post-modern, post-nationalist/global cinema. The two main periods: the cinema of retomada from the 1990s up to the millennium and the New-New Brazilian cinema from around the 2010s will then be explored in more detail.

The research shows that there has been three different phases in the history of cinema related with its national and international consumptions and production:

35 (1) a global early phase that spans around the beginning of the twentieth century; (2) a second phase that encompasses the era of the modernist national cinema from around 1900 to the 1980s; and (3), the last phase represents the post-national and post-modernist cinema from the 1980s onward.

Early Global Phase: One of the first realization one can make studying early cinema is that it had the incredible capacity to spread around the world and exchange images amongst many countries without many problems. This has been a very short period (from around 1895 to 1907) where cinema has enjoyed a worldwide freedom. Shohat and Stam talking about the Third World Cinema (the majority of the cinema produced in the world) argue for example that “cinema was a world-wide phenomenon, at least in terms of consumption” (28). Dudley Andrew, suggests that emergence of cinema into the nationalist discourse has to do with a fear that existed up to 1913 – a “fear about the ‘imperial image power’” of Pathé (21). He argues that due to this fear, Pathé started stimulating local competition “to call upon loyalty to ‘national cinema’” and that “critics where enlisted to invent and uphold something newly baptized, ‘the American cinema’, ‘the Japanese cinema’, and so forth” (Ibid). And Tom Gunning affirms categorically that “early cinema is a global cinema” (11). He argues that “the rise of nationalist discourse through and around cinema, while not absolutely absent from early cinema, seems rather to depend on narrative forms and the use of documentary to create ideological arguments that appeared in the 1910s” (Gunning 16).

What all these theorists seem agree with is that early cinema was free from bonds of nationalisms. Of course the development of the notion of national cinema has also other aspects that could be considered, like the business battles4 and the necessity of construct a national industry and identity as it has been shown anteriorly in chapter two.

4 For more, see Annette Kuhn and Richard Abel, “The Rise of the American Film Industry”.

36

The second phase is represented by the integration of early cinema into the nationalist discourse and practice including the consolidation of Hollywood as hegemonic in the ‘real world’ and in film theory, and the later struggles for the construction of national film industries and the fights against neo-colonialism in the Third World. In “Situating World Cinema as a Theoretical Problem”, Dennison and Hwee, argue about two popular ways of understanding World cinema (6). They argue that “the first regards it as the sum total of all the national cinemas in the world, and the second posits it against US or Hollywood cinema” (Ibid). They argue that those vision are problematic; firstly because privileging ‘nation’ or ‘nation-state’ is to “deny the possibilities of other ways of organizing the world, whether by economic power, gender, sexuality…” etc.; and “to position world cinema as an antithesis of US or Hollywood cinema is also to disregard the diversity and complexity within both cinema in the US as well as cinemas in the rest of the world” (Dennison and Hwee 6,7).

It is clear that there are many aspects to be considered in world cinema, however the very nature of modernism produced those dichotomic discourses that only started to be challenged with the emergence of globalization represented by the expansion of transnational economy, the rise of developed telecommunication (including satellite and Internet), global pop culture, immigration, consumerism, etc. In some aspects this was the case of Cinema Novo in the 1960s in Brazil, a that cinema had as objective to create a cinematic representation of the themes that concerned to the country in order to strength national identity and cinema, a cinema of decolonization of minds. In this sense, Cinema Novo incarnated a national and nationalist project that opposed to the economic imperial force and to Hollywood as the ideological arm of this project.

Post-national and post-modernist cinema: Benedict Anderson in his “Imagined Communities” argues that nation “is an imagined political community – and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign” (6). This ‘imagination’ of the

37 nation has to do with a cultural fashioning of images, signs, symbols, myths and (hi)stories that are shared by the people from a determined country that could be called ‘national identity’. In this sense, cinema has the ability to create or to collaborate to such a fashioning by creating those images, signs, symbols, myths and stories that feed the collective imaginary about the nation.

Since the 1980's globalization has affected the way communication (satellite, cable TV, Internet, etc.), culture, consumption etc. have been propagated around the globe. The old nationalist laces of cohesion have started to weaken and national identity has become more porous, hybrid and less homogeneous. This is demonstrated in two ways: in the content of the films themselves (aesthetics) and in the way those films interact within the global film market. These ‘aesthetics of globalization’ are reinforced by the demands of international film market as a way of pleasing audiences worldwide.

Another way to understand global cinema is through the work of Third World filmmakers themselves, working in the cleft between the First and the Third World. Nacify argues that, in the postcolonial and post-Soviet eras, a fresh crop of exilic, émigré, diasporic, refugee, ethnic, and transnational filmmakers, working in the interstices of social formations and mainstream film and culture industries of the West, created a new transnational cinema that is at once global and local, a “glocal” or “accented” cinema (Naficy 60).

Stuart Hall talking about the work of some “young black cultural practitioners and critics in Britain” argues that they “are increasingly coming to acknowledge and explore in their work” what hi calls “diaspora aesthetics”. A series of practices that subvert the “master-codes” to “creolise” them (Mercer, K. qtd in in Hall 220). For Mercer, The subversive force of this hybridising tendency is most apparent at the level of language itself where creoles, patois and black English decentre, destabilise and carnivalise the linguistic domination of ‘English’—the nation-language of master-discourse— through strategic inflections, reaccentuations and other performative moves in semantic, syntactic and lexical codes (Mercer, K. qtd in Hall 220-221)

38 Michael Chanan also mentions many examples of film and television practices being done by Third World filmmakers in the First World especially in Britain (372-388). Apart of the inclusion of programs made and directed by the diasporic communities, especially the Afro-Caribbean and Asian communities in British Televisions like Channel Four, Chanan stresses the development of advanced technology “not only served to expand and accelerate the circulation of visual materials…”, they “have expanded the possibilities for all sort of ‘guerilla’ filmmaking” as well (384). In the same work he mentions the interesting case of a solidarity video on Chile that he helped to produce with little money and even without going to Chile as the Chilean filmmakers were able to send “a ready- edited video for incorporation into the project produced in London” (Chanan 383). Showing thus, the possibility of exchange and interconnectivity that only new digital technologies can give.

In classificatory terms, Naficy proposes three categories: ‘exilic’, ‘diaporic’ and ‘postcolonial films’ and according to their style as ‘feature fictional’ and ‘experimental films’ (Naficy 60). In addition, in terms of production, he classifies those films into national, transnational, and regional affiliations resulting in the production of many sorts of accented filmmaking, like: beur films and banlieue films in France…, black postcolonial workshop films in Britain…, Turkish films in Germany…, Iranian exile films in Europe and North America…, and Asian American films in the United States… . Some ethnic films (Friedman; Lourdeaux; Desser and Friedman)…, Chicano/Chicana films, and Yiddish movies (Naficy 60).

Naficy mentions some difficulty to get access to some accented films, mainly for three reasons: (1) the language barrier (polyglossia, lack of subtitles, etc.), (2) affordability, (3) distribution (61). About this latter, he remarks that Internet is facilitating the distribution and exhibition of accented films (Ibid). One only has to think of youtube, vimeo or some sites of film steaming on Internet to realize this tendency.

Another important way of promoting and distributing accented, diasporic and exilic films is the international film festivals. Naficy cites some of them, like the

39 Toronto International Film Festival, the International Amsterdam Film Festival, and the International Film Festival Rotterdam, and special accented cinema festivals, such as Toronto’s International Diaspora Film Festival, New York City’s African Diaspora Film Festival, and the Exile Film Festival in Gothenburg, Sweden (Ibid).

As we have seen Third Cinema, diaspora, exilic and accented films far from be anchored in dichotomic mentality, it is articulated in an intricate of relationships that constitute their practices that try to bridge the gap between ‘here’ and ‘there’, between the national and the transnational, the local and the global. And that this intricate set of relationships is facilitated by new technologies of communication, tourism, and by the increasing demand of foreign cultural programmes and films by immigrants and local interested in exotic landscapes and stories from foreign countries.

