Christian Moral Values and Educational Theories1

ISSN 1392–5016. ACTA PAEDAGOGICA VILNENSIA. 2003 10

Christian moral values and educational theories1

Herman Lombaerts

Teologijos profesorius emeritas Leuveno (Belgija) katalikiðkasis universitetas ir Briuselio Lumen vitae tarptautinis institutas El. paðtas: [email protected]

Ethical and moral responsibility is based on concrete life situations in cultures changing from the static to dynamic and complex societies. Universal principles became relative, even as based on a religious tradition and a vision of the meaning of life in a spiral evolution of new challenges and decisions. Earlier Christians could rely on a stable society and church, now the emphasis is on personal decision. The priorities in the hierarchy of values have changed, and the meaning of values, including family, religion, and personal freedom, has become different. Yet Christian values have a core and specific hierarchy to express the sacred and the presence of God. The six images of educational systems, from the collectivist, individualistic, to the scientific, express the notion of the human person, and Christianity is faced with describing the meaning of its tradition in contemporary life experiences. Keywords: values, universal principles, personal freedom, identity.

Introduction in order to enhance mutual understanding, to avoid misunderstandings. This theme is to be situated in the context of the It is my personal experience that, despite the evolution of values perception and moral edu- fact I had been reading about it and my childhood th cation in the 20 century – which of course is to memories of World War II, I did not understand be related with the important stages of ethical what the experience of a communist domination consciousness of the past centuries. during decades concretely meant for the I hereby take into consideration that the populations of Central and Eastern Europe until I experience in Western Europe, in the Western had the opportunity to visit some of these countries World, differs from the experience in commu- and to meet people who helped me to see the nist societies, in Central and Eastern Europe. lasting consequences. And vice versa, I think it is These differences need to be clarified constantly very difficult for people from these countries to

1 Ethics: the branch of philosophy which treats of human character and conduct, of the distinction between right and wrong, and of one’s moral duty and obligations to the community, as a whole (Collins English Dictionary); moral: related to the conduct of duties of man; discriminating between right and wrong; verified by reason or probability (id.); morality: the practice of moral duties; the right or wrong of a thing (id); values: worth, utility, importance, estimated worth or valuation, precise signification; Christian values: viewpoints or principles which help to discern the Christian value of (way of valuing) the various aspects of life.

1 imagine what a neo-liberal society stands for, to wrong. With the evolution of sciences and understand the dilemmas we face or to see the technology and their impact upon concrete life impact of what we call “secularisation”. situations, the distinction between right and wrong became a problem in many areas of 1. The story of value perception, modern society. ethics and moral conduct One of the major difficulties of mutual under- 2.1 The shift from a static to a standing is the fact that we cannot see that both dynamic mindset systems (capitalism and communism) are / In the second half of the 20th century the were inter-dependent. The diabolisation of the transition from a static, universal and uniform other system is a form of dependency. With understanding of ethics and moral conduct into the long awaited collapse of the communist a situational, context-related understanding system the Western word entered into a crisis represented a revolution. The phenomeno- and is now identifying new enemies: terrorism logical and existential philosophy contributed e.g., or or the ‘arab world’ or whatever form of a lot to this transition. The most influential opposition to the hegemony of the capitalist impact was initiated by the changes in techno- interests. Here we meet the major issue of value logical advances, circumstances of work and systems and ethics, the morality of a particular life conditions, lifestyles and social communi- type of society. This is a crucial issue in Western cation. As a result, the individual is now the society, a daily struggle between contradictory central reference point for orienting decisions options about the value of life, of people and and concrete behaviour. Even if certain rules populations, of cultures and traditions. It is are to be respected by all, e.g. traffic rules, the easier to get important funds for archaeological collective competence will be achieved through missions to dig up crocodile skeletons in the an educational process which enables people African desert than to support the people living to rely upon their personal judgement and in the desert. Oil companies invest fabulous responsibility for respecting the norms, rather amounts in the exploitation of oil reserves in than to use blind coercion and generalised Africa at the expenses of the local population oppression. whose villages are destroyed and who are told Educators now encourage people to think to go somewhere else. for themselves and to speak their mind, rather On the other hand, our common human than to depend upon other people’s opinion. aspirations and sensitivity for basic human The emphasis then is put upon personal values guarantees a shared search for truth, responsibility and personal conscience. including a further exploration of the Christian Inviting people to behave according to agreed interpretation of our ethical and moral rules is based upon the refinement of moti- responsibility today and in the near future. vation and the quality of arguments. The discernment of the value of moral conduct also 2. A problematic issue takes particular circumstances and personal Moral values and moral education are related situations into consideration. Universal to the question of what is right and what is principles became relative.

