Social Sciences Research Journal, Volume 6, Issue 3, 1-11 (September 2017), ISSN: 2147-5237 1

! The Support of Women Work within Enterprises: Sample of Turkey

Gülüm Burcu Dalkıran(∗)

The as universal principles are to achieve the purposes of established partners all over the world for business. This form of cooperation is not only for partners but also getting the benefits to constitute for Governments in alleviating the burden of job creation initiative at all. Besides being the most significant organisations symbolizing the social solidarity, cooperatives are established without any discrimination of society. In particulars, monitoring the perspective of women, to reduce unemployment, to evaluate the support of women at any age and in each region, home based working women provides important benefits, such as activate within cooperatives, starting women of the community is the best sustainable form with economic and socially desired direction. In this study, basic information concerning cooperation is expressed and it is focused on the benefits received by women from cooperative organizations and from women cooperatives majorly formed by female partners. In this perspective, the areas where the economic and social benefits of women cooperatives for the whole community should be intensified are discussed by examining the present conditions of these cooperatives in Turkey and in the world. Moreover, the contributions of national policies regarding women cooperatives in Turkey to women entrepreneurship are explained and the significance of cooperation in women labor is expressed in this study.

Keywords: Women, Cooperative, Woman’s Cooperatives, Turkey, Employment.

Introduction

The inability of public sector with its present structure for solving global economic problems such as poverty and unemployment experienced in the world, the downsizing of public sector owing to the developments in globalization process and profit-oriented approach of private sector to the problems have resulted in the need for new partners in the solution process. In this context, cooperatives as well as similar institutions take the initial place in new economic, social and political approaches named as “social economy”, “third system” or “third sector”. Emerged in 1920s, cooperatives are neither state enterprises nor economic institutions acting in private sector. Apart from economic services of cooperatives, their protection of a specific group, their support for physical and ethical progress forming social welfare and peace, their efforts for increasing knowledge and disciplines of partners expand the practice area of cooperatives (Çıkın and Karacan,1994). Founded as a form of reaching collective aims through the collaboration of specific economic groups, cooperatives are organizations which lead to national policies for their encouragement since they provide sustainability for personal objectives in all countries and benefit for the whole society. The common problems encountered by women in economic, social and political life in the world are indicated in cooperative-pivoted research in both national and international platforms.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (∗)Yrd.Doç.Dr., Trakya Üniversitesi, Edirne Sosyal Bilimler Meslek Yüksekokulu, Öğretim Üyesi, [email protected].

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! The positioning of women in economic, social and political areas far behind men, their exposure to undesired conditions like violence / abuse and their being affected by poverty at the highest level result in their being regarded as a disadvantaged group. Cooperatives can be effective in the solutions of all the problems encountered by women in economic areas such as low income and insufficient benefit from educational and health services in parallel to this case. The activities of women in economic life are possible to continue by an organization in the form of cooperatives specifically in women entrepreneurship.

Definition, Scope and Universal Principles of Cooperatives

Derived from the word “cooperatio” in Latin with the meaning of “collaboration”, cooperation is defined in many ways. In comprehensive terms, it means combining efforts and opportunities in collective action to reach a result desired by a large community, to gather (to coordinate) and to harmonize. Collaboration is a concept with a broad sense and its general meaning is working together for an aim. Collaboration in a cooperative means a voluntary union formed by people for production with objective and fair principles, marketing and protection against loss or the supply of other services without any state support (Çıkın and Karacan, 1994;1). According to W. P. Watkins, one of former managers of International Cooperatives Association (ICA), cooperative is defined as “an educational device benefitting from economic action”. Furthermore, it is a fact that cooperative in a modern context is a result of change in economic and social circumstances mainly altered by Industrial Revolution. In this sense, it is not a coincidence that England where Industrial Revolution initially occurred is at the first rank in contemporary cooperation (Koç,2001;1). The principles which are determined by a retail cooperative founded by textile workers in the town of Rochdale, England in this era are updated by ICA to form the last version and have gained universal quality.