The next section addresses Brazilian cinema within this new paradigm, as a post- national and post-modern cinema. The section is divided into two periods: (1) the period of the retomada or rebirth of Brazilian cinema from 1993 to 2003, and the post-retomada period from which I analyze its late phase from around 2010 onwards – a phase that I may also refer as ‘new-new-Brazilian Cinema’.

3.2 Brazilian Cinema (The retomada period - 1990s)

The Political-Historical Perspective

Brazilian cinema did not cease to exist following the decline of Cinema Novo in the 1970s. In fact film production and exhibition in this decade augmented under the governmental support of the recently founded EMBRAFILME (Brazilian Film Company) in 1969 (Leite 112). EMBRAFILME was created to promote Brazilian cinema outside Brazil but soon started to promote exhibition and production also internally with many incentives programmes.

Despite such help, in the mid-1980s to 1990 Brazilian film sector suffered due to the exasperation of economic problems, like a stratospheric external debt and the hyperinflation, practically preventing the average Brazilian to go to the cinema. However, the ‘mercy shot’ did not come from the economy itself. Instead

40 it was an extreme measure of President Fernando Collor de Mello, the first president elected by popular vote after 20 years of dictatorship in 1989. In one of his first acts he terminated EMBRAFILME and with that the tradition of governmental support to the film sector that existed since the 1930’s (Leite 39). But it was not only EMBRAFILME that was abolished, but also the CONCINE (The National Counsel of Cinema), the Brazilian Cinema Foundation (Fundação do Cinema Brasileiro) and even the proper Ministry of Culture (Minc) (“Plano de Diretrizes e Metas…”).

The impact to the Brazilian film industry was catastrophic. Jose Álvaro Moisés argues that “national production, which had exceeded 100 films a year in the mid-1970s, was almost reduced to zero, with only two films released in 1992 (7). With such a situation, Lúcia Nagib suggests that “at the end of the 1980s and especially between 1990-92, during the dark period of President Collor’s government, filmmakers thought the only way out for them was the airport” (“Towards a Positive…” 27). In addition, she argues that “several of them, including Walter Salles, Walter Lima Jr. and Hector Babenco, decided to shift to international productions, spoken in English”, but without much success (Ibib).

Two years after taking office, President Collor de Mello was impeached due to corruption. In his place his vice-president Itamar Franco assumed. In 1993 he created a new law for the audio-visual sector (base in tax incentives) to boost film production in the country (Johnson, “Post-Cinema Novo” 117). Lúcia Nagib argues that, In six years, from 1994 through 2000, Brazil produced nearly 200 feature-length films, a remarkable figure considering that the whole film industry in the country had been dismantled just prior to that (The New Brazilian Cinema xviii).

Impelled by the hope in the new economic policies and currency, the real, created by the then minister of economy, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who was elected later the next president of Brazil, filmmakers gained faith in the re- emergence of cinema in the country. In fact the tonic of the years after 1993 was to reassess Brazilian national identity and to attract audiences back to the

41 theatres. Randal Johnson suggests that films from this period forth tried to become more commercial and less based on “an iconoclastic or experimental discourse” like those of Cinema Novo in order to attract more audience (Johnson, “Post-Cinema Novo” 122). On the other hand, Lúcia Nagib suggests that “behaving like Brazil’s first discoverers and imbued with geographical and anthropological concerns, several filmmakers undertook journeys aimed at mapping the country as a whole” (“Towards a Positive…” 27). Such euphoria showed a hope in the new possibilities given by the country’s economic improvement and by the incentives for the audio-visual industry, and the search for themes and cinematic ways of making contact with audiences. However, for Nagib this period of hope was short lived, as the filmmakers soon realized that the country’s old problems persisted due to the neo-liberal project of government (Ibid). Some examples given by Nagib are Djalma Limongi Batista’s Bocage (1998) that “was shot in seven states of Brazil”, and Walter Salles’ Central Station (1998) that “runs from Rio through the far North-East” (Ibid).

Genres and films

In terms of genres, Randal proposes at least four main genres: comedies, dramatic films, obituary, and documentary (“Post-Cinema Novo” 118-120). Tatiana Signorelli Heise, on the other hand, broadens this classification by saying that “among the films produced between 1995 and 2010 we find a diversity of styles and themes, from the more established domestically grown genres of the historical satire and cangaço, to innovative reworkings of the road movie, romantic comedy urban thriller, documentary and biopic” (62). In any case, this diversity of genres and styles was very important to attract Brazilian audience back to the theatres in this period as Jonhson affirms (“Post-Cinema Novo” 118).

For Johnson, comedies were very important to rebuild Brazilian cinema’s audience (Ibid). Some examples of comedies are: Carla Camurati’s Carlota Joaquina, Princess of Brazil (Carlota Joaquina, Princesa do Brasil; 1995); Sérgio Biachi’s Chronically Unfeasible (2000); Eliane Caffé’s The Storytellers (2003)

42 (Observatório Brasileiro do Cinema e do Audiovisual and Johnson, “Post-Cinema Novo” 118-119).

Examples of dramatic films from the 1990s include, Walter Salles and Daniella Thomas’ Foreign Land (1995); Fábio Barreto’s O Quatrilho (1995); José Joffily’s Who Killed Pixote? (1996); Walter Salles’ Central Station (1998); (Bentes 126 and Johnson, “Post-Cinema Novo” 123).

‘Obituary film’ is an expression coined by Mendonça Filho and adopted by Johnson in reference to the biographic films (biopics), films about famous and important figures for the national life, in general about politicians, poets, singers and musicians (Johnson 119). Some examples are Sérgio Rezende’s Mauá - The Emperor and the King (1999); Oswaldo Caldeira’s Tiradentes (1999); or Zelitos Vianna’s Villa-Lobos: A Life of Passion (2000); However, in many cases biopics also tells the story of living celebrities such as Pelé, like in Pele Forever by Anibal Massaini (2004) or the Breno Silveira’s blockbuster Two Sons Of Francisco (2005) that tell the story of the musical duo Zezé de Camargo & Luciano, etc. (Observatório Brasileiro do Cinema e do Audiovisual).

Documentaries seem to search for the traits of Brazilian identity, such us music, football, religion and history, but also the big challenges of the nation. Thus, films like Sylvio Back’s Our Indians (1995); Two Billion Hearts about the 1994 world cup directed by Murillo Salles (1996); José Araújo’s Landscapes of Memory is about religiosity and mysticism in the Brazilian backlands; also on Brazilian sense of religiosity is Faith by Ricardo Dias (1999) and The Mighty Spirit directed by Eduardo Coutinho; José Padilha’s Bus 174 (2002) is a reflexive documentary that tells the real story of tragic kidnapping of a bus in Rio in 2000; Carla Gallo’s O Aborto Dos Outros [lit.: The Abortion of the Others] shows the reality of young girls who will or have summited themselves to an abortion in Brazil, etc. (Observatório Brasileiro do Cinema e do Audiovisual).

It is important to acknowledge the influence of the film festivals to the internationalization and recognition of the cinema of the retomada. A part of Central Station, other films like Carla Camurad’s Carlota Joaquina - Princesa do

43 Brasil (Carlota Joaquina - Princess of Brazil; 1995), Fábio Barretos’ O Quatrilho (1995), Bruno Barreto’s O Que é Isso, Companheiro? (Four Days in September - 1997), Carlos Diegues’ Orfeu (1999), Andrucha Waddington’s Eu, Tu, Eles (Me You Them - 2000) and Guel Arraes’ O Auto da Compadecida (A Dog’s Will - 2000) were very well received by Brazilian audiences and competed for many international prizes in Brazil and abroad (Álvaro Moisés, 8-9). O Quatrilho, Que é Isso, Companheiro?, and Central Station were all nominated to the Oscars, whereas the latter received the Golden Bear in Berlin (Álvaro Moisés 3; Nagib, The New Brazilian Cinema xvii). Moreover, Álvaro Moisés argues “Brazilian films have also been recognized in other festivals [a part of the Oscars] and international competitions, and have received, overseas alone, almost 100 prizes between 1998 and 1999 (4).