2 2.2. The shift from a religious of experiences, of failures and unexpected hegemony to an a-religious mindset outcomes of conduct; at the same time moral principles and rules regulate the moral conduct Historically speaking, values and moral of people in a variety of situations. There is no education are also to be situated in relationship to a philosophy of life, a religious tradition, a beginning and no end in this process; from the life vision… In the Western world – although beginning of human life, the circular movement religious freedom was never threatened in has been practiced and is constantly widening principle – the meaning and the social rele- in an ever more complex spiral evolution. vance of life visions and religious traditions was At the same time, changes in social reality also questioned. The general trend in peoples’ affect the status of religious beliefs and attitudes suggests that religion lost its major practices. Many people perceive such an impact upon values and moral conduct. evolution as disturbing. Their personal and Although the long-standing Christian tradition social security and certainty is put into undoubtedly shaped the moral conscience of question; their belief system seems alien to the Western populations, it’s influence is concrete experiences. The institutional reli- becoming relative because more and more people weaken the importance of their gions do not offer a real alternative; they seem belonging to a particular denomination for to offer more of the same in a different form moral deliberation. The impact of the a- only. Many discovered that they have to find religious orientation of the public services, the answers for themselves. media and the public opinion put the transcen- dental dimension into the private realm of life. 3. Context of the problems Secular responses to dramatic events or important needs of populations in the world The story of the 20th century in this regard is have a higher moral authority for reaching a important because of the new kinds of moral consensus among people and for motivating questions individual people and large popu- them to act, than the traditional practices, lations have been facing during the past decades. inspired and supported by religious beliefs. A different moral awareness emerges with People were and are confronted with new (new) life experiences and with the involve- dilemmas and address them by adopting ment in a (changing) social, economic, political different pragmatic solutions, using new and cultural context. Cfr. circumstances of information or new technical tools, judging for labour, housing conditions, economic and themselves with larger autonomy. All these financial services [market, banks], social possibilities are inherently related with the mobility, travel and tourist infrastructures, development of a modern (post-modern) fashion, consumer attitudes, food and health democratic society. The process disturbs also care… A moral reasoning is suggested or is the established forms of socialisation, in the refined or more explicitly articulated for people, according to the multiple parameters family in the first place, in schools, through which affect their life today. the integration in different social spheres like Moral practice is part of a circular move- labour, housing conditions, social and cultural ment: general principles and rules are the result life, leisure and informal social contacts, etc.

3 3.1. The “identity” issue of the word “value” emerged. It is a vague term which refers to a fundamental aspiration of the Yet the “identity” of being a human person, of human person for living a just life in society. As being a Christian, is a central issue in today’s many aspects are taken into consideration of reflection and in educational theories, including achieving this goal, it is not easy to find a religious education. The “self” is a major satisfying definition. Generally speaking philosophical category. Developmental psycho- though, a value is associated with a deep logy focused upon the stages of the formation motivation or orientation in people according of an identity throughout the life-time of an to which they behave in a particular situation. individual person. E.g. the “I” needs to be Values are identified in reference to the assertive in order to conquer a social space, to behaviour of individual people; values seem give content to the roles and functions a person to be stable; it is likely that the same person has to take on in social settings. Whereas in the will be consistent in his or her response to past, the collective identity supported people to similar situations. find out what to do in particular circumstances. However, the content of a stable value is Christians, e.g., took it for granted that they influenced by the concrete context in which should rely upon the normative teaching of the people are living. E. g. “to study”, “to become church for the concrete orientation of their life. a learned person” is highly valued by many Today, the individual has to make up his or her (young) people. People with this aspiration are mind and to decide what to do, where to go and prepared to pay a high price to acquire such a for what reason, after having gained appropriate personal quality. But precisely the content of information, also in response to their concrete “study” shifted over the past decades. In some situation. situations “to study” is associated with “tell me More so, because religious traditions in what I have to know, what I have to think, what some regards lost their manifest impact upon I have to do…”. Students them seem to society at large, religion is no longer the respond to a particular teaching ethic. They organizing factor of social life or the authority do not have any other ambition; their main of ethical principles. In an emancipated concern being to respond to the expectations society, the rational communication praxis asks of the teachers. In that case, the image of a for the “better argument”; religious traditions “learned person” is affected by a collectivist have to prove the original value of their orientation of values; students depend upon contribution in the public debate, in order to something outside themselves; they are justify their presence and initiatives. This calls studying out of fear not to correspond to the for different types of competencies among expectations of other people. They are Christians e.g. in order to maintain their sacrificing the potential for personal thinking organisations or services in the heart of and autonomous behaviour. contemporary society. “Hierarchy of values” can be seen in analogy with “hierarchy of truths” – re-emphasized in 3.2. Values and the hierarchy the Catholic church during Vatican II. Certain of values truths of the Christian tradition are considered When in 1971 some 4000 articles on values as central and fundamental; others are seen as were examined critically, about 170 definitions peripheral… although they are all inter-related.

