Social Education 75(5), pp 269–273 ©2011 National Council for the Social Studies and Practice Judging the Credibility of Internet Sources: Developing Critical and Reflexive Readers of Complex Digital Texts

Mark Baildon and James Damico

More and more, our impres- excavation and elevation, and two sets sions of the world derive not “Research & Practice,” established of key questions teachers and students from the observations we make early in 2001, features educational can use to evaluate these kinds of com- both as individuals and as research that is directly relevant to plicated web-based texts. members of a wider commu- the work of classroom teachers. Here, nity but from elaborate systems I invited two ‘new literacies’ scholars Challenges of , which spew to consider the difficulty students Determining the credibility of Internet out information, much of it un- face when judging the credibility of sources of information is challenging believable….1 sources found on the Internet. They on at least three fronts: the relative ease recommend teaching students to use of creating and disseminating digital The “elaborate systems of commu- two sets of guiding questions, one texts on the web, the lack of a vetting nication” that historian Christopher focused on the text at hand and the process for many of these postings, and Lasch observed nearly three decades other reflecting back on the reader. the that the authorship of Internet ago have intensified in complexity texts as well as authors’ credentials can and scope. The explosion of the In- —Walter C. Parker, “Research and be difficult to determine. This makes it ternet and wireless technologies has Practice” Editor, University of more difficult to source and contextu- resulted in a dizzying proliferation of Washington alize texts by examining authors’ pur- texts. Teachers and students are but a poses, , and perspectives or their keystroke or mouse click away from linear hypertext, multimedia, and in- social, cultural, and political positions. a limitless stream of video clips, blog teractive texts that typically mix images, Corroborating web-based texts by entries, news articles, social network- music, graphic arts, video, and print. comparing them to other accounts is ing messages, and more. Social studies Moreover, ease of distribution and ac- also challenging because the Internet teachers can draw on disciplinary tools, cess of web-based texts brings issues of is “a self-sustaining reference system,” such as strategies for sourcing, contex- credibility to the fore, and our primary in which readers must rely on other in- tualizing, and corroborating texts, to goal in this article is to consider how formation within the network to deter- help students critically analyze and educators can respond to these cred- mine credibility.3 This can result in an evaluate sources of information.2 Yet, ibility challenges. We do this with a “echo chamber” effect where particular we believe many web-based texts pose close look at two digital texts, a “denial” ideas are reinforced simply through unique challenges that outpace these text about climate change and a “con- repetition and remain unchallenged by strategies. They combine varied text spiracy theory” text about September different viewpoints.4 Moreover, the structures and formats, such as non- 11, 2001. We employ two metaphors, sheer volume of information sources at

October 2011 269 A member of a team of Cambridge scientists trying to find out why Arctic sea ice is melting so fast, walks on some drift ice 500 miles (800 km) from the North Pole, September 3, 2011. Wildlife, including polar bears and walruses, depend on the sea ice that floats on the Arctic Ocean for survival. Despite the overwhelming consensus by scientists that climate change is caused by human activity, skeptics continue to make claims that global warming is a hoax. REUTERS/Stuart McDILL students’ fingertips makes it more likely images and graphics), aural (through and elevation, and two sets of key ques- that they will employ the mechanisms audio), gestural (through video), and tions can guide teachers and students to of selective exposure (choosing sources numerical (through graphs and tables). critically evaluate these texts. that align with their pre-existing beliefs) The modes in any one multimodal Denial Text about Global Warming: and selective perception (interpreting text, taken together or independently, 20/20 Segment Entitled “Give Me a events in line with those beliefs) in an convey particular information that can Break” attempt to manage the volume.5 We are connect to students’ prior knowledge “Give Me a Break” is an eight-minute also becoming more aware of the ways and experiences in different ways and video clip from the television news Internet browsers and programs, such reference other texts. Thus, the mul- program, 20/20. The main claim in as Google and Facebook, reinforce tiple modes in any one text might need this video is that the debate about and intensify selective exposure and to be analyzed individually as well as whether climate change is being caused perception by personalizing our Inter- evaluated as a whole to determine the by human beings is “not over.” The net experiences.6 credibility of the source. reporter, John Stossel, argues that cli- It is further difficult to judge the cred- With these challenges in mind, let’s mate change is not occurring at such ibility of web-based sources because now turn to two web-based texts, one a rapid pace, nor is it mainly the re- many texts on the Internet combine about climate change and one about sult of human intervention. Stossel different modes of communication— September 11, 2001. Then we’ll con- impugns a key claim in the movie, An linguistic (through print), visual (via sider how two metaphors, excavation Inconvenient Truth, which asserts that