Aesthetics

The Brazilian cinema from 1990s re-emerged in a quite different political and economic scenario from that Cinema Novo experienced in the 1960s. If the 1960s represented the struggle against neo-colonialism and fight for the national development and national cinema, the 1990s represented its antonymous. It was a period of the neo-liberal politics with privatizations, international trade and the new international division of labour. This conjuncture was responsible for projecting a very different character on Brazilian cinema from its political and ideological identity to the very aesthetical choices made by filmmakers in this period.

Another important aesthetical aspect that influenced this rebirth was the necessity of attracting audiences back to the cinema. This made filmmakers rely on successful formulas (comedies, biographic films, dramatics movies, etc.), thus enhancing the attractiveness of the films from this time (Johnson, “Post-Cinema Novo” 118).

An important person involved in the discussion of the aesthetics of the rebirth phase is Ivana Bentes, who in her essay “The sertão and the favela in

44 contemporary Brazilian film” discussed the differences between Brazilian cinema in the 1960s and now in terms of ideological commitment (ethics) and aesthetics. In this essay she advocates for two “real and symbolic territories” that “to a large degree invoke Brazilian imaginary” – the sertão (the northeastern backlands) and the favelas (the shantytowns) (Bentes 121). She argues that “Brazilian films in the 1990s radically change[d] this narrative tone when focusing on these same lands and their inhabitants” (Ibid).

For her, what was at stake was an ethic and aesthetic question in the discussion about the changes in the post-1990s Brazilian cinema. On the one it posed an ethic problem, how to show suffering and represent territories of poverty and the excluded, without falling into folklore, paternalism, and conformist and lacrimose humanism (Bentes 122).

And on the other hand, an aesthetic question, how to create a new means of expression, comprehension and representation of the phenomena related to territories of poverty; how to lead the viewer to experience the radicality of hunger, the effects of poverty and exclusion, inside or outside of Latin America (Bentes 122-123).

Bentes argues that in contemporary films “conventional language and cinematography turn the sertão into a garden or a museum of exoticism, thus ‘rescuing’ it through spectacle” (124). She marks the differences between Cinema Novo to the new Brazilian cinema saying that, it is a move from the ‘aesthetics’ to the ‘cosmetics’ of hunger, from the ‘camera- in-hand and idea-in-mind’ (a hand-to-hand battle with reality) to the steadicam, a camera that surfs on reality, a narrative that values the beauty and the good quality of the image, and is often dominated by conventional techniques and narratives (Bentes 124-125).

What Ivana Bentes acknowledges is a marked difference between the aesthetics and ethics of the politicized cinema of the 1960s and the commercial and ‘pop cinema’ of the 1990s, and this is symptom of cinema struggling to reaffirm itself. Bentes argues that the goal at this time was “a ‘popular’ and ‘globalized’ film industry, dealing with local, historic and traditional subjects wrapped in an international’ aesthetics” (Bentes 125). This conception is very significant especially considering Brazilian cinema and cinema in general have reached

45 unprecedented levels of globalization as it was discussed in the previous section, pointing out to the fashioning of a cinema that would be at the same time local and global, as Naficy would argue.

Ruy Gardnier in an article entitled “How to Construct a Country” argues about Cinema Novo’s directors’ aims by saying, what was at stake in this modernist dispute was the founding myth that would answer to the question of ‘what is Brazil?’, and the believe that an autochthone historical fable could create a national identity, a representation of the country as a whole (my translation).

And it is exactly the lack of this intension that predominates in this new phase. With few exceptions, films in this period seem to be uninterested in political allegory or making big statements about the nation. It seems that the need of attracting audience and globalization of cinema has distanced it from the traditional ideological project converting national film industry in almost a mere factory of images to be consumed everywhere. It is also worthy of noting that it that the process of globalization not only provoked changes in the economy but also destroyed apparent distinctions between Left and Right, and transformed deep or high culture into other forms more related with pop or mass culture.

Some of the aesthetical changes that Bentes acknowledges comparing Cinema Novo with the cinema of the retomada are:

1. The glamorization of the sertão, that once was represented “as a land in crisis… shown as violence and violation” “as a metaphor for an intolerable situation”; is ‘now’ transformed “into a garden or museum of exoticism” (Bentes 124). 2. The transformation of the sertão into a mythical-religious land of transcendental realism where “Biblical characters abound in daily life, and the sacred is revealed in prophetic dreams and vision emerging from a barren and violent reality (talking about Landscapes of Memories/Sertão das Memorias – dir. José Araújo; 1997). She also criticises Paulo Caldas

46 and Lírio Ferreira’s Perfumed Ball (Baile Perfumando; 1997) for being “a pop re-reading of the traditional sertão (Bentes 128). 3. “Romanticism, exotic primitivism and favelas as media folklore”; The favela that before was portrayed as “the site for idealized dreams of a beautiful and dignified poverty” where the “the clichés of the ‘noble savage’ were applied to the ‘noble poor’”, ‘now’ is romanticized by “the search for lyrism in adversity an poverty”, and the myth of redemption through art (samba, pagode, funk, rap or media) is perhaps the main message of this type of films (Bentes 121-137). Orfeu directed by Carlos Diegues in 1999 is an example of this kind of films (Ibid).

A distinctive characteristic of this phase is the folkloric re-visitation of old myths and scenarios created by Cinema Novo but transforming them into a spectacle, romanticizing or mythicizing to the point of transforming them into a cliché.

The next section examines the cinema produced around the year 2010 to show how the Brazilian cinema has developed away from initial characteristics and how it is pioneering to transform itself into a more diverse cinema.

3.3 New-New-Brazilian Cinema (2010s)

The Political-Historical Perspective

In 2003 a new political and economic era began in Brazil. It is the era of the Left wing governments of the Partido dos Trabalhadores – PT (lit. Worker’s Party). President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (2003-2010), following and improving some of the social programmes created by former president Fernando Henrique Cardoso, started a process of taking millions of Brazilians from poverty. One of those programmes created by President Lula is the Bolsa Família (family allowance) that according to Rosa Maria Marques and Áquilas Mendes, “in May 2006, the program was implemented in 99.9% of Brazilian municipalities, benefiting 11,118 million families” representing “47 million Brazilians” (20) (My translation). However, economic politics of the government of President Lula

47 also tried to privilege the great capital as Marques and Mendes affirms (15-23). Nonetheless, I would argue that the result was beneficial for the whole society. It was due to this new economic situation that Brazil could for example finally pay its external debt and restore the credibility in its economy that in the long term, contributed to the improvement of the quality of life within Brazil and the ascension of the 'low classes' into the 'middle class'.

There are other elements that I consider important in this new phase of Brazilian history such as the progressive introduction of racial quotas at the universities, the racial law for the public service sanctioned by now president Dilma Rousseff, the program ProUni (pro-university) that finances 50% of fees in private high education, the process of pacification (occupation) of Rio’s favelas etc. Far from propagandizing, PT’s program, my intension here is to show the dimension of the discussions and debates that have taken place in Brazil in the last 12 years (“Dilma Sanciona…” and “ProUni”). It is also worth stating that many of those politics still face a lot of resistance in Brazil like the bolsa família or the system of racial quotas.

Another important discussion currently taking place in Brazil relates to gay rights. In 2011 the Superior Court recognized gay marriage but the ultra- conservatives still block the approval of the marriage law in the Parliament and even try to undermine other gay and human rights in Brazil (“Aprovado O Casamento Gay…”)

I would argue that if in the 1990s the perception was that Left and Right have disappeared, then in the late-2000s they have reappeared involving themselves in a fight for individual, racial, sexual, civil and human rights. We are also starting to see an affect of his debate in Brazilian cinema.

The following section explores the territories, aesthetics and narratives of this new-new-Brazilian cinema to examine its choices and commitments.