Principles of Cooperation

Firstly emerged with the foundation of retail cooperative by textile workers through collecting one Sterling among in 1844 in the town of Rochdale near Manchester in England, principles of cooperation have greatly contributed to the beginning and development of world cooperation. Currently known as the source of international cooperation principles, Rochdale Principles are not the doctrines which are written by these workers for the first time. However, these principles are derived from the doctrines that are applied in Rochdale retail cooperatives (İnan, 2008). In order to prevent different interpretations of principles and make them understood in a better way, ICA changed the regulation firstly prepared in 1937 in line with the needs from time to time and reshaped it in its 31st Congress conducted in Manchester, England on 20-23 September 1995 to formulate its last version. Therefore, principles of cooperation lastly arranged in 1995 direct cooperation in the whole world. The definition of cooperation has been updated by the restructured principles. According to this, cooperative is “an autonomous organization which is formed by people gathering voluntarily to meet common economic, social, cultural needs and desires through an institution collectively owned and democratically controlled”. As fundamental values of cooperation; self-assistance, self-responsibility, , equality, justice, honesty and solidarity get major prominence in this definition. Seven cooperation principles determined to apply these values are stated below (ICA,2017;1).

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! . Voluntary and Open Membership Co-operatives are voluntary organisations, open to all persons able to use their services and willing to accept the responsibilities of membership, without gender, social, racial, political or religious discrimination.

. Democratic Member Control Co-operatives are democratic organisations controlled by their members, who actively participate in setting their policies and making decisions. Men and women serving as elected representatives are accountable to the membership. In primary co-operatives members have equal voting rights (one member, one vote) and co-operatives at other levels are also organised in a democratic manner.

. Member Economic Participation Members contribute equitably to, and democratically control, the capital of their co-operative. At least part of that capital is usually the common property of the co-operative. Members usually receive limited compensation, if any, on capital subscribed as a condition of membership. Members allocate surpluses for any or all of the following purposes: developing their co-operative, possibly by setting up reserves, part of which at least would be indivisible; benefiting members in proportion to their transactions with the co-operative; and supporting other activities approved by the membership.

. Autonomy and Independence Co-operatives are autonomous, self-help organisations controlled by their members. If they enter into agreements with other organisations, including governments, or raise capital from external sources, they do so on terms that ensure democratic control by their members and maintain their co-operative autonomy.

. Education, Training and Information Co-operatives provide education and training for their members, elected representatives, managers, and employees so they can contribute effectively to the development of their co- operatives. They inform the general public - particularly young people and opinion leaders - about the nature and benefits of co-operation.

. Co-operation among Co-operatives Co-operatives serve their members most effectively and strengthen the co-operative movement by working together through local, national, regional and international structures.

. Concern for Community Co-operatives work for the sustainable development of their communities through policies approved by their members.

Comparison of Cooperatives with Other Institutions

Cooperative is basically an organization; in other words, it is an institution. It is clearly stated in ICA’s definition of cooperation that cooperative is an “institution” and thus, it is endeavored to avoid the similes described for cooperative as association, foundation, charity or trade body (Polat, 1997). Since cooperatives are institutions, it is required not to express the cooperative partners as “members” like in associations or foundations. Some major characteristics differentiating cooperatives from other institutions are as follows:

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! •! Shareholders receive dividend from profit based on their capital in collective, commandite, stock and limited companies. Profit distribution is restricted in cooperatives according to the use of cooperative services by partners and this is called as “return”. •! Partners form the main focus in cooperatives whereas capital takes the first rank especially in stock and limited companies. Shareholders do not know each other in stock companies in contrast to cooperatives where the relations with partners are more intense. •! Companies distribute dividend to their shareholders based on their capital. In contrast, profit or interest is either not given or restrictedly given to capital power in cooperatives. •! In cooperatives, decision-making depends on democratic management principles. In other words, it relies on the principle “One partner means one vote”. •! Capital and contribution of partners are equal to each other in cooperatives. •! Shares cannot be bought or sold in stock market. •! Reserves and provisions cannot be distributed in case of the dissolution of cooperatives.