Social Education 270 increased amounts of carbon dioxide not of the airplane crashes but of ex- “connection codes” that help us see or levels cause higher temperatures. Stos- plosives planted in the building; (3) A understand a particular text in relation- sel posits a counterclaim, contending commercial airliner did not crash into ship to one’s own beliefs, values, and the inverse is true (higher temperatures the Pentagon; (4) The public has been knowledge, to other texts and ideas, to cause increased carbon dioxide levels). misled about what really happened to different contexts, and to different dis- Stossel then convenes a small group of the plane that crashed in rural Pennsyl- ciplines and genres.9 Thus, elevation scientists who oppose the consensus in vania; (5) The U. S. government misled practices can be critical investigations the scientific community that climate and misinformed the American public of how and why texts are created, le- change is primarily being caused by about 9/11. gitimated, and disseminated.10 Eleva- humans. This group of scientists lev- tion also has readers consider how and els a critique of the Intergovernmental Excavation and Elevation why different people might be affected Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Two metaphors are particularly use- by the text (e.g., who benefits, who is leading authority of climate scientists ful in responding to the challenges of marginalized, etc.) or find the text com- across the globe. Stossel calls the group reading and understanding texts like pelling for particular . “so-called scientists.” Stossel concludes the 20/20 segment and Loose Change: the clip with his main claim: “So when excavation and elevation.8 Excavation Applying Excavation and Elevation the Nobel Prize winner (Gore) says, involves careful inspection and analy- Excavation reveals the ways Stossel “The debate is over,” I say, “Give me a sis of individual texts while elevation attempts to support his claim that hu- break!” entails the of individual man activity might not be the cause of texts on the broader terrain of a text’s climate change. He interviews children Loose Change, a “” production, dissemination, and con- to suggest how they have been brain- Internet Video sumption. washed into fright and despair, mainly Loose Change was written, directed, Excavation is close and careful anal- by Al Gore, to believe the world is and narrated by three men in their ear- ysis of, or “digging into,” a text. This in- ending because of climate change. Ex- ly 20’s. They produced the video for volves strategies like predicting, visu- cavation also reveals how Stossel relies $6,000 using a laptop computer.7 Be- alizing, asking questions, determining on a small group of scientists to impugn tween 2005-2009, several versions of main ideas, making inferences, summa- the rigor, , and ethics of the Loose Change were released. The 2nd rizing, evaluating claims and , IPCC. And it reveals that Stossel does edition (2007), our focus here, runs distinguishing fact from and not deal with calls for recalibrating our approximately 90 minutes in length. specific details from generalizations, energy needs and consumption pat- The movie employs narration over identifying inconsistencies in a text, de- terns with a consideration of alterna- still photographs, news footage, video, tecting errors in reasoning or logic, and tive, renewable energy sources. computer-generated simulations, dia- discerning the credibility of a source. Elevation helps the reader see how grams, and models. There is an under- The latter involves asking: Who is the Stossel uses the group of scientists in score of hip-hop audio tracks. The film author? What are her/his credentials ways that tap into popular misconcep- includes considerable video content and allegiances? Who sponsors the tions about how science and scientists from CNN, NBC, and text or website? Excavation practices work. Consider the misconception along with interviews with eyewitness- also involve critical investigations of a that deals with doubt and uncertainty. es and so-called experts. The creators text, such as identifying included and While doubt, coupled with healthy stitch together a range of claims and omitted perspectives and identifying skepticism, is fundamental to scien- evidence to create a narrative that chal- techniques authors, illustrators, and tific and knowledge building, lenges viewers to question government web designers employ to influence it makes science “vulnerable to mis- and media accounts of 9/11. Historical, readers (e.g., loaded words, use of im- representation, because it is easy to scientific, mathematical, and documen- ages, etc.). take uncertainties out of context and tary evidence is marshaled to support Elevation situates a text in broader create the impression that everything these claims: (1) Individuals within the contexts. These include the disciplin- is unresolved.”11 In other words, “nor- U.S. government or with strong links to ary, cultural, historical, ideological, so- mal scientific uncertainty” is used to government officials knew about the cial, and economic contexts that shape sabotage “the status of actual scientific impending attacks and did nothing to the ways a text or collection of texts is knowledge.”12 This is the tack Stossel stop them since they would serve as a produced, distributed, and consumed takes. He employs the small group of catalyst for military and imperial ex- by readers. Carmen Luke helps capture scientists he has assembled to suggest pansion; (2) The collapse of the World elevation practices, describing how that any opposing views about human Trade Center buildings was the result this kind of reading entails developing contributions to climate change means