48 Consolidated Territories:

Favelas and Sertão

In her essay “The Sertão and the Favela in Contemporary Brazilian Film”, Ivana Bentes argues about the changes experienced in these two territories, the sertão and the favela, in the cinema of the 1990s in comparison with Cinema Novo in the 1960s. She points out a change on how filmmakers from the 1960s have approached poverty and suffering “rejecting the sociological discourse of ‘denunciation’ and ‘victimization’” to a more commercial cinema that mystifies, embellishes, romanticizes and reproduces old myths about those territories and its characters (Bentes 121-137). In the post-retomada phase films the themes of favela and sertão seem have started to get exhorted by their politicization in the 1960s and moreover their superficialization and over usage in the 1990s and 2000s, especially the favela films. The success of some films like City of God (Fernando Meirelles and Kátia Lund; 2002) or Elite Squad (José Padilha; 2007) seems that instead of having impelled filmmakers to produce more films of this kind has provoked that filmmakers search for other kinds of narrative. But on the other hand the new social and ideological reality of the country could be playing a role. Since 2008 all the Rio’s favelas started to be occupied by the police and the UPPs (Unities of Pacification Police) were installed into the favelas to pacify them changing thus the tonic of crime in Brazilian Cinema (“UPP”).

Back to the sertão, one of the first realization one does when analysing the post- retomada cinema is the shortage of films that represent this territory. From about the 300 Brazilian films produced from 2010 to 2013 no more than six films have the sertão as backdrop and only four are fiction films. Moreover, the themes that involve the sertão in these films are very different from those of the 1960s and from the 1990s.

Some examples of this new representation or the sertão are: Petrus Cariry’s The Grain (O Grão; 2010) is an intimist film that tells the story of an old lady who know that her death approaches and starts preparing her loved grandson for it.

49 The film portrays the poverty of the family that has to work harder for the marriage of the young daughter. The sertão in this film is a transition between the modern and the archaic, however the theme is not poverty, but the emptiness of life itself. Another example of fiction film about the sertão is Karim Aïnouz and Marcelo Gomes’s I Travel Because I Have to, I Come Back Because I Love You (Viajo Porque Preciso, Volto Porque Te Amo; 2010). This is a ‘diary film’ of a geographer who travels to the sertão to make a report about the area where a canal will pass but is gripped by solitude and nostalgia for his woman. The film is a kind of documentary as it is constructed with images made by Aïnouz and Gomes, however is full of subjectivity since its narrated in first person and filmed with in a subjective and experimental style (“Crítica | Viajo Porque Preciso…”). In documentary, we have Kátia by Karla Holanda (2013). This is a film about the first travesty elected councilwoman in the country who was elected already three times in a village in the sertão of the state of Piaui (Tavares, “1º travesti eleito no país…”). I would argue that films about the sertão in this phase are not indifferent for suffering and poverty, not depoliticized. Filmmakers way of making a political statement about reality is exactly bringing those realities and themes to the screen, however they leave to the view to make judgments about those character, themes or realities.

Before talking about favela films, it is necessary to make a distinction between the films that the story happens in the favela and crime films to after analyse how those films are portraying such realities. Not all films based in favelas are about crimes or drugs, and not all crime films involve favelas.

Between 2010 and 2013 there have been approximately six films that involve favelas. Only three of them were fiction films: Elite Squad I and II (José Padilha; 2010, 2012) and 5X Favela (Five Times Favela; Luciana Bezerra, Cacau Amaral, Rodrigo Felha, Wavá Morais, Manaíma Carneiro, Cadu Barcellos and Luciano Vidigal; 2010). In 2014 two films are prominent: José Eduardo Belmonte’s Alemão and Na Quebrada (Lit. [informal]: in the neighbourhood).

50

Despite the scenes of violence contained in some of these films, they portray a more complex situation for the people involved in the “drug war”, including the police and politicians, as in Elite Squad I and II (José Padilha; 2010, 2012) – a very different approach to the films of the early-2000s that put the war in black and white in the full sense of the expression. In 5X Favela, we have a drama film that shows some the moral and ethics of life of people in the favelas through stories that in most of the case involve children. Alemão tells the story of a group of uncovered policemen in the Alemão favela who are preparing for an invasion and are discovered by the traffickers just two days before the invasion. Without communication the policemen find themselves between crossfire between the police who invade the favela and the drug dealers. Cached in this situation, I would argue that the infiltrated police take the role of the innocent population who inhabit these favelas and in my view, showing this process of invasion, the film connotes somehow the end of and era especially due to the use of real footage and real characters testimonies at the end of the film.

New Territories:

Genres like comedies, bio-pictures and dramatic films are still the most attractive for audiences in Brazil. Nonetheless, films from this new era are exploring new themes, places and new styles. Some examples could be Marcelo Gomes’ Once Upon a Time I was, Verônica (Era Uma Vez Eu, Verônica; 2012), the story of a young woman recently graduated doctor who reflects on her sentimental and professional life. The film is different because it projects a feminine subjectivity and women freedom that is not so common in Brazilian cinema; Karim Aïnouz’s Futuro Beach (Praia do Futuro; 2014) explores the theme of masculinity through the story of three men, two of them homosexuals. The film also plays with tourism and immigration once it is filmed in Brazil and in Germany. Drugs, bisexual sex and love are explored in Marcos Prado’s Artificial Paradises (Paraisos Artificiais; 2012) filmed between Brazil and the Netherlands (Amsterdam). In the same international mood is Latitudes a coproduction (Brazil, France, UK and Italy) directed by Felipe Braga (2013). The film tells the

51 complications of lovers that cannot live their sentimental life plenty due to their intense professional life that demands constant journeys around the world. Elena by Petra Costa is a memory film (documentary) told in first person that explores memory, dreams and fraternal love. It is the story of Petra who searches for her sister (Elena) – a girl who flew from Brazil during the dictatorship with the dream of becoming actress in New York. Petra searches for her and realizes that she committed suicide. All those films have in common the internationality the search for one’s own identity.

Economics

Brazilian cinema’s success would not be possible without the extremely political will of government to restore the Brazilian cinema industry through the implementation of incentive programmes to reinforce film production and commercialization. One of those measures was the ‘more cinema programme’ (Programa Mais Cinema) that in 1999 counted with R$ 80 million from the National Bank for the Social and Economic Development (Banco National de Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social – BNDES) (Moisés 4). To this amount should be added 2.5 million annually from the Ministry of Culture to support production, commercialization and the refurnishing of movie theatre in the country (Ibid).

Those are just some of the measures applied by the Brazilian government to support the audio-visual sector. The investment in the sector increased from around R$ 30,5 million in 1995, to R$ 43,1 million in 2001; a low mark compared to the previous years that where about R$ 75 million (Álvaro Moisés 10).

Moreover, from 2002 to 2010, the means of financing have diversified and the public investments got restricted to the audio-visual laws (Rouanet Law and the Audio-visual Law articles 1 and 3) amounting a total of R$ 1,5 billion (U.S. $701,5 million) (“Plano De Diretrizes E Metas…”). It is remarkable is the increasing of funds from the Audiovisual Sectorial Fund (Fundo Setorial do Audiovisual – FSA). The FSA is an official organization committed with the promotion of Brazilian

52 cinema with funds from the CODECINE (Contribution for the Development of the Cinematographic Industry/Contribuição para o Desenvolvimento da Indústria Cinematográfica Nacional). These funds come from a tax imposed on the “broadcasting, production, licensing and distribution of cinematographic and videographic works with commercial finality, as well as on the payment, the credit, the employment, the sending or receiving, to the producers, distributers or intermediate abroad of amounts relative to revenues from the exploitation of cinematographic and videographic works or for its acquisition or importation, to a fix price”, and from the FISTEL that is the Telecommunications Inspection Fund (Fundo de Fiscalização das Telecomunicações) that is also a tax paid by the telecommunication companies since they also exploit pay TV in the country (“Plano De Diretrizes E Metas…” – my translation).

All this progress in investments can be translated in an increase of film production from an average of 20 to 30 in 2002/2003 to 70 to 80 in 2010 (“Plano de Diretrizes…”). In 2014 there were 114 films produced in Brazil (“Dados Gerais…2014”). One deduction, one can make here is about the insertion of Brazilian cinema in the national and international market. If in 2002 and 2003 Brazilian cinema with only 20 to 30 films had already a good insertion in the international market, the recognition of its artistic and economic potential should be reinforced with such figure.

