28 Six-legged livestock: edible farming, collecting and marketing in

Collecting techniques Wild-harvested edible

caterpillars are mainly collected in the north of Thailand. Apart from farmed edible insects like Bamboo caterpillars were tradi onally crickets and palm weevil larvae, other collected by cutting down entire edible insect species such as silkworm bamboo clumps to harvest the pupae, , weaver ants and caterpillars. This approach was bamboo caterpillars are also popular destruc ve and some mes wasteful food items and can be found in every of bamboo material. More recently a market. less invasive collec on method has been tried. Sustainable collec on Grasshoppers, weaver ants, giant without cutting bamboo trees is water bugs and bamboo caterpillars starting to be practised by local are the most popular wild edible people. Mr.Piyachart, a collector of insects consumed. Grasshoppers are bamboo caterpillars from the wild, collected in the wild, but mainly was interviewed in Chiang Rai Province imported from Cambodia; weaver to learn about his sustainable ants and bamboo caterpillars are collecting method. The adult harvested in the wild seasonally. caterpillar exits, a er emergence, from a hole at the base of the bamboo stem. The fi rst or second internode is Bamboo caterpillar examined to reveal the damage ( fuscidenƩ alis caused by the bamboo caterpillar and Hampson, Family its loca on. The denseness of an Pyralidae) internode is a clue to indicate the presence of bamboo caterpillars. The Known in Thai as rod fai duan or ‘the harves ng of bamboo caterpillars is express train’ the larvae live inside conducted by slicing the specifi c bamboo plants for around ten months. infested internode to obtain the larvae It feeds on 11 species of without cu ng the whole plant. and Thyrsostachys bamboo. The Collec on is carried out by cu ng a number of larvae depends on the size rectangular hole approximately 9 x 13 of the bamboo culms (Kayikananta square cen metres in size at specifi c 2000; Leksawasdi 2001). internodes hosting the bamboo caterpillars. Six-legged livestock: edible , collecting and marketing in Thailand 29

The female lays a mass of 80 to is controlling ma ng in a nylon net 130 eggs on the sheaths at the base cage covering the and of bamboo shoots. A er hatching, the the second is releasing for young larvae bore an entrance hole natural ma ng into the bamboo plot. mostly from the fi h to the tenth The la er is best because it is easy internodes. The larvae live and eat and convenient. inside the bamboo shoot, usually a young shoot, on the upper part, un l Economics and marketing they are 45 to 60 days old, when they move down to congregate in the According to farmer groups at Tambon internode with the exis ng egress Waree, Chiang Rai Province, each year point for another eight months. The about 500 kilograms of bamboo Royal Forest Department recommends caterpillars are harvested and sold at that the best time for collecting THB200-250/kilogram to buyers who bamboo caterpillars is around January come to their villages. to April when bamboo caterpillars can be obtained from the specific Mr Jaturong, an edible insect internode and the infested bamboo entrepreneur, is one of the biggest culm can be harvested for later buyers of bamboo caterpillars. His u liza on (Kayikananta 2000). company brand is ‘Mae Urai, Edible Insect’. Each year he buys at least Generally, the infested bamboo culms 20 000 kilograms of bamboo caterpillars are stronger than the non-infested from villages in the north of Thailand; ones because the wood cells are small 10-20 percent comes from and dense, making them stronger and neighbouring countries such as Lao heavier than normal bamboo. They PDR and . The product is can be u lized to make bamboo packaged in both uncooked frozen handicra s and construc on poles. packs and ready-to-eat boxes (deep- fried beforehand). The uncooked Rearing technique frozen packs are distributed throughout Thailand via the Makro The best prac ce for farming bamboo wholesale supermarket chain. On caterpillars has yet to be developed. average, 1 000 kilograms are sold each Currently, the Royal Forest Department month at THB365/kilogram. The had developed management rearing ready-to-eat (cooked) bamboo techniques for bamboo caterpillars caterpillars are packed in plas c boxes (Kayikananta 2000). Two management containing 100 grams and sell at methods are recommended. The fi rst THB130 in retail shops. Each month 30 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

around 3 500 to 4 000 boxes are sold. Recently, the company has developed As the bamboo caterpillar is widely a new product line of cooked bamboo consumed and in demand, a simple caterpillars sealed in a container that and effi cient breeding technology for can be heated in a microwave oven bamboo caterpillars at the farm level before ea ng. as well as imported product processing should be further inves gated and Opportunities and constraints developed.