Types of Cooperatives and Their Scopes

Although cooperatives are different in structure according to their foundation objectives, their scopes are versatile. The most common differentiation regarding cooperatives classified based on several criteria is binary differentiation as Agricultural and Non-Agricultural Cooperatives. is an autonomous organization which is founded, possessed and democratically controlled by producers to meet the common needs and desires collectively in appropriate conditions when these are not met by producers on their own (İnan,2008;46). In this framework, agricultural cooperatives realize the functions of supplying the input needed by partners in agricultural production cheaply and on credit, stocking and marketing the products of partners in suitable conditions. These cooperatives provide necessary agricultural information and entail the sustainability of countries in agricultural production by leading producers to efficient work. There are many different types of agricultural cooperatives such as Agricultural Development Cooperatives, Agricultural Credit Cooperatives, Agricultural Sale Cooperatives, Irrigation Cooperatives, Water Products Cooperatives and Beet Growers Cooperatives. Non-Agricultural Cooperatives take various names according to their aims. The cooperative types that come to mind at first are Housing Cooperatives for meeting accommodation needs, Retail Cooperatives for supplying necessary retail goods in a cheap way, Merchants and Craftsmen Credit and Warranty Cooperatives for giving financial support to merchants and craftsmen. In recent years, it has become widespread to see Educational Cooperatives which give service to partners in education sector, establish and manage educational institutions according to private education regulations (GTB, Koop. Genel Müdürlüğü, 2017).

Cooperation in the World

As a form of economic organization, the rise of cooperation in the world dates back the middle of 19th century. Economic and social problems, such as rapid change and transformation, unemployment, internal migration, urbanization and corruption of income distribution due to Industrial Revolution greatly contributed to the emergence of cooperation. Thus, cooperation appeared just in the middle of Industrial Revolution with retail cooperation approach started by workers in England. In subsequent years, England was followed by France with production cooperation and by Germany with merchants and agricultural credit cooperation.

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! People who voluntarily gather with the motivation of protecting and developing individualistic economy gain significant economic and social benefits not only for themselves but also for their societies. In the following periods, cooperatives have transformed from solidarity establishments of weak groups into successful enterprise models with specific gains in economic and commercial life (GTB, 2012-2016; 5). Situated in each sector, cooperative institutions can act for the sake of their partners in their own areas along with being regarded as the way of exit from poverty. Hence, they provide comparative superiority to the groups described as disadvantaged in the society with their typical models. In this context, specifically women and other weak groups become more important in native community. Cooperatives which act in all sectors with different forms have nearly 1 billion partners in the world. Total endorsement of the biggest 300 cooperatives in the world in 2008 is 1.6 trillion dollars. It is on equal terms with gross national product of the 9th biggest economy in the world. In addition, Financial Cooperatives give service to 857 million people who are equal to 80 million partners living below 2 dollars per day as the starvation line, namely 13 % of the world population. In this sense, it can be declared that the greatest micro finance service in the world is provided by cooperatives (GTB, Kooperatifçilik Genel Müdürlüğü, 2017). Many cooperatives in the world undertake price balance duty in most of markets they are located in terms of both their partners and other consumers. Cooperatives meet 70 % of water products in Korea, 40 % of agricultural products in Brazil, 25 % of savings in Bolivia, 25 % of health sector in Colombia, 55 % of retail sector in Singapore, 35 % of retail sector in Denmark and 15 % of retail sector in Hungary. 900 rural electricity cooperatives in the USA have almost half of the electricity distribution lines in the country and provide service to 37 million people.

Cooperation for the Solution of Women Problems

“” has become the focus of international cooperation movement since the beginning of 1990s. In 1995, ICA signed a resolution titled “Gender Equality in Cooperatives” to provide gender equality firstly among cooperative partners at global scale. In this matter, both the partnership circumstances of women in cooperatives and their training related to the development of personal leadership have been given priority by means of publications in various languages (Nipperd, 2002). Similarly, International Labor Organization (ILO) mainly emphasized the importance of increase in the number of female partners including women with management duties in cooperatives in its Recommendatory Decision numbered 193 published in 2002 (R193 ILO). Thus, publicized 2012 as “Year of Cooperatives” and stressed the significance of cooperatives in sustainable progress and struggle against poverty in all countries with the motto “Cooperative institutions can set up a better world”. These advances in the world have reflected to cooperation policies in all countries and assisted in determining national strategies.