In terms of co-productions, in her article entitled “National, Regional, and Global: New Waves of Latin American Cinema”, Luisela Alvaray writes about the consequences of a globalized economy for the rapid expansion of the economy in the now considered “emerging markets” and its influence on Latin American cinema in form of co-productions with U.S. major companies (49-55). She acknowledges the increasing importance of Latin American cinema in the international market by comparing for example Walter Salles’ film about Che Guevara The Motorcycle Diaries (2004) that “became one of the most profitable Latin American films around the world, earning [U.S] $57,6 million – quite a high

53 figure if we compare it with, for instance, the [U.S] $39,5 million for Pedro Amodovar’s Bad Education, which came out the same year” (Alvaray 49). For her, this Latin American cinema “wave” boomed in the 1990s and started to be exhibited not only in art house theatres but also in multiplex commercial cinemas around the world (Ibid). One of the reasons she points out is the influence of the Motion Picture Association (MPA) that is formed by the major Hollywood studios and started to engage with Latin American film companies for the co-production and distribution of films especially in Mexico, Argentina and Brazil (Alvaray 51).

Alvaray argues that “as the free-trade economy became global, the entertainment industry in the United States strengthened its stance, advocating for a world market free of regulations and open to competitiveness” (52). However, in spite of recognizing that “free commerce without regulation inevitably favors the largest corporation”, she affirms that “when U.S. companies pick up Latin American films for distribution, the films gain unprecedented exposure in the United States” (Alvaray 53-54). She mentions the case of The Motorcycle Diaries that “became the second-most watched film Latin American feature, surpassed only by Like Water for Chocolate (Alfonso Arau, 1992)” (Alvaray 54). But, the ambition of Hollywood in Latin America is not only for distribution but also for productions and co-productions. Alvaray mentions for example the case of the film Carandiru (Hector Babenco; 2003) that was a box-office failure in the US but that only in Brazil raised more than U.S. $ 10 million (Ibid); a considerable amount to shared amongst the project partners. These business and marketing strategies represent the day-to-day of cinema industry in Latin America including Brazil, far from the old dichotomies of the past, showing the influence and impact of globalization on these Third World Cinemas.

Moreover, Alvaray highlights the significance of Spain for the Latin American film industry, especially since the 1990s (55). She mentions the support of Televisión Española on Latin American production but at the same time points out that it

54 support was replaced by other companies like Wanda, Tornasol, Sogetel, and Lola Films due to financial problems (Ibid). Alvaray mentions some films that became very successful due to these cooperations such as, Fabián Bielinsky’s Nine Queens (2000), Juan José Campanella’s El Hijo de la Novia (2001), Alfonso Cuarón’s Y Tu Mamá También (2001) and Alejandro González Iñárritu’s Amores Perros (2000). It is unquestionable the weight that Spain had to support and to promote the cinema of Latin America with the coproductions and through the most important international film festival in the Spanish language – the San Sebastián International Film Festival.

The Brazilian Cinema Agency (Ancine) has recently announced a new credit line for coproductions with Latin American film companies trying to occupy the gap left by Spain (El País). The idea is to destine R$ 5 million from the Audio-visual Sectorial Fund (FSA) to support films made with partners from Latin America (El País). This initiative has very important effects for the national film industry: first, to diversify the supply of Latin American films in Brazilian cinemas; second, to promote the technical interchange, and to ensure the influence of Brazilian cinema in Latin America that still experiences some problems to get into these markets despite the proximity of the Portuguese with the Spanish languages.

Once again, Brazilian cinema has shown its capacity not only to recover but also to sustain, diversify and increase its production using of the economic mechanism facilitated by governments and companies the represent the signs of a globalized film industry.

55 The Independents

In the case of Brazil, Hollywood majors have got quite an important portion of this market (co-production and distribution) though their alliance with Globo TV and its affiliates companies like Globo Filmes, and Globosat. It is important to remark that despite the recent competition between Globo TV and the other free-TVs and the Internet, Globo TV (Rede Globo/ Globo Network) is considered the second biggest in the world and exerts a hegemonic rule in the Brazilian TV both on free as well as paid-TV (Record TV web). Globo Network founded in 1998 Globo Filmes, that have advertisement and exhibition guaranteed for the films they produce and commercialize due to the high values quality of Globo’s productions and its star system that in practical terms is an assurance of good revenue to the theatre exhibitor (Globo Filmes web). But yet, in addition, those films count with other means of exhibition such as the paid channels of Globosat that represent a platform of 33 channels amongst them Viva, Canal Brasil, Multishow, Globo News, and Telecine that in its turn is composed of six channels of films having a join-venture with Globosat, MGM, Paramount, Fox, Universal and an exclusivity with Disney (Telecine web). Rede Globo is the most prominent partner and exhibitor for TV of films from made in the U.S., by the U.S. and with the U.S. in Brazil. That situation is completely anti-productive for those filmmakers and companies that do no count with such economical influences and mass means of communication for self-promote their products. The result is that many of the films produced in the country, that many times receive some funding from government incentive projects, receive very little projection in the market or as it is common cannot get exhibited.

It is important to note that the 114 films released in 2014 announced by Ancine in its annual report, only represent the films that where exhibited ‘officially’ in any of the theatres in the country, but that there are hundreds of other short and feature films that circulate in the many festivals that take place around the country (“Dados Gerais…2014”). Only in the web guide KinoForum.org.br it

56 affirms that are available information about more than 150 Brazilian festivals amongst them: Mostra do Filme Livre (Free Film Show) in Rio de Janeiro, Festival de Brasília de Cinema (Brasília’s Film Festival) or the Mostra de Cinema de Tiradentes (Film Show of Tiradentes) (Kino Forum web). This latter proclaims itself to be the biggest Brazilian independent film festival, counting with more than 100 Brazilian films in premiere in Brazil and around the world (“18ª Mostra de Cinema de Tiradentes” – web). What this show is the necessity to in fact, create mechanism to avoid monopolies and oligopolies in the means of communications in Brazil and guarantee more space for national production on cinemas and TVs in the country.

In this sense, the Ancine, the government through the Ministry of Telecommunications and Culture and also the Parliament have made a crucial work to regulate inequalities of the sector and to protect and stimulate the national production and exhibition. It is well known that Brazilian cinema has need governmental support since 1932, a politic that could receive some criticism for some of its aspects, especially that this system also favour in many cases the same well known filmmakers and companies and that the system of tax waiver influence in the content of the production since it is the marketing department of companies who decide which film deserve to be warded the fund to its production, but those organs have being very important to guarantee the right to exist to the national cinema in the commercial market.

Some of the measures created by government and implemented by Ancine is the ‘screen quotes’ that since 2001 predict a minimum of days per year for Brazilian films for screen. For 2015 the number is 28 days with the obligation of showing at least three different films. This number is proportional to the size of the theatre complex. In a complex of cinemas with seven screens, for example, the quantity of films can rise to eleven per year; the maximum is 24 films for a complex with more than sixteen theatres” (“Publicado Decreto…”). Another measure is the “law of the paid-TV”. This is a law that was approved in 2011 to

57 guarantee a minimum quote of time for national productions on paid-TV. It aims to ensure at least three hours and a half per week for national and independent production in a qualified space on TVs (1070h/year) and the obligation to create one channel for Brazilian production to each three channels of qualified space (“Tire Suas Dúvidas…”).

Ancine and the Ministry of Telecommunication also are studying a regulation on online TV on demand like Netflix, HBO Go, Fox Play. The newspaper Folha de São Paulo affirms that “one of the studies proposes a quote of 30% of content of video service on demand to be destined for independent and national production” (“Ancine Quer Cotas…”).

The result, Brazilian cinema is today a quite stronger industry with many challenges to take over but quite more vigorous than twenty years ago. However, much more is still needed to ensure that the film industry strengthen itself, like a law to democratize the means of communication, and measures that support new filmmakers and small companies to produce they first films.