Bamboo caterpillars are one of the most popular edible insects and the Weaver ant (Oecophylla selling price is s ll quite high compared smaragdina Fabricius, to other edible species. A rearing Family Formicidae) technique has been developed, although it is s ll based on semi- Weaver ants are known locally as ‘red’ natural habitat and s ll needs bamboo ants or mod-daeng and are a popular as the food source. However, with delicacy. The ant workers construct proper management of semi-natural nests by weaving together leaves farming and harvesting, bamboo using larval silk. Many ant colonies caterpillars can become a more can be found on one tree. popular edible insect and help with income genera on for local people. Weaver ants are predominantly found The area of bamboo planta ons could in the northeast and have been be increased for farming purposes – interlinked with the way of life of an indirect contribution to people in this region for a long me. environmental conserva on. Tradi onal local folk songs and dances have included stories of red ant egg Lack of knowledge or only basic harves ng. Red ant eggs (the larval understanding about the biology, and pupal stage), or khai mod-daeng ecology and habitat of these are popular food. Pupae and adults caterpillars by local harvesters are also eaten. The most popular presents a risk to the ongoing dishes, par cularly in the northeast, availability of the species. Therefore, are omelet mixed with red ant eggs proper management and harves ng and Thai red ant egg (yum khai techniques for sustainable use of this mod-daeng). insect are urgently needed for local people; mainly ethnic groups in the Usually weaver ants are harvested north of Thailand. from trees in the wild. However, some Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 31

farmers can breed and maintain is poked into the nest with the p of weaver ant colonies in their own the pole and it is shaken so the larvae gardens on mango trees. The colonies and pupae fall down into the bag. can be maintained and expanded if Then the bag is poured onto a plate their host trees are protected from or container and some rice or tapioca predators and have good access to fl our is added to prevent the ants from water. The weaver ants need water climbing up to bite the collector. A to produce ace c acid. branch is put on the plate for adult ants to climb back up the branch and A method to propagate ant nests in it is whipped against a tree to release mango orchards is the use of overhead the adult ants. The remaining larvae ant highways that link the trees of the and pupae are removed for orchard. These ant highways help the consump on (Lewvanich et al. 1999). ants to conserve energy by not needing to leave their trees and also Economics and marketing protect them from ground based predators. Consequently nest Information on production and mul plica on is accelerated. The marke ng of weaver ants is limited to highways are made from any type of individual cases. Currently, the market rope, except plas c material, but price for weaver ant eggs is round ra an canes are preferred. THB250-500/kilogram depending on the period and loca on. When the Collecting techniques season is nearly over, the price will be high. Usually 1-2 kilograms of weaver In north and northeast Thailand the ants can be collected in the wild each season for weaver ants’ harves ng day although some collectors can usually occurs once a year during the collect 5-8 kilograms/day. About dry season between February and 300-400 grams of larvae and pupae May. During this period the arboreal per nest can be harvested. On average nests of the weaver ants are full of one collector can earn THB250-500/ eggs, larvae and pupae. In Petchabun day. Province the season occurs from January to May and three crops are The income for weaver ant sellers at obtained annually. markets in the northeast and north (based on interviews) is around THB Harves ng is undertaken using a long 1 200-3 000/day with around 5-10 bamboo pole with a bag or basket kilograms of weaver ants sold per day a ached with strings to the p. A hole (on average 5 kilograms/day). 32 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

Opportunities and constraints One wholesaler at Talad Thai market in Bangkok, which is one of the biggest Weaver ants are very popular and edible insect markets, can sell around consumer demand is higher than the 30-40 kilograms/day and net profi t is natural supply. According to local around THB2 000-2 500/day. people, numbers of weaver ants have been decreasing and they are more Weaver ants can generate good diffi cult to fi nd in the wild. Decreasing income for both collectors and sellers popula ons are a nega ve impact on but weaver ant harves ng is s ll a ecological systems because ants are sideline occupa on. Income from predators and perform many their collec on exceeds normal farm ecological roles that are benefi cial to income from rice or cassava produc on humans, including the suppression of for example. However, there is only a pest popula ons. Weaver ants were short harves ng period of three to fi rst used for biological control of four months per year star ng in citrus pests in China, and are used in February. Weaver ants are sold as mango and cashew planta ons in fresh produce in markets everywhere, Australia (Peng et al. 1999; Peng and par cularly in the north and northeast Chris an 2004-2007). during the harves ng period in the dry season. Canned weaver ants in Weaver ants can easily be semi- brine are also sold, a common prac ce farmed in home gardens by feeding which preserves the product for a long with food scraps and suffi cient water; me, ideal for export to overseas colonies can be expanded with proper markets. management. However, biological and ecological aspects, par cularly fi nding the queen of the colony or crea ng a new queen for the colony as well as preferred trees and ecological habitat need proper understanding. Weaver ant queens do not live in the large nests seen lower down in the tree host. The queen is found in a small nest at the highest point of the tree where it is diffi cult to reach. A colony on a tree without a queen will eventually die. Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 33