4 The content itself of the Christian tradition seems to be a stable response among the people requires such a distinction. Thus certain values interviewed: family, friends, freedom, family are more fundamental than others, although education, ecology, quality of human develop- they are all inter-related. Today, the value of ment [self], tolerance, immanent religious/ life, the value of family, the value of personal holistic connotation of life… freedom, the value of the human person in Family is recognized as the most important comparison to the value of nature and of value in life. That seems to be obvious, but one animals… are weighed and classified in a can be mistaken. different way than centuries or even decades – e.g. the “family” is a stable value, but the ago. content of the concept of family is chang- Over the years, and in reference to a changing ing: awareness due to instruction and education, • the quality of the relationship between some values considered as “absolute” became people is more important than the conti- more relative. E.g., the discussion about the nuity of the relationship with the same arguments in favour of a ‘just’ war, about the person; justification of an army, armament and arms • the ‘single parent’ family, the ‘divorced production; the discussion about the right of ‘self parent’ and in that perspective the (male) defence’ and its interpretation in order to justify father as the foster parent instead of the the use of violence (life of a person is at risk or a mother, the ‘re-composed’ (blended) fam- material good is at risk), the discussion about ily, the ‘homosexual couple’ and their right ‘terrorism’, etc. to adopt children … , but also the inter- Hierarchy of values is used in different cultural, inter-religious family,,, all are as- disciplines, e.g. in the context of sociology, in sociated with “family” as a supreme value; the context of education, in the context of – e.g. “religion” seems to be a stable category; (moral) theology; but here also the content associated with religion is changing: 3.2.1. Hierarchy of values in • religion in the sense of an established a sociological perspective dominant religious tradition (e.g. Ca- Surveys are organized in order to have some tholicism or Protestantism) shifted to “re- indications about the hierarchy of values a ligion” in the sense of “sects”, “Pentecos- particular population is referring to in their life tal” movements, eclectic composition of praxis. If applied regularly, it is possible to belief systems and practices… identify changes in the hierarchy of values and • people adopt a very loose link with the the interpret its meaning. E.g. the European institutional churches re beliefs and prac- Value Study, a questionnaire applied in 1980, tices, solidarity and commitment, but still 1990 and 2000, allows to register the stability find “religion” important; and or the changes of value systems in a • the institutional dimension is fading away particular society over a time span of twenty in favour of an individualistic affinity with years. “the sacred” or aspects of non-Christian But let us have a look at the order of values religions; which emerged as a pattern for most of the • the meaning of religion in the sense of western countries. The following ranking “Christian communities” is shifting from