In conclusion one could argue that from perhaps its most difficult time, Brazilian cinema has had the remarkable capacity to make contact with audiences diversifying and renewing its narrative choices and exploiting the new possibilities given by a globalized world. And for the good and for the bad Brazilian Government had played an important role for the achievement of this remarkable success.

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4 Case Studies

4.1 Methodology

As it was shown in the previous chapter, Brazilian cinema managed to diversify its genres, styles and themes largely. These case studies should be understood only as a sampling of this diversity. I have chosen three films that in my view represent a step further towards this “new-new-Brazilian Cinema” that I have proposed in this thesis. These films are: 1. Once Upon A Time I, Verônica (Era Uma Vez Eu, Verônica; dir. by Marcelo Gomes; 2012); 2. Artificial Paradises (Paraisos Artificiais; dir. by Marcos Prado; 2012); 3. Futuro Beach (Praia do Futuro; dir. by Karim Aïnouz; 2014) As it was concluded that Brazilian cinema has become less focused in national identity and investing more in personal identity and audience identification, the methodology chosen is David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson’s formalist method of narrative poetics analysis due to its capacity to reveal explicit and implicit information about the story and the characters and to its focus on characters’ psychology revealed through action and reaction.

For the formalist approach it is the viewer who ultimately creates the story in his/her mind by interpreting the cues derived through the plot (Bordwell and Thompson 77). Bordwell and Thompson make a differentiation between story and plot. For them, the story is “the set of all the events in the narrative, both the ones explicitly presented and those the viewer infers” (76). On the other hand, plot “is used to describe everything visibly and audibly present in the film before us” (Ibid). Thus, plot does not include any inferred information. The viewer understands the story by the cues present in the plot. The process of watching a film is thus a process of making inferences.

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The viewer knows the story through the diagesis – the world of the film (Bordwell and Thompson 76). The plot can present diagetic elements (elements that pertain to the film diagesis) or non-diagetic elements (elements that do no pertain to the film world (Ibid).

For Bordwell and Thompson, narrative can be understood as a “chain of elements linked by cause and effect and occurring in space and time” (75). They explain: Typically, a narrative begins with one situation; a series of changes occurs according to a pat- tern of cause and effect; finally, a new situation arises that brings about the end of the narrative. (Bordwell and Thompson 76) And conclude: Our engagement with the story depends on our understanding of the pattern of change and stability, cause and effect, time and space. (Ibid)

Very important for the narrative, logically, are the characters since according to Bordwell and Thompson, “the agents of cause and effect are characters (77). Characters have the capacity of triggering and reacting to events (Bordwell and Thompson 77). Another way that the viewer can get information about the story is through the character traits, their physical and psychological characteristics.

Bordwell and Thompson argue that despite “the fact that a narrative relies on causality, time and space” it “doesn’t mean that other formal principles can’t govern the film” (75). They mention for example ‘parallelism’ as a way to cue information from a story (Ibid). Another way is through a motif – “any significant repeated element in a film” (Bordwell and Thompson 66). For Bordwell and Thompson “motifs can assist in creating parallelism” (Bordwell and Thompson 67).

What it is possible to conclude from this method is that story and characters can be understood through the study of the plot, resumed as the diagetic and non- diagetic elements of the film. Moreover, that one can imply that from this analysis it is possible to know more information that underline the formal

60 pattern of the film. It is possible to know the subtext that is implied by the viewer.

4.2 Film 1: “Once Upon A Time I, Verônica” (Dir. by Marcelo Gomes; 2012)

Once Upon A Time I, Verônica is a Brazilian/French coproduction with the support of San Sebastian International Film Festival. The story happens in the city of Recife in the Northeast of Brazil. One of the big social movements at the moment in the city is the fight against the construction of more than ten mega towers near the area of the port.

Verônica is a recent graduate doctor who lives an existential crisis. She fears about the future and her capacity to love. The only thing that gives happiness to Verônica is her father and sex.

The film starts with an orgy at the beach. A moment later, a naked woman spinning on the back of a man. We assume that she is Verônica. She laughs. We understand that she is happy. The film cuts to her in the bathroom. She is brushing her hair and finds a white hair. She pulls it energetically. We understand that she is concerned about aging. Thereupon, we see some student having an examination. Verônica is also there. Cut to the images of some buildings passing and the sound of cars. Later on we see an old man asleep on a chair at the table. Verônica arrives and kisses him. He wakes up. She talks to him calling him dad. We learn their relationship. Later in the kitchen he asks about the examination. She says so-so, but the father implies that it is modesty. She ‘dreams’ saying that if she passes the medical residence examination she would study/work in the hospital and get money for that. We learn about the test she did and profession. After some short takes that set other traits of the characters, we see Verônica getting into the hospital with a man. We conclude that she passed the examination. He introduces her to the place and to the stuff. This sequence is built up as a collage that finds its sense as we go cuing from the

61 events presented in the plot to introduce the character and set up the initial situation. The only thing that seems incomprehensible is the orgy at the beginning.

In her first day at the hospital, Verônica gets into her office; she takes a paper from her purse and starts rehearsing an introduction for her patients. We understand she is unsecure. What comes after is a sequence of consultations with patients with very lamentable psychological problems. In the next sequence Verônica meets her female friends at a terrace. They talk about men and sex. Next scene Verônica is having sex with Gustavo, a lover. He says many romantic phases to her but she reveals that she is not in love. Next day in her bed, Verônica takes her recorder and starts talking about herself as a patient. The narration carries in voice-over meanwhile we see her in the bathroom (the voice now is a non-diagetic element). She inspects her face for wrinkles. The voice-over talks about the sex she had the previous night. We understand that see thinks she is not apt for love, just for sex and that she is worried about aging. It is conformed in the next scene where we see her bushing her father’s white hair. The voice- over gives the cue; she says: “I, Verônica… growing old with my father”. Thereafter we have some sequences that show Verônica’s sadness.

The complications start when Verônica’s father gets sick and later they discover that they will have to leave the building because it has structural problems. We start to make a relation between Verônica’s fears of getting older, the father’s illness and the building structural problems. It seems to mean that everything gets old and sick, even building. Later when walking on the streets with Verônica, her father narrates the sad ending of some of the nicest edifices of the area. They visit their old house. In here the social problem is also highlighted.

The problems in the hospital and the sickness of the father seem to make Verônica get stronger and start to empathize with patients and them with her. The hospital’s director says that he nominated her to work in a private hospital

62 where she would get more money. She asks for a time to think about it; thus, a point of suspense is introduced in the plot. She meets her friends and says that she will be in carnival with a boyfriend (Gustavo). However, in carnival she meets a stranger and has sex with him. Later, she announces her father that she has accepted the job and has a surprise to him (suspense). They visit their old house and she says that she bought it (surprise).

The film finishes with her over a bridge looking at the river and mentally reflecting about her life. She says: “Once upon a time there was a film that would starts deep inside my head and would reveal another world… a world with an happy ending… a film that would finish on my way”. Then we see the images of naked people playing on the beach. We then understand that this image is related with the image we saw in the very beginning of the film ant that it represents Verônica’s dream of freedom and happiness.

Through the use of action/reaction, diagetic and non-digetic elements (voice- over at times), motives and parallelism the film is able to reveal much information about the characters, their problems and the world in which they are inserted. The film reveals a feminine subjectivity; a woman in crises but a woman who is autonomous and learns from her own experiences.

4.3 Film 2: “Artificial Paradises" (Dir. by Marcos Prado; 2012)

Artificial Paradises is a film a co-production between Globo Filmes and Zazen Produções with the support of the state of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo through their secretaries of culture.