Giant water bug Economics and marketing ( indicus Lep.-Serv., Family Giant water bugs are predaceous BelostomaƟ dae) insects and usually sensitive to polluted environments. Although the The giant water bug is na ve to giant water bug is a very popular . It is a popular edible edible insect among Thai people, insect, known by locals as malaeng these days the popula on of this da na and is consumed in almost all species is declining due to parts of Thailand. The whole bug environmental and habitat changes except the wings is eaten. It can be and pollu on. Large numbers of giant grilled or fried or used as an extract water bugs are bought from in sauces to make Mangda, neighbouring countries like Cambodia a type of chili sauce. Usually the male and Myanmar. is preferred as the male has a scent gland that can produce a strong Due to high demand in the market, dis nc ve smell. the price is high and increasing year by year. In the last few years one male Collecting techniques would cost THB10. However the price rose to THB15 in 2011. Females are Giant water bugs live in s ll water, cheaper and sold at THB8-10 each. swamps and rice paddies. During the rainy season (May to August) they Recently giant water bugs have been come out of the water and are sold in frozen 10-bug packages in a racted to lights, especially blue wholesale chain supermarkets neon lights. One common method throughout the country (for example for catching them in a fi eld is to set Makro supermarket). Male bugs cost up a blue neon light with a long THB130/pack while females cost bamboo pole 2-3 metres high. A water THB65/pack. container is placed on the ground to collect the bugs that fall down. Fishing One wholesaler of giant water bugs nets are also used to harvest them at the Kalasin edible insect market in from swamps and ponds (Lewvanich the northeast indicated that each day et al. 1999). at least 3 000 bugs are sold at THB10- 13/bug, mainly males. The bugs are bought from Cambodia through the edible insect market near the Cambodian border. 34 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

Opportunities and constraints introduced for human consump on by entomologists − a campaign to eat Farming is quite diffi cult and laborious grasshoppers had been launched because this species is predaceous because control eff orts had been and cannibalis c when popula ons unsuccessful. For example, in 1983 are crowded. this was launched by local offi cials and villagers in Prachin Buri Province Recently a researcher at Rajamangala collected more than 10 tonnes for use University of Technology Isan in Sakon as food (Lewvanich et al. 1999). Nakhon Province (Sanewong Na Ayudtaya 2011) has developed a Collecting method breeding method to farm the giant water bug. If this technology can be Grasshoppers are collected in paddy developed for farming on a commercial or maize fi elds by using a net, a piece scale, this will help to reduce the of cloth or by hand at night or in the massive harves ng of giant water bugs early morning as low temperatures from the wild which impacts make them inactive. Before ecosystems by lowering predatory consump on, the intes nes and wings popula ons. are removed and the torso is washed in water. Deep-frying is a popular way Grasshoppers (Order to cook them. ) Economics and marketing Many species of Orthoptera or grasshoppers are edible. In Thailand, Wild collec on of grasshoppers is they include Patanga succincta, rarely witnessed in Thailand. Most Locusta migratoria, Acrida sp., edible grasshoppers sold in Thai Cyrtacanthacris tatarica and Oxya markets come from Cambodia. japonica japonica (Thunb.) Approximately 170 tonnes of (Hanboonsong et al. 2001; Ra anapan grasshoppers are imported annually 2000). All of them are pests of for retail at Rong Kluea market at the economic crops such as maize and Cambodia border in Sa Kaeo Province rice. species, par cularly (Ratanachan 2009). Imported Patanga succincta and Locusta grasshoppers are sold through a migratoria, used to be one of the network of fresh markets throughout major pests of maize and rice. Today the country by traders and they have become one of the most intermediaries. They are purchased popular edible insects since they were by street food vendors for sale in night Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 35