5 a uniform, reproductible style of behaviour • respect for the personal conscience, dis- into a generalised claim for authenticity as cernment, judgement and behaviour; regards the form, the content and the minis- • job descriptions no longer can consider try. The quality of the inter-personal con- gender as a discriminative factor; schools tacts becomes the major criterion for build- are for all, irrespective of gender, race, re- ing the community and for ministering it; ligion, social background of the pupils and faith is an inter-personal reality within the their parents; community instead of faith as a strictly in- – but “personal freedom” is also shifting from dividual link with God or/and a set of (dog- strictly personal interpretation to social con- matic) beliefs; cerns: • “religion” in the sense of a regular reli- • movements for human rights, children’s gious practice, prayer, faith in a personal rights; God, faith in the resurrection, the value • peace movements; of a family in its “traditional sense” … is • anti-apartheid; courts to judge and pun- still a reality, but only for a small minor- ish war crimes; processes to foster re-con- ity. It is exceptional that these character- ciliation among e.g. (war) criminals and istics are found together in the same per- victims; son, and even less in young people; • emancipation of women. – e.g. personal “freedom” becomes an ever At all these levels, we (in Western Europe more important value over the years; but and the Western World in general) face many the content of its meaning is shifting. From a crisis as regards the impact, the authority and a freedom understood in reference to a com- the meaning of ethics and moral principles, munity and the shared values within a com- norms, rules on the one hand, and the impact munity to a freedom intrinsically associated of a religious, e.g. Christian life orientation on with the “self”, the “individual” as the cor- the other hand. The relationship between nerstone of society: ethical and religious traditions is deeply • the importance of “privacy” as a sacred disturbed by the process which we (in the dimension of the individual; life is about Western World) call the secularisation, the de- building up privacy: the impact can be mythification (disenchantment) of a taken-for- notices in the life style; the re-adjustment granted religious connotation of (social) life. of social contacts; young people having The autonomy of the human person, of the their personal bank account; privacy secular, is to be distinguished from the religious among partners, among parents and their dimension, the sacred; they are put in a children, within educational setting; re- different kind of interaction or inter-related- ligion and moral standards become a ness. The institutional religion has to come “private” matter, they are no longer rel- forward with a “better argument” in order to evant for public matters. And this “capi- be accepted (as a valid partner in the commu- talist” understanding of privacy is differ- nicative action for a better society) for its ent from the privacy people adopted un- proper and unique value. der communist domination in order avoid Not only is it important to rethink the link putting other people’s lives at risk; between moral education and institutional

6 religious traditions; there is a strong claim now importance for people of good will and for to develop an ethics of religious belonging, of Christians in particular, one of the essential religious behaviour and thinking, of religious features of the Christian identity. This strate- education in particular. gic option is seen as incompatible with the hierarchy of values of the neo-liberal and capi- 3.2.2. hierarchy of values as an strategic and talist society, especially in the context of the educational category “globalisation” strategy. The neo-liberal ide- The introduction of strategic changes often ology still considers the resources of coun- intends to promote a certain hierarchy of tries and populations of the younger conti- values in social groups or organisations. At this nents as a legitimate property of the previous point, the changes in the values promoted colonisers, freely and exclusively accessible throughout history are obvious. for their benefit. – e.g. during the time of colonisation, and the As a consequence, educational programmes, related evangelisation, the missionary vir- also in the context of parish catechesis and tue was considered as a heroic value, even religious education in schools, are preoccupied related to self-sacrifice and martyrdom in with the “new evangelisation” of the so-called the name of Christian faith. Marriage and first world itself. The commitment to the young family life were considered as of a lesser countries shifted from “converting” the native value; many parents were considering the population, into limited projects in view of missionary vocation (for the priesthood or supporting the local churches or communities. religious life) as a supreme value… Today, Nongovernmental organisations [also run by the concept of “missionary” is less popular: Catholic organisations] focus the claim for help not only did the colonised countries become upon projects as regards material equipment or autonomous; the missionary zeal for “con- basic needs of the local population. The pastoral version” has now a negative connotation, leadership of the local church is in the hands of missionary proselytism is seen as a lack of local people, assisted discretely by a larger, respect of personal freedom. Evangelisation international network. is interpreted in a different perspective; Educational programmes intend to raise the – e.g. the “preferential options for the poor” consciousness of young people about the has been promoted recently as a prior cri- economic, social, cultural, religious circum- terion for evaluating the authenticity of the stances of their countries or region. They are Christian identity. The analysis of the pre- helped to apply a systematic analysis of these viously colonised countries revealed that the conditions in order to invent the strategic options benefit of colonisation and related evan- in view of a better future and to promote the gelisation was intended for the rich coun- appropriate political, economic, social, religious tries; the local population suffered im- values. The main target being to change the mensely and was structurally prevented relationship between the ‘rich’ and the so called from having access to better life conditions. ‘poor’ countries, or to let the “poor” become the Hence the strategic choice of liberation the- unique representatives of the Christian identity. ology – of Vatican II and of more recent A new question arises: what is meant by church documents – to consider the prefer- “Christian” values? Do they exist? Or should ential option for the poor as a value of prior we speak of “values” as basic human conditions