The film narrates the story of three middle class youngsters; Erika who is a DJ, her friend Lara and Nado, who they met in a rave party. In a rave the three of them have drugs and sex together. Lara dyes from overdoses. Erika, to forget Lara’s death moves to Amsterdam where works as a DJ. One day Erika meets Nando at the disco where Erika works. She engages with him but he does not

63 remember her. They fall in love but their love is frustrated when Nando decides to traffic some drug to Brazil. The film starts with Nando leaving prison. A woman is waiting for him by a car in front of the prison. They hold each other and then we see the car passing through a tunnel; later, out of the tunnel he puts his head out of the window as enjoying the air and the sun. We infer that he feels free. At home he has a shower. After he founds some a prescription drug in the bathroom drawer; He seems worried. Next shot is a close up of his hands in the bedroom looking at the pictures of a woman on the screen of the camera. His brother, Lepe, gets in; they have a little talk; Lepe says “welcome back” but apologizes for not stay for the dinner. Lepe argues with his mother about it but leaves. Nando visits Lepe’s room and accidentally finds a pack of ecstasies pills. He leans on the bed sad. The chain of cause and effect makes us understand that Nando is worried about his bother because now he knows the consequences of drug dealing. Again the beginning of the film starts as a collage of events that help us to know the characters and the problems.

The next sequence begins with the film title, “Artificial Paradises”, and then we see a street of Amsterdam from above. Cut to light, music and people dancing in a club. A young woman is playing the music at the top of a podium. She is Erika. Nando gets in the club with other two men. The waiters prepare drugs for the customers. Later Nando gets into the disco floor and dances. Erika observes him whilst playing. Later on in the bar, she starts a conversation with him. The dance and later have sex. The title and the images of Amsterdam and the drugs in the club imply that Amsterdam is the place of artificial paradises – drugs. It is also significant the fact that Nando does not recognizes Erika. But she does. When she gets home she cries.

It is a sunrise; we see a bus moving along a heavenly landscape of coconut trees. A title announces that the following occurred two year before in the Northeast of Brazil. Erika is in the bus. He hears someone sniffling like crying behind her seat.

64 She turns to see. It is an old man who says he is emotional due to the beauty of nature. She spots some little drugs into his handbag. He offers her a piece of a plant that, according to him, it is good for self-knowledge. He asks if it is it that she is looking for. She says that she does not know and accepts it. This implies that the character identity is in construction. She does not know what she is looking for.

Until now the film is been fashioned with different temporal layers that create a kind of parallelism with the line of action of the move. It swings between Brazil and the Netherlands to give information about the events that happened in the past. Thus we learn that Erika meet Nando before and Lara died when the had drugs and sex together, that Erika’s son’s dad is Nando, or that when he is arrested in Brazil, it in fact happened before the scene of he getting out of the prison that we saw in the beginning of the movie. The use of parallelism complicates the plot but at the same time it makes it more intriguing by adding mystery to the story. The story reveals that the characters look for their own identity in music, sex, drugs and international journeys.

4.4 Film 3: “Futuro Beach” (Dir. by Karim Aïnouz; 2014)

Futuro Beach (Praia do Futuro) is a Brazilian/German coproduction. The film story happens between the city of Fortaleza in the Northeast of Brazil and Berlin in Germany.

The film tells the story of a lifeguard (Donato) who meets a German tourist (Konrad) when a friend of him dies drowned in the sea in Fortaleza. The two men live a romance meanwhile the police search for the body of the dead man. Finished the search Konrad returns to Berlin. Donato visits him and decide to stay in the city abandoning all his ties with his family due to his fear of what they would say. The complication starts when after some years his brother (Ayrton) decides to search for him in Berlin.

65 The film opens with the image of enormous windmills spinning on a vast landscape of sand dunes and two men on motorbikes driving at high speed over them. After we see two men running toward the sea. Then in close-up, we realize that they are drowning themselves. Donato takes Konrad and passes to a colleague and tries to save the other man. He loses him. By logic of cause and effect this sequence introduces the inciting incident and the characters – the tourist and the lifeguard.

In the next scene Donato is working at his watchtower and his young brother, Ayrton, comes to bring his lunch. Donato asks what would happens if he disappeared in the ocean. Ayrton says that he would try to save him even if he fears the sea. In this scene we learn that Donato has a brother, that the accident affected him and that Ayrton is scared of the sea.

The next is Donato in the hospital announcing to Konrand that his friend is dead. After, Donato offers to take him to the hotel. In the car they have sex. After Donato sees some tattoos on Konrad’s body he asks if he has a tattoo in memory of his dead friend. Konrand answers that they were only friends. From action and reaction we imply that Konrad and Donato are gays and that the dead man was just a friend for Konrad.

Following this is a series of scenes where Konrad and Donato are involved in the search for the body of Konrad’s friend. After some days, Konrad has a meeting with a police officer who announces that the searches are closed. Later on the rocks near the sea, Donato asks if Konrad is really leaving on the following day. He seems sad. Konrad conforms he is. Again, the plot is constructed through action and reaction: two German friends, one day in the sea, one meet the lifeguard, they get involved, etc. In this precise sequence we imply that Donato is in love of Konrad and is already missing him.

66 When Donato visits Konrad in Berlin they have a lot of fun together. In one scene Donato is enthusiastic asking for words in German, in another one he goes to the corner shop enjoying the beauty and the peace of the street. One day before the flight in a park, Konrad asks him to stay. Donato gets nervous. They argue. Konrad calls him coward. Donato pushes Konrad and goes off alone in the park. On the following day they are in the train to the airport. The voice in the train announces the airport stop. Konrad gets up and takes Donato’s luggage. Donato remains seated. The train stops. People get off. Donato does not get up. The door closes and Konrad comes and sits with him. This whole sequence is based in action and reaction with a delay that increases mystery about Donato’s decision. We learn that Donato liked the city, being in Konrad’s company, but he is a fearful man.

The years have passed. Ayrton is now a young man. He is in Berlin. He finds Donato’s work place and address. Ayrton follows him. In the lift he has his hood up. Donato does not know who he is. When Donato leaves the lift Ayrton addresses him. They literally fight. Then the go to Donato’s flat. At night they go to a café, Ayrton reveals that their mother died more than one year ago. They argue. Ayrton calls Donato a “selfish fag” who likes to “get fucked secretly”. Donato’s cowardice is conformed as Ayrton links his sexuality to the fact that he forgot the family.

The film finishes with three men on a trip to the North Sea. It is very cold. Donato and Ayrton walk on the cold beach. Later we see the images of the beach and Donato’s voice-over narrating a letter to Ayrton. Referring to his brother he says he is “a boy who thinks he is not brave but is the bravest man I’ve seen; skinny, while everyone’s strong; thin voice, while everyone’s virile; small feet, whole everyone’s firm; He finishes talking about fear and bravery. This ending puts a question on masculinity, on the cultural treats related with it.

67 4.5 Resumé

The case studies has shown that the method of analysis of the narrative poetics can reveal aspects about the characters psychology that have its root in the cultural and social reality especially in the case of the first and late film. Verônica and Donato’s fears are symptoms of the social reality they live or have lived. The method also showed how those films are constructed and its importance to understand the story. We have understood as well that in the development of the story the characters start with a doubt, or a desire, or even a sentiment of incompleteness that is resolved after the characters face their conflict. It is this struggle that will help them to construct they sense of identity.

In general terms we could testify on the globalization of Brazilian cinema and how globalization has affected production, ethics and aesthetics in Brazilian cinema at the present moment due to the need to please audiences in the West as well as in the Third World.

68 5 Conclusion

This thesis sought to show the consequences of globalization on Brazilian cinema identity and its turn from a nationalist Third-World cinema to a post-national and post-modern cinema. To achieve this, the research first showed the existence of three periods related with Brazilian Cinema from the 1960s onwards: the period of Cinema Novo in the 1960s, the retomada period in the 1990s and the post-retomada (the"New-New-Brazilian Cinema") from around the 2010 onward. It also showed that the cinema before the 1980s was influenced by the nationalist ideas produced by the modernist paradigm and that the cinema from the 1980s, especially the cinema from 1990s on is been influenced by post- nationalist and post-modern paradigm.

The thesis indicated that the ideas and aesthetics embraced by Cinema Novo in the 1960s represented an echo of the Third World political movements against imperialism and neo-colonialism, and the necessity of producing a cinema that would break with the ideology of the colonizer disseminated via the films from those countries into the Third World, the construction of a cinema of decolonization of those territories and peoples’ mind. The research assessed that this dichotomy was related with the modernist paradigm that is intrinsic linked with nationalism. Moreover, it showed that with the advent of globalization this dichotomy started to decrease to the point of Brazilian cinema becoming more globalized and get recognized internationally.