markets and food stalls all over University have successfully developed Thailand. a breeding technique to mass rear them, but the technology s ll cannot Grasshoppers are also sold in frozen be expanded on a commercial scale packages at all 51 Makro wholesale as it is not an economically viable way supermarkets throughout Thailand. to farm this type of insect. It has Each day at least 10 kilograms of almost a year-long life cycle and s ll grasshoppers are sold at each branch requires its natural food for feeding. for THB354/kilogram (for Bombay locust). Nowadays many new species of grasshoppers are collected from the Opportunities and constraints wild. Many of them are s ll unknown and have not yet been iden fi ed or Grasshoppers are one of the most recorded. The diversity of grasshopper popular edible insects eaten by Thai species caught for consump on is people. Entomologists at Khon Kaen wider than in the past. 36 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

a. b.

c.

d.

Figure 11. Wild-harvested edible insect species: (a-b) bamboo caterpillars, (c) wasps and (d) water scavenger beetles Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 37

a. b.

c.

d. e.

Figure 12. Wild-harvested edible insect species: (a-c) weaver ants, (d) grasshoppers and (e) dung beetles 38 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

across Thailand, and the nature of the Business and market opera ons also varies. channels The trading channels for edible insects It has been diffi cult to determine the are shown in Figures 15 and 16 (wild extent of wild harves ng and farming harvested insects) and Figures 8 and in Thailand because this is conducted 10 (farmed insects). In both cases, the at two levels: subsistence (use of villager is either the collector or a insects for domes c consump on or farmer who keeps insect colonies. as an addi onal source of income, mainly harves ng wild species) and In the case of wild-harvested insects, commercial producers. There is no the collectors may use the insects overriding group that oversees the themselves, sell them directly to the industry, so obtaining data at any level public or sell to an intermediary (provincial or na onal) is diffi cult. The (wholesale buyer). This can occur in situa on is complicated in the case of Thailand, but is more likely to occur wild-harvested insects because many in adjacent countries. The wholesale are imported from adjacent countries. buyer will visit individual collectors and purchase the insects or the Subsistence and commercial collectors will directly bring insects to use the wholesale buyer’s venue. They are then sold to a wholesale market It is diffi cult to get reliable informa on (for example at the Rong Kluea market about the extent of insects gathered on the Cambodian border). as subsistence food by individual farmers or sold for income genera on. Once the insects reach the wholesale buyer, the scenario is similar for both Good data are available for some wild-harvested and farmed insects. commercial enterprises. The They are stored in a cool store as produc on and marke ng channels, frozen packages and sold to cost and income can be determined distributors, who in turn sell to the in some cases. However, it is diffi cult retailers (generally market stall to determine how information operators). There can be varia ons in obtained at the local level can be trading channels. An intermediary extrapolated to the provincial or may sell stock directly to distributors na onal level because the extent of or retailers. edible insect trade varies considerably Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 39

Edible insect markets Storage for edible insects Both fresh and cooked edible insects can be found in all types of markets Most edible insects sold in markets at provincial or district levels. Several are wild harvested and they are well-known edible insect wholesale available seasonally. Therefore, the markets are Rong Kluea in Sa Kaeo wholesalers usually keep insects in Province (the biggest edible insect cold storage and in some cases, like market near the Cambodian border), giant water bugs, are preserved with Klong Toey market (Bangkok), Talad salt for prolonged storage. There are Thai (Bangkok) and Jatujak market two types of cold storage: (1) plas c (Bangkok) — this market sells mainly tanks in which the products are mealworms for pet feed). Talad Kaset covered with ice cubes (temporary in Kalasin Province is one of the largest storage for two to three days) and (2) wholesale markets for distribu on of long-term storage in cold storage edible insects in the northeast. Mainly rooms at -18 °C to -20 °C (products farmed crickets, silkworm pupae, can be kept for one to two years). giant water bugs and grasshoppers Some wholesalers have their own cold are sold there. rooms with up to 300-tonne capacity. However, this type of storage has both Markets can be divided into three posi ve and nega ve aspects. Proper groups based on income generated cold storage will prolong the usable from selling insects. Large markets are life of the insects and also is an Rong Kluea and Talad Thai, which have important food safety factor. On the an average monthly income of negative side, it may encourage approximately THB300 000. Medium- overharves ng of insects that are very size markets are Jatujak and Klong seasonal. For example weaver ants Toey markets in Bangkok, with an − collectors may be tempted to collect average monthly income of around more than is ecologically sustainable THB200 000 to 250 000. Small insect in order to generate more income. markets are located in a sca ering of The wholesaler can store the weaver submarkets in provinces in the ants and sell them at mes when they northeast such as Warin Chamrab are generally not available. market in Ubon Ratchatani near the Lao border; also Kalasin and Loei Imported insect products provincial markets. Average monthly income ranges from THB50 000 to Only a few species can be farmed such 80 000. as house crickets, palm weevils and 40 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