7 for a good personal life and for a good society, family is put at the top of the hierarchy, it stands leaving the attribution of a religious meaning to for many forms of relationships and types of the people who are committed to these values? parenting roles. All of these forms are or may As a result of the confrontation with secu- be soon recognised as legally justified and larisation and of the dialogue with non-Christian juridically protected. What is the link with the religions… more discretion is required as biblical model of family? On the other hand, regards “Christian” values With the Enlighten- the quality of care and the search for meaning ment and Modern Times, the human person and human dignity in dramatic situations may (humanity) is considered as the source and the be the starting point of a journey into spiritual norm for any kind of human development. The and sacred realms, into the discovery of a religious qualifications are often identified as personal and loving God. E.g. the value of domesticating or as ideological and thus pre- friendship and love. With the radical and venting the development of honest and fair sometimes brutal dissociation of human human values. relationships, friendship and love from the One of the reasons for calling the Vatican Christian faith and ethics, one may be II Council together was to study the link perplexed with the incompatibility of between between the human reality, the evolution of certain types of hierarchy of values with the contemporary society on the one hand and core of the Christian identity. At the same time, revelation, of the salvation / liberation offered by God in Christ. Human values in their fullest the diversity of experiences may help certain and deepest meaning then are to be seen as – people to come to the discovery of a deeper a reinterpreted - “locus theologicus” for God’s meaning and to choose people or places where manifestation: revelation of the divine presen- a gratuitous love is practiced in the name of ce within the human reality. (“You have my Christ. A similar concern about the earth, the Father’s blessing… For when I was hungry, you cosmos… can be re-interpreted as a sacred gave me food; when thirsty, you gave me drink; value and associated with the discovery, in a when I was a stranger you took me into your new language, of God’s presence among people home, when naked you clothed me; when I was today. For the Christian meaning to be ill you came to my help, when in prison you recognised as such, though, it is necessary to visited me … “ Mt 25, 34-37). adopt, in faith, the specific consciousness of The hierarchy of values then is to be linked the manifestation of God’s love in Christ and with the core truths of the Christian tradition in other people. in the first place. And this “hierarchy” may differ from the popular ordering or values or 4. Christian values and be in conflict with it. At the same time, the educational theories values as they are practiced and lived in relationship with today’s society, are to be To address a “crisis” adequately depends upon discerned carefully in order to re-interpret our capability of understanding the changes in them in a Christian perspective. E.g., the value our perception of the human person, of society of “family”: has a specific Christian conno- and of the world. It is precisely at this level tation in the light of the Infancy narratives and that major shifts occurred in the course of the the so called “holy family”. When today, the 20th century.

8 The “images” we use in order to represent the 4. the relational image of the human person: human person and to develop a systematised people are understood as part of inherently understanding of the meaning of life in general, relational network where the physical, social, change over time in reference to modified social cultural and spiritual dimensions interact with one and cultural contexts. These “images” inspire another. People’s life is shaped through a network the identification of values and their normative of multiple interactions; even the capacity of authority for (Christian) education. E.g. the owning a conscious response and taking initiatives “images” of the human person affect the concept is affected by the unconscious dimension of our of “childhood”, “youth” and “adulthood”; they self; the borders of human life are extended; the are given a specific content and consequently, “I” is always part of a “we”; the educational goals will have different 5. the human person as the core of relation- connotations. ships and inherently affected by social factors: The images are also related to a specific socialisation is a process of internalising the paradigm underlying the “explanation” of what components of the self-concept as related with it means to be a human person and of the a social environment; the human person is meaning of life. Some authors distinguish up imbedded in a simultaneous and inseparable to six different images and related educational duality (social-historical reality in a social paradigms, as the result of changes which environment; system and structure in space th occurred during the 20 century: and time; the individual in society); 1. the collectivist image: the human person 6. the human person as part of a çosmic only exists as part of a collective reality and planetary evolution: nature is understood as a has to give up all personal aspirations for the self-producing and self-regulating, living good of the whole; organism; the planetary human person is 2. the individualist image: the human person coping with changes in the perception of time, is seen as an autonomous, individual, atomistic space, and the concept of being alive and or reality, objectively distinguished from the rest not being not-alive, of spirit and matter, of life- of the world; the individual is recognised as the within-life (evolution and planetary theory). basic component of a controllable, de- The importance of these distinctions is terministic, static reality (the essentialist obvious. Images of the human person are philosophy); changing with the progress of sciences, with 3. the dual image of the human person (not the development of technical possibilities and dualistic as in 2.) is inspired by modern physics, with the evolution of social and cultural life in biology and zoology. Scientists observed that general. According to new insights, different the atomistic reality referred to under number work and life conditions, new systems of trade 2., does not exist as such. What we believe to and financial exchanges, communication, observe is a construct due to the particular look leisure and consumption… a new awareness and instruments used for the observation of emerges about life and its meaning, about the the so-called reality. The particles seem to exist future, about the possibilities of shaping life and the next moment only waves can be according to personal and collective aspira- registered. The human reality is an open-ended tions. This kind of shift affects every dimension, probability rather than a fixed and static particularly the relationship to value systems, essence; to philosophical, ethical and religious systems.