October 2011 271 that we cannot accept the consensus scientist Michael Barkun observes that • What additional thoughts or ques- about the human influences to climate conspiracy theories are often based on tions do I have about the video? change. “elaborate presentations of evidence,” What additional information is Moreover, an elevated perspective and they use evidence and source cita- necessary to understand the vid- helps us understand how the news me- tions similar to those found in conven- eo? dia, such as 20/20, is susceptible to tional scholarship.17 • What affects the way I read this “doubt mongering” and suppression of video (e.g., prior experiences and scientific evidence. One is that Teaching Key Questions learning; my values, , their goal is often “balance” in their ac- Responding to credibility challenges emotions; my background and cul- counts, which they often aim to attain requires focused instruction. There is ture)? by presenting two sides of an issue, as a growing body of research suggest- • How might people from different in a debate.13 The problem is that this ing that students can be taught to use backgrounds and with different striving for balance in a news report processes of critical analysis through experiences read this video (e.g., leads to “informational ” because explicit teaching, modeling, and the from different ethnic, cultural, na- minority views, including extreme mi- use of key questions.18 Based on this tional, age, gender, political per- nority views, can receive undeserved research, we recommend the use of key spectives)? legitimacy, which, in turn, can impede or guiding questions to critically evalu- action called for by the established sci- ate complicated multimodal texts on These two lenses involve both ex- entific evidence. There is a long the Internet. We think of them as lens- cavation and elevation. The textual of this in the United States with a num- es because they guide students’ viewing critique lens calls for closer analysis of ber of key issues (e.g., tobacco smoke, of texts, particularly video. We devel- claims and author techniques. It also acid rain, DDT, the ozone hole, and oped two lenses for multimodal video asks questions about contexts. The global warming) in which timely, de- texts. One focuses on textual critique, reflexivity lens calls for careful analy- cisive action was thwarted because mi- or the critical analysis of the video, in- sis of what a reader brings to a text as nority views were awarded undeserved cluding analysis of the techniques au- well as a strategic stepping back from levels of legitimacy.14 thors use to influence readers/viewers; the texts to consider how others with With Loose Change, excavation the other focuses on reader reflexivity, different backgrounds and experiences would involve a systematic analysis which centers on a self-evaluation of might engage with the text. of the video’s main claims and use of what readers/viewers bring to the vid- Engaging these two sets of questions evidence to substantiate these claims. eo—their beliefs, biases, values, and can help students determine the For example, excavation would require emotions. credibility of complicated multimodal analyzing and evaluating specific eye- texts. The two lenses highlight how witness, scientific, and mathematical Lens 1: Textual critique excavation and elevation work in claims and evidence used to support • When, where, and why was the tandem to help readers assess the the video’s overarching claim that an video produced? credibility of texts. The questions in airliner did not crash into the Pentagon. • What does the creator of the video each lens focus students’ analysis on And again, this work requires identify- want me to think, believe, or do? particular techniques used in each ing what is omitted in the text, includ- • What techniques does the creator video, such as eyewitness testimony or a ing counter and contradic- use to influence me? Are they con- diagram of the plane crash. Responding tory evidence. Excavation also entails vincing? In what ways? Look for to pointed questions like these help a critique of the qualifications of the the use of loaded terms, emotive manage straying attention spans or creators of the video. images, combinations of different sheer overwhelm from absorbing Elevation helps the reader classify modes and texts, etc. videos in their entirety. The lenses also Loose Change as a “conspiracy theory.” • How might immediate and broad- target background knowledge in terms Although conspiracy theories are large- er contexts have shaped the video’s of readers’ previous engagement with ly discredited by historians and schol- production? Consider local, na- the topic, and they place a premium on ars, they have become commonplace in tional, global, historical, social, personal experiences (values, cultural popular culture and mass media.15 His- cultural, and economic forces. background, etc.) and how these torian Richard Hofstadter concluded shape the reading of a video. One of that conspiracy theories produce “he- Lens 2: Reader reflexivity the questions has students identify roic strivings for evidence to prove that • What prior knowledge, personal gaps in their knowledge that will limit the unbelievable is the only thing that experiences, and other texts help their understanding of a text. With can be believed.”16 Similarly, political me make sense of the video? the textual critique lens, students