Cooperation Principles and Women Cooperatives

The universal principles of cooperation requires their being objective to all sections of society regardless of gender discrimination, manageable in a fair and democratic manner, and sensitive to the problems of the community they are located in. According to “Volunteer and Open Partnership Principle”, the doors of cooperatives are open to all women who accept the responsibilities of partnership. The criteria such as age and education level are important elimination means of staff placement in labor policies of state and private sectors. However,

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! they are not essential in cooperatives and individuals are accepted irrespective of any discrimination points. When women take place in cooperative movements, they get the rights of integrating into management process and controlling cooperative actions (Democratic Control Principle). As women are included in cooperation process, one of the cooperation principles by which women are most influenced becomes “Education, Training and Information Principle”. According to this principle, cooperatives provide education and training opportunity for their partners, managers and staff to help them actively contribute to the development of their cooperatives. The scope of this principle may be broader in women cooperatives. Their formation mostly or completely by female partners makes education regarding all subjects related to women in a society pivotal in these cooperatives. Most of these education subjects are about management, but the topics such as women health, child growing, family life and healthy nutrition are especially central to women as education targets. Female solidarity and social collaboration are increased by women living in different cities, regions and even countries through their goods and service marketing beyond borders as well as their common work in social responsibility projects. “Collaboration among Cooperatives” best represents this type of solidarity. “Social Responsibility Principle” is another essential principle of cooperation. The most significant one among the eventual targets of this principle is sustainable progress. It is impossible to consider women and the concept “sustainable” different from each other; because women not only become target group but also take place in all statuses undertaking missions which help target group focus on aims in every social, economic and environmental sustainability policy.

Effects of Organizations by Women through Cooperatives and Samples in the World

It is possible to state that cooperation consciousness is mostly present in developed countries in the world. One person out of three in each family in Japan and one person out of four in Germany are cooperative partners. According to this, nearly 20 million people are included in a cooperative movement in Germany. More than 50 % of the population in Singapore (1.6 million people) is cooperative partners. The biggest independent travel agency in England is a cooperative institution. The causes of this case can be explained in two ways. First one is related to the high degree of cooperation consciousness in developed countries and the easiness of taking place in entrepreneurship activities for all citizens regardless of their gender. The second one is that active workforce is mostly formed by men in underdeveloped and developing countries and cooperation advances are generally established under the leading influence of government policy rather than as the movement arisen from needs. When the matter is discussed in terms of women, it is required to examine the conditions and the women’s rights in a society with economic, social and cultural aspects in a detailed way. At present, there are some societies where women are deprived of basic human rights and freedom. Therefore, it is impossible to see these women as entrepreneurs in these countries. For instance, it is known that women are integrated into such negative situations in the world that they cannot take driving license and vote in Saudi Arabia (they voted in 2015) and cannot become witnesses in courts in Yemen ( Dewey, 2013). Furthermore, women are forced to work at starvation line with very low salaries in many states of the world. It is possible for cooperation movement to change not only economic indicators but also the status of women in a society with all perspectives especially in underdeveloped and developing countries. The reasons of this situation can be summarized as follows:

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! •! Women cooperatives increase solidarity among women in solving problems and meeting needs by gathering people who have similar problems and same necessities. Providing the solutions of problems by civil initiative decreases the responsibility that should be undertaken by state in that subject. •! It is easy for women to get organized within women cooperatives and also be accepted in the closed societies where women lag far behind men, because women can take place in economic life with their fellows and avoid being passive workforce in this way. •! Cooperative institutions and particularly women cooperatives positively influence not only their female partners but also the societies they are located in. For example, Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union in Tanzania meet educational needs of both their own partners and orphan children with seven-year scholarship program which has been developed to support children’s education in their own cities (http://kncutanzania.com/index.html ). •! In a research conducted to examine the contributions of cooperatives among partnerships established by women, cooperatives are described as organizations that should be given importance since they enable people to gather in solidarity for overcoming economic and commercial problems through mutual support (Jones, Smith and Wills, 2012). Similarly, in a study carried out in Nigeria and India, it is shown that women who are cooperative partners in rural areas are better in terms of economic welfare than those who are not (Amaza, Kwagbe and Amos, 2012). •! Although versatile projects have been conducted for organizations in the form of cooperatives by women in the world, it is seen that the number of female partners in cooperatives is not at the desired level. For instance, 80 % of food production in Africa is provided by women. However, only 18 % of women in are cooperative partners according to the data given by ICA (Bezabih and Emona, 2008). Likewise, the rate of female partners in agricultural cooperatives in is 26 % and the rate of female workers in these cooperatives there is 40 %. Nevertheless, the rate of these partners’ positioning in cooperative management is below 9 % (ICA Kenya, 2001). •! Women cooperatives acting in developing countries mainly work to find solutions for economic problems such as low income and insufficient nutrition. Different cooperative models take place in developed countries. For instance, women cooperative established by feminist ladies in California, USA has given educational service for 16 years to almost 9000 women to make them strengthen sociologically and psychologically and defend their rights (Groves et al., 1995). Similarly, a housing cooperative founded by women in Canada not only build houses for their partners but also act for converting these small housing units into centers increasing female solidarity (Wasylishyn and Johnson, 1998). •! When Europe is examined, the rate of partnership into present and newly-established cooperatives increases in Greece where rural tourism, handicrafts and local product trade are common. In this way, women with leadership characteristics are provided to reach actual success in addition to economic gains like easy-access to markets and credits (Koutsu, Lakovidou and Gotsiness). •! ILO which focuses on struggle against hunger and improvement of income distribution continues a special technical collaboration program with COOPAfrica (Cooperative Facility for Africa) to develop cooperation in Africa and rise the number of women cooperatives (Chowdhry, 1995). Cooperative partners in the region become more powerful by means of this program sustained economically and politically. For example, ladies working in milk production in Tanzania get organized under a cooperative institution. Thus, they both expand production capacity and get encouraged for new entrepreneurships. In a similar framework, women who are partners or members in cooperatives and society-based centers in Tanzania

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! benefit from supports given for beekeeping and educational service about marketing of honey after production (ILO, 2010).

Women Cooperatives in Turkey

Turkey has begun a new planning process to analyze present circumstances effectively and direct right policies in parallel to the studies carried out in the issues regarding cooperation by leading institutions in the world. In this sense, action has started with the structured “Cooperation Strategy”. This approach for cooperation is based on the principle of cooperation development expressed in the 171st article of Turkish Constitution as “State takes precautions which develop cooperation to improve production and protect consumers considering the benefits of national economy”. This strategy is “Turkey’s Cooperation Strategy and Action Plan” which covers the years 2012-2016. In this plan, placing women within cooperative organizations is also highlighted to increase their entrepreneurship activities and make them important actors in economy. According to the data taken from Address-Based Population Registration System in 2016, women form 49.8 % of 79.814.871 people living in Turkey. Despite structuring nearly half of the population, women lag far behind men in terms of the participation in workforce. The rate of women who join in labor at the age of 15 or more is 32,5% and this rate takes Turkey at the last ranks in comparison to EU members and EU nominee countries (TÜİK, 2016) . In Turkey, the rate of women who work on their own and employ others is 9.9 % (TÜİK, 2011). In addition, the rate of female high-level managers working in state sector is 9.3 %, that of female judges is 36.3 % and that of female police officers is 5.5 % in 2013. The rate of female professors among academic staff is 28.1 %. When these figures are assessed in terms of women in political areas, the rate of female deputies in Turkish Grand National Assembly is seen as 14.7 % in 2016 in contrast to 4.5 % in 1935. The rate of female members in Turkish Council of Ministers is 4 % with only one female minister. However, this rate is 52.6 % in Norway and 52.2 % in Sweden with the highest ranks in the world. It is a fact that a small part women take in basic indicators of economic life stems from their being unpaid family workers and unregistered participators in workforce. For example, it is found that the rate of women who work as unpaid family labour is 31.8 % whereas that of men who do the same duty is 3.82 % in 2011. Taking all the aspects expressed above into account, it is clear that women should be provided with the opportunity of participating in economic life with higher rates. In this framework, it is clear that the corroboration and development of women cooperation are going to improve women entrepreneurship. Cooperatives are considered to be significant progress tools in the world as they can become solutions for eliminating poverty and can increase workforce. Women who are mostly affected by poverty and unemployment as a disadvantaged group can change this situation by means of women cooperatives. It is exemplified that women cooperatives carry out studies in some countries such as India, Yugoslavia, Iran and Thailand through various projects of the institutions like FAO and ILO. In the light of these advances, Turkey has implemented “Main Sample Agreement on Environment, Culture and Management Cooperatives” to facilitate the service of women with economic problems within cooperatives including ladies as all or major partners. According to this, “Women, Environment, Culture and Management Cooperatives” can be established by at least seven female partners who are able to use their civil rights (GTB, 2011).