9 It is obvious that it is necessary to study each society without “state” as an oppressive of these spheres of influence, namely de mechanism – democratic centralism, uniformity contribution of particular sciences for changing in behaviour; aiming at political, ideological, the image of the human person. It is even more organisational unity, harmony between important to compare the different ways of individual and general interests, labour as looking at life, at the human person and society, liberating for development of the creative in order to appreciate critically the implications human person. of each approach for education, for Christian Consequently the “system” moved further moral education in particular. In the context of into an authoritarian, and bureaucratic society, our seminar, it is impossible to explore all these a centralized administration of one hierar- images and their implications for moral and chically organized political party, a praxis of Christian education. We will briefly have a extermination – genocide – of e.g. the farmers, closer look at two or three of them and start our exploitation in the name of the collective discussion from there. interests (referring to Marxist-Leninist theories), with dehumanising results, destruction 4.1. The collectivist image of the of history and of diversified cultural identities, human person and an exclusivist control of people’s thinking, In its extreme form, the collectivist viewpoint values of human, social aspirations and can be recognised in the bolshevist reduction behaviour. and exploitation as introduced by Lenin, Stalin, The individual person does not exist, is Trotsky, Beria…; but also in the dictatorships sacrificed for the so-called “good of all”, as of Suharto and his policy against communism determined and controlled by the centralized (McCarty in the USA), in the policy imposed administration of the party. by the Chinese or the North Korean leaders, Educational theories then were developed to name only a few. Of course, I have to be in coherence with this image: the right attitudes descrete and respectful in my approach. You are to be adopted and the appropriate kind of know so much better than me what it stands information is to be filtered in order to achieve for and you suffered from it for decades. You the ideological consensus among all. still are trying to overcome its consequences for yourselves, your children and the future 4.2. The Individual as image and generations. It will take a long time as the norm for moral education impact of this totally unjustified physical and In Western Europe – in the Western world – mental dictatorship hit people and society at the image of the human person is focused upon large at such a deep and fundamental level. the individual. Modernity developed an My main interest is just to recall the presuppo- extensive philosophical justification and sitions and to highlight it’s contrast with the legitimation of this understanding of the second ‘image’, which may be perceived as the human being. Initially, the “I” was seen as the redeeming alternative. key object for human and social sciences Initially, the collectivist image is to be (philosophy, psychology, law, human biology related with the dictatorship of proletariat, the and economics). The “individuus” (Latin), class-struggle towards a class-less society, the undivided, which cannot be divided, is to be collective property of means of production, a associated with the undivided “I”, with