Social Education 272 are encouraged to examine issues of 7. Nancy Jo Sales, “Click Here for Conspiracy,” Vanity JFK/conspiracy_theory/the_paranoid_mentality/ Fair (August 2006), www.vanityfair.com/commen The_paranoid_style.html authorship (e.g., when, where, and tary/content/printables/060717roco02?print=true. 17. Barkun, 7. why was the video produced?) and 8. Mark Baildon and James Damico, Social Studies 18. VanSledright, In Search of America’s Past: Learning as New Literacies in a Global Society: Relational to Read History in Elementary School (New York: techniques of persuasion used by the Cosmopolitanism in the Classroom (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002) demonstrates that creators. Many images, especially Routledge, 2011). 5th grade students can learn these processes. Steven depictions of traumatic events, are 9. Carmen Luke, “Pedagogy, Connectivity, A. Stahl and Cynthia Shanahan, offer sets of ques- Multimodality, and Interdisciplinarity,” Reading tions to help students source, contextualize, and highly provocative, which can leave Research Quarterly 38, no. 3 (2003): 397–403. corroborate historical documents in “Learning to viewers stunned and not ready for 10. Avner Segall, “What’s the Purpose of Teaching a Think Like a Historian: Disciplinary Knowledge through Critical Analysis of Multiple Documents,” the analytical work necessary to more Discipline, Anyway?,” in Social Studies—The Next Generation: Re-searching in the Postmodern, eds. in Adolescent Literacy Research and Practice, eds. deeply understand them. The reader Avner Segall, Elizabeth E. Heilman, and Cleo H. Tamara L. Jetton and Janice A. Dole (New York: reflexivity lens keeps these issues in the Cherryholmes (New York: Peter Lang, 2006), 125- The Guilford Press, 2004: 94-118) 139. foreground, inviting readers to consider 11. Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants Mark Baildon is an associate professor in the how their own experiences, beliefs, of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured Centre for Research in Pedagogy and Practice and values, and emotions might lead them the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Humanities and Social Studies Education at the Warming (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010), National Institute of Education, Singapore. He can to embrace or reject certain images. 34. be reached at [email protected]. 12. Ibid. 13. Oreskes and Conway. Conclusion James Damico is an associate professor at 14. Ibid., 243. Our goal in this article has been to ex- Indiana University in Literacy, Culture, and 15. Michael Barkun, : Language Education. He can be reached at amine the challenges readers face when Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America (Los [email protected]. They are the authors of Social they try to make sense of a complicated Angeles: University of California Press, 2003). 16. Richard Hofstadter, “The Paranoid Style in Studies as New Literacies in a Global Society: Internet text, whether in or out of class, American Politics,” Harper’s Magazine (November Relational Cosmopolitanism in the Classroom and to propose guiding questions to 1964), Retrieved March 27, 2005, from Centre for (New York: Routledge, 2011). help manage these challenges skillfully. Research on Globalisation: http://karws.gso.uri.edu/ We conclude that what is most impor- tant is for teachers to create opportuni- ties for students to engage complicated texts. These are opportunities for them to surface what they know and don’t know about the contexts and content of a text and investigate the range of beliefs, experiences, values, and emo- tions they bring to the interpretive pro- cess.

Notes 1. Christopher Lasch, The Minimal Self: Psychic Survival in Troubled Times (New York: Norton, 1984), 133. Advertising 2. See for example Sam Wineburg, Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts: Charting the Future of For about advertising, call Doran at 302-644-0546, or Teaching the Past (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2001), and Bruce VanSledright, “What Does e-mail [email protected]. Information about advertising rates and specifications It Mean to Think Historically and How Do You can also be found at www.socialstudies.org/advertising Teach It?” in Social Studies Today: Research and Practice, ed. Walter C. Parker (New York: Routledge, Bill of Rights Institute...... 264 2010), 113-120. 3. Nicholas C. Burbules, “Paradoxes of the Web: The The Choices Program...... 249 Ethical Dimensions of Credibility,” Library Trends C-SPAN...... cover 4 49, no. 3 (2001): 441-453. CQ Press...... 251 4. Diana Hess, Controversy in the Classroom: The Democratic Power of Discussion (New York: Herff Jones, Inc...... cover 2 Routledge, 2009). Kathleen H. Jamieson and Joseph A. Cappella, Echo Chamber: Rush Limbaugh and James Madison Memorial Fellowship Foundation...... 262 the Conservative Media Establishment (Oxford: National 4-H Youth Conference Center...... 262 Oxford University Press, 2008). Pare Lorentz Center at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library...... 239 5. Farhad Manjoo, True Enough: Learning to Live in a Post-Fact Society (Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sultan Qaboos Cultural Center...... 267 Sons, 2008). World History Connected...... cover 3 6. E. Pariser, The Filter Bubble: What the Internet is Hiding from You (New York: Penguin, 2011).

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