Another finding of this thesis is that globalization has also produced ethical and aesthetic changes in the films. Those choices were in a first moment to a great extend related with the necessity of attracting audiences back to the theatres (1990s) and then to the necessity of diversifying the offer of Brazilian film and please even more audiences in a globalized market.

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The thesis assessed as well that idea of hybridization is present in Brazilian society since the hey-days of the modernist movement in the 1920s in Brazil (“cultural cannibalism”) and that this idea was implemented to the construction a national cinema by filmmakers of Cinema Novo. Thus, hybridization in Brazilian cinema is not an idea complete originated with globalization, but potentiated by it. Moreover, one can also see this hybridization as a strategy to survive the process of globalization and to compete internally and externally with more dominates film industries.

The research found that the support of Brazilian government through lows of incentive and protection was very important to maintain the national industry working, to increase production, to diversify it, and to augment the presence of Brazilian cinema abroad.

In terms of ethics, aesthetics and political commitment, Brazilian cinema experienced some alterations between the three periods presented; from Cinema Novo’s fight against “paternalism”, “conformism” and “lacrimose humanism” in approaching poverty and suffering, to the commercial, pop, globalized “cosmetic of hunger” claimed by Ivana Bentes (122-124). And from this idea to a cinema that neither wants to talk in the name and for the nation, neither to rework old myths nor to reproduce old formats and themes using a superficial style. The research has shown that this new-new cinema is a cinema that crosses the problems of the nation with the problems of the individuals to express a variety of identities, universal values and avoid proselytism.

Once national identity is in decline as Tatiana Heise affirms and the research has conformed, I have focused the analysis of the case studies in the light of the individual identities that were undermined before due to the nationalist drive to produce ‘oneness’ and to new possibilities of identities produced by the context of a globalized world. For this proposed I have used David Bordwell and Kristin

70 Thompson’s formalist method of poetics narrative analysis since I wanted to focus on character psychology of cause/effect relationship.

The analysis of the three case studies represented by the films, Once Upon A Time I, Verônica (Era Uma Vez Eu, Verônica; Marcelo Gomes; 2012), Artificial Paradises (Paraisos Artificiais; Marcos Prado; 2012) and Futuro Beach (Praia do Futuro; Karim Aïnouz; 2014), has revealed through the character psychology social and cultural patterns that can be explicit or inferred (subtexts) from the story.

In the case of Futuro Beach and Artificial Paradises the analysis has shown use of parallelisms to increase mystery and interest about the characters’ lives. In Once Upon a Time I, Verônica, the structure is linear but quite chopped, revealing thus the fragmented identity of the character. This fragmentation also could be acknowledged by the diversity of sets that the characters jump in and out in the three films.

The general conclusion one can draw about post-retomada Brazilian cinema is that it presents a diversity of forms, genres and styles without precedent. It is also a globalized cinema; in Nacify words “glocal” – a cinema that has its roots in the nation but that at the same time has its branches towards the world (Naficy 60). A different cinema in comparison with the 1960s but still committed with the social reality of the people from the Third World and from Brazil but without the ambition of representing the nation as a whole. Instead it prefers to invest in personal identities and stories to touch reality. It combines commerce, arts and the ‘social’ as a way to produce identifications with audiences and perpetuate its success. Thus, it is a post-modern and post-nationalist cinema that sees the human beings over the nations.

Further investigation could be employed to the way independent filmmakers are dealing with the means of financing, production and distribution in Brazil since

71 this sector generally does not count in the official statistics and as the research has pointed out the actual production is much larger.

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Filmography

2 Filhos de Francisco: A História de Zezé Di Camargo & Luciano. Silveira, Breno. Conspiração Filmes, Globo Filmes, and ColumbiaTristar, 2005. Film. 5 X Favela, Now by Ourselves. Amaral, Cacau et al. N.p., 2010. Film. A Dog’s Will. Arraes, Guel. Columbia Tristar Films, 2000. Film. Alemão. Belmonte, José Eduardo. Downtown, 2014. Film. Amores Perros. Iñárritu, Alejandro González. Nu Vision, 2001. Film. Antonio Das Mortes. Rocha, Glauber. Mapa Filmes, 1969. Film. Artificial Paradises. Prado, Marcos. Nossa Distribuidora (Brazil), 2012. Barravento. Rocha, Glauber. Horus Filmes, 1970. Film. Barren Lives. Santos, Nelson Pereira dos. Herbert Richers, 1967. Film. Bocage, the Triumph of Love. Batista, Djalma Limongi. N.p., 1998. Film. Bus 174. Padilha, José, and Felipe Lacerda. Zezen Produções, 2003. Film.

78 Carandiru. Babenco, Hector. Columbia Tristar Home Entertainment, 2003. Film. Carlota Joaquina: Princesa Do Brazil. Camurati, Carla. Elimar Produções Artisticas, 1995. Film. Chronically Unfeasible. Bianchi, Sergio. N.p., 2000. Film. Como Agua Para Chocolate. Arau, Alfonso. Miramax Films, 1993. Film. Elena. Costa, Petra. N.p., 2012. Film. Elite Squad: The Enemy Within. Padilha, José. Zezen Produções (BR) and Vaiance Films (U.S.), 2010. Film. Elite Squad. Padilha, José. Universal Pictures and IFC Films, 2007. Film. Entranced Earth. Rocha, Glauber. Difilm, 1967. Film. Fé. Dias, Ricardo. N.p., 2000. Film. Foreign Land. Salles, Walter, and Daniela Thomas. N.p., 1997. Film. Four Days in September. Barreto, Bruno. Rio Filmes, 1998. Film. Futuro Beach. Aïnouz, Karim. California Files, 2014. How Tasty Was My Little Frenchman. Santos, Nelson Pereira dos. Condor Filmes, 1973. Film. Hunger for Love. Santos, Nelson Pereira dos. N.p., 1973. Film. Latitudes. Braga, Felipe. O2 Play, 2014. Film. Mauá - O Imperador E O Rei. Rezende, Sergio. N.p., 1999. Film. Me You Them. Waddington, Andrucha. Columbia Tristar Films, 2000. Film. Na Quebrada. Andrade, Fernando Grostein, and Paulo Eduardo. Globo Filmes, 2014. Film. Nine Queens. Bielinsky, Fabián. Buena Vista International, 2000. Film. O Aborto Dos Outros. Gallo, Carla. N.p., N/A. Film. O Quatrilho. Barreto, Fábio. N.p., 1995. Film. O Sertão Das Memórias. Araújo, José. N.p., 1997. Film. Of Gods and the Undead. Guerra, Ruy. N.p., 1974. Film. Once Upon a Time Veronica. Gomes, Marcelo. Imovision. 2012. Orfeu. Diegues, Carlos. Warner Bros Picture, 1999. Film. Os Herdeiros. Diegues, Carlos. N.p., 1970. Film. Our Indians. Back, Sylvio. N.p., N/A. Film.

79 Pele Forever. Neto, Anibal Massaini. N.p., 2004. Film. Pindorama. Jabor, Arnaldo. N.p., N/A. Film. Son of the Bride. Campanella, Juan José. Sony Pictures Classics, 2001. Film. The Brave Warrior. Dahl, Gustavo. Difilm. Film. The Mighty Spirit. Coutinho, Eduardo. N.p., N/A. Film. The Motorcycle Diaries. Salles, Walter. Buena Vista International (AR) and Focus Feature (U.S.), 2004. Film. The Red Light Bandit. Sganzerla, Rogério. N.p., 1968. Film. The Storytellers. Caffé, Eliane. N.p., 2004. Film. Villa-Lobos: A Life of Passion. Viana, Zelito. Rio Filmes and United International Pictures, 2005. Film. Who Killed Pixote?. Joffily, José. N.p., 1996. Film. Y Tu Mamá También. Cuarón, Alfonso. 20th Century Fox (MX), IFC Films (U.S) and Good Machine (U.S), 2002. Film.

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