10 autonomy, independence, freedom, respon- Enlightenment, e.g., extrapolates the concept of sibility, uniqueness, potential for interiority, an atomistic individual person at the economic, creativity, critical reflection and judgement, political level: the independent state: idealism, rationality, objective consciousness, assertivity, property, democratic government. Also, for a the right of privacy, of property … with control long time psychology concentrated upon the in every domain and communication with properties of the individual person. The “IQ” others. The emphasis is put upon individual e.g. was a symptom of a deterministic inter- achievements in the domain of ‘having, of pretation of human potential – with some capability and of being’. corrective influences from the environment. The origin of the concept of the individual According to this perspectives educational may be located in the Jewish religion and the theories are centred upon the individual Greek philosophy: Aristotle states that.: the human person is the creator of ideas out of his student, his/her achievements as the major key personal reflection (Plato “participated” in the to success. But repeatedly, research has truth, was initiated, received the truths) – but observed that the social hierarchy controls the still with awe for the physical nature: a passive, so-called self-realisation and autonomy, contemplative logos: to see the logical structure praised as the right of everyone, irrespective of of reality. But the substance principle was the origin or social position. In reality, the understood to be the core of reality: the family background is to be seen as a very undivided component. important social (deterministic) control of The Middle Ages see the individual as self- personal emancipation and success in studies achievement, the capacity to enter into oneself and professional life. The individualistic – as opposed to the world (= loss of the self); educational philosophy stays with a very the soul as capable of introspection which offers selective reference to the wider social context. access to salvation – as opposed to “extra- Its impact upon the hierarchy of values. The spection”, which means the discovery of the following aspects are highly valued in order to world based upon the (sense) experiences. The Renaissance intends to achieve the achieve the goals proper to this individualistic emancipation of the individual human person image of the human person: autonomy, indepen- through an objective view; the self-conscious- dent behaviour; control of achievements and ness of the subject is a new form of autonomy. competition; success in achievements is due to The self has an absolute status, in opposition talents and merit; social hierarchy and the social with “tradition” (demythologisation of tradi- position of the family is the guaranty for stability tion – disenchantment of the world, de- of the economic society; the future depends upon divinisation of nature). the investment into the human capital and the In Modern times sciences introduce a reproduction of a proper educational style (autho- mechanistic worldview. The emergence of a ritarian control), authority relationships, disci- civil society emphasises the full autonomous plinary techniques and the development of person (idealism, romanticism, existentialism). appropriate attitudes. These “values” are to be The emergence of the autonomous economic reinforced through the educational system. They society guarantees the unique status of the have been integrated into “Christian” education individual private person (Locke). The and Christian institutions as well, of course.

11 4.3. Physics as the source for a new server is co-author of the occurring phe- image of the human person nomena, events; object and subject are one reality; The decisive shift is to be understood as the – every part of reality refers to the whole (holo- change from the atomistic, analytical thinking graphic representation of reality: every detail (the reality is composed of autonomous, gives access to the whole of reality). identifiable elements which respond to fixed laws and foreseeable, deterministic processes) As a result a different image of the human into a systemic understanding of reality (a person emerges: system is a whole of inter-related, inter-depen- – a “dual” (not dualistic) character of the hu- dent and organised elements in interaction man person, not defined: the individual and with an environment). The quantum theory the collective are inseparable, simulta- and relativity theory, evolutions in biology and neously present (complementary and uncer- zoology belong to the second – systemic – tain); orientation. Their influence upon the image – relatedness as an essential feature of the of the human person on the one hand, upon human person; the independent individual social and human sciences on the other hand, does not exist; the encounter, the related- has been revolutionary. ness with the other person is a reality lager The “reality” now is interpreted in different than the “self” (e.g. the relationship teacher- terms and responds to four main principles or student); presuppositions: – all penetrating subjectivity (instead of ob- – “autonomous” elements as such do not ex- jectivity); ist: an element is sometimes perceived as a – the whole is inside the human person: holo- material entity, other times as a wave, ac- graphic image. cording to instruments and techniques used Educational orientations will create a for observation: a particle is the two at the different learning environment, with the focus same time! This causes uncertainty and put upon independent learning as related to powerlessness as regards the definition of group learning; organisational learning as a “reality”: reality is not defined; the mate- condition for personal progress. The most rial reality as such does not exist but has a important resources for learning are situated tendency, a probability towards existence: more in the society at large than in the school it is a not fixed network of probabilities; building itself. ICT, and communication at large – the “world” is a network of dynamic rela- is the key language of educational projects. tions and interactions, not of static struc- tures. Relationship is now a central concept, To conclude instead of substance; the expected course of events is affected by known and unknown A reflection upon Christian moral education factors = probability; the unexpected course then is a complex issue. The decisive question of events is due to the impact of “foreign” is related to the “image” of the human person influences, coming from “elsewhere”; there which is underlying the educational system and is no rational, logical link with the expected theory and which is inspiring the educational or known course of events; practice (institutional structure, discourse, – there is no independent, objective observer language, rituals, relationships, artefacts, of what is happening in “reality”; the ob- topographic display, programmes, means and