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Table Women’s Cooperatives in Turkey (Ministry Customs and Trade-2012) Type of Women’s Number of Cities cooperative cooperatives Management 80 Adana, Ağrı, Adıyaman, Ankara, Cooperatives Aydın, Balıkesir, Bursa, Bitlis, Çanakkale, Diyarbakır, Düzce, Erzincan, Eskişehir, Gaziantep, Hatay, İstanbul, İzmir, Kocaeli, Kayseri, Konya, Manisa, Muğla, Mardin, Nevşehir, Sakarya, Sivas, Tekirdağ, Tokat, Şanlıurfa, Van Crafts Cooperatives 4 Ankara, Balıkesir, İzmir, İstanbul Production and Çanakkale, Samsun Marketing 2 Cooperatives Consumer 4 Konya, Osmaniye, Çorum, Mersin Cooperatives Publication 1 İstanbul Cooperatives

Women Cooperation Movement in Turkey started in 2000s in accordance with the demands of female entrepreneurs. 80-100 % of these cooperative partners are formed by women. Related ministries and institutions continuously conduct studies concerning the improvement of women entrepreneurship to meet social and cultural necessities. Therefore, projects regarding educational and marketing support needed by women cooperatives in rural and urban areas are prepared and put into practice. The number of women cooperatives in Turkey is approximately 100 and the scope of these cooperatives are mostly oriented to food production and marketing, handicrafts, education and care for the disabled, marketing of handmade wear and souvenirs (Varol, 2013).

Conclusion and Recommendations

In many countries of the world, cooperatives contribute to their partners and the society they are located in as state and private sectors do. Founded in each field and supported by governments, these institutions have taken first ranks in women-oriented studies recently. Especially women cooperatives which are formed mostly by female partners provide great opportunities for women to have better work conditions and income in their jobs in comparison with private sector. Women cooperatives affect not only their partners but also other women that are not partners and indirectly all individuals in the society, because women are both “mothers” and “wives” who are influential in life, mainly in family life. Women’s integration into workforce actively provides them with positive gains which can change their position and status in the community in addition to income rise that can contribute to both themselves and their families. These enterprises for women labor are easier to be accepted even in closed communities. Female entrepreneurships through cooperatives can facilitate access to targets in regional and national progress.

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! By organizing within the body of cooperatives, women can realize many activities such as child / elderly / patient care, handicrafts and food production. Moreover, women living in rural areas can establish cooperatives to market their products easier and even get brands. On the whole, cooperatives are directly founded by women with appropriate needs. Therefore, the presence of female leaders is significant in the formation of cooperation consciousness and in the sustainability of cooperative activities. The benefits of cooperation are noticeable in that cooperatives provide flexibility to female partners in terms of working hours and places (like working at home); they gather women with same problems and purposes; and they inspire self-confidence by giving responsibility in common search of solutions. However, the number of women in cooperative movement is low. National policies conducted to make cooperation widespread indicate that the subject is emphasized, but its effect will be seen in long-term manner. It is required for local managements and society institutions to carry out studies to detect “pioneer women” in the lead of universities. Cooperatives which unite women living in rural areas with those living in urban regions and eliminate women’s being unregistered workforce will be influential to increase women labor. This case can weaken the pressure of labor establishment on governments and prevent private sector to monopolize. In addition to bringing them personal achievements, ladies’ integration into work life actively and their provision of income can serve to family welfare and social solidarity in the lead of women.

References

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