12 equipment, discipline and control system, and moral education – and the hoped for rewards and punishments, hidden rules and Christian moral education – it is essential to norms for social differentiation). equip ourselves with the appropriate tools for a Many of the aspects of the “individual”- critical evaluation and discernment. This effort centred image of the human person and the way is also essential for a better understanding of the of handling it in the context of modern society, other images of the human person which are opposed to gospel values (although highly emerged in the 20th century in the light of the identified with the “Catholic” ethos and developments in (alternative) psychology, tradition). An a-historical, uncritical approach sociology and the planetary, cosmic evolution to the Catholic tradition, to education and life theory. The image of the human person which in general, prevents us from seeing the real occurred as a result of these scientific insights origin and content of our moral, educational, have decisive implications for a reinterpretation Christian conviction and practices. of the Christian identity (= of the meaning of In the historical shift from a collectivist type of society and ideological control of moral the Christian tradition) and for Christian moral education into the “Western” type of society education.

Herman Lombaerts, fsc, is a retired professor of the Faculty of Theology, Catholic University Leuven (Belgium), formerly professor and academic director at the International Institute Lumen Vitae (Brussels). As educationalist he specialized in teacher training, religious education and catechetics, and is supervising research in this area. As social psychologist he worked with non-profit organizations, including religious orders and pastoral insitutions, and is involved in experimental projects for participative school management. With international experience in five continents, his interests include communication, art and religion, teaching religion in schools and higher education institutes, and the evolution of contemporary society. Address: [email protected]

KRIKÐÈIONIÐKOS MORALINËS VERTYBËS IR UGDYMO TEORIJOS Herman Lombaerts Santrauka Visuomenë pastaruosius ðimtmeèius mainësi ið nekinta- laisvæ, socialinius uþdavinius. Taèiau krikðèionybë turi mos santvarkos á judrø ir sudëtingà gyvenimo bûdà. vertybiø branduolá ir pirmenybiø tvarkà Dievo buvimui Amþini ir nekintami dësniai nebepripaþástami tokie, ko- tarp þmoniø iðreikðti. Visos ðvietimo sistemos ar teorijos kie buvo, o atrodo sàlyginiai, atsiþvelgiant á þmogaus ir pagrástos savitu þmogaus asmens supratimu, nesvarbu, þmonijos patirtá. Seniau krikðèionys savo doros ir etikos tai – sovietinis kolektyvizmas, technologijos amþiaus nuosprendþius remdavo Baþnyèios mokymu ir dësniais. samprata ar labai individualistinë. Modernaus gyvenimo Individualistinëje kultûroje, pabrëþianèioje þmogaus laisvæ sudëtingoje aplinkoje krikðèionybës uþduotis yra pagrásti rinktis, atrodo, nebëra visomis sàlygoms tinkamø visuo- savo paveldo savitumà, reikðmæ ir prasmæ modernia tiniø dësniø. Keitësi ne tik vertybiø pirmenybës tvarka, patirtimi ir suprantamai iðreikðti. bet ir turinys – ðeima dabar nebe ta kaip prieð ðimtme- Pagrindiniai þodþiai: vertybës, amþini ir nekintami èius. Tas pats pasakytina apie vertybes – religijà, asmens dësniai, asmens laisvë, identitetas. Gauta 2002 06 15 Priimta 2002 11 15

Hermanas Lombaertsas, fsc – Leuveno katalikiðkojo universiteto Teologijos fakulteto profesorius emeritas, daug metø Briuselio Lumen Vitae tarptautinio instituto profesorius ir studijø vadovas. Pedagogikoje specializavosi mokytojø lavinimo, religinio auklëjimo ir katechetikos srityse, toliau tyrinëja ðiuos klausimus. Dirbæs visuose þemynuose, domisi komunikacija, meno ir religijos sàsaja, religiniu ugdymu mokyklose ir aukðtojo mokslo ástaigose, mokyklø valdyba, visuomenës raida. Adresas: [email protected]