mealworms. Recently, giant water bug 270 tonnes per year are imported farming technology has also been from China by wholesalers at Rong developed but it has not been very Kluea market. It has been reported successful. Other species such as that about 800 tonnes of edible grasshoppers, bamboo caterpillars insects are annually imported from and giant water bugs are s ll wild Cambodia, Myanmar, Lao PDR and harvested and imported from China to Rong Kluea market neighbouring countries to Rong Kluea (Ratanachan 2009). The top five market. Grasshoppers, black scorpions imported insects are silkworm pupae, and giant water bugs are imported ground crickets, leaf-eating from Cambodia. Silkworm pupae are grasshoppers, mole crickets and giant produced in the northeast where the water bugs. The economic value of silkworm industry is located. The imported insects is estimated at supply of silkworm pupae consump on around THB40 million per year. is s ll not suffi cient. Approximately

Figure 13. Edible insects are sold in various markets Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 41 42 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

a. b.

c. d. Figure 14. Edible insect markets and businesses: (a) wholesale sellers at Rong Kluea market, (b) frozen packages in a supermarket, (c) precooked bamboo caterpillars on sale at a souvenir food shop and (d) precooked bamboo caterpillars for microwaving Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 43

Giant water bugs Cambodia, Myanmar (overseas) Kalasin and , Si Sa Ket Provinces (domestic)

Crickets Throughout Northeast Thailand

Grasshoppers Wholesale buyer Cambodia

Silkworm pupae Lao PDR, China (overseas) Rong Kluea market Petchabun Province (domestic) (Sa Kaeo Province)

Submarkets Bamboo caterpillars - Northern market North Thailand - Northeastern market - Central market - Southern market

Predaceous diving beetles Nakhon Ratchasima and Kalasin Customers Provinces (domestic)

Mole crickets North Thailand, Cambodia

Figure 15. Collection and distribution market chains for edible insects 44 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

Bamboo caterpillars Bamboo caterpillars Villagers collect Bamboo caterpillars Chiang Rai Province from Doi Wawee Lao PDR, Myanmar (Chiang Rai Province)

Packaging and processing

- Souvenir shops - Street vendors - Small shops - Restaurants - Local market - Makro supermarket

Customers

Figure 16. Bamboo caterpillar collection and distribution chain Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 45

wild species are becoming increasingly RecommendaƟ ons scarce. This has resulted in the need to import some species such as giant The ea ng and trade of edible insect water bugs, bamboo caterpillars and species in Thailand are very common grasshoppers. For species such as and developing rapidly. Edible insect grasshoppers, as long as the food species are obtained from both wild crops they consume are planted, wild harves ng and the farming of a few harvesting is unlikely to reduce species. But while the sector has populations significantly so wild developed rapidly in the last 15 years, collec on can s ll be considered it is still informal and ad hoc in sustainable. structure and prac ce. This is an industry where commercializa on has There is concern that the loss of other outpaced academic research for species from local environments could species suitable for farming and best occur from collec on pressure, which farm prac ces. Consequently, many could have undesirable eff ects vis-à-vis ques ons remain unanswered on such pest species they may control. ma ers as management, breeding, hygiene and marke ng issues. In the future if the focus of the sector moves away from wild collec on to However, the edible insect industry farm-based industry, this will take has much poten al for providing pressure off wild popula ons. It is also protein sources in the future and for important to note that insects income generation among Thai collected from the wild come with the farmers. Development and crea on associated hazard of no quality control of intensive insect farms on small and and risks such as insecticide large scales could take the pressure contamina on. Therefore, farmed off wild popula ons of insects in forest insect sources are preferable from a areas. food safety perspec ve.

Wild harvesting and insect To date, farming technology and farming prac ces have only been developed for a few species such as crickets, palm The edible insect industry was founded weevils and mealworms so there is on the wild collec on of various an urgent need to invest in research species from forest areas around and development on farming villages. Today several species are very techniques for other species that are popular with consumers and some consumed. The Thai Government 46 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

currently injects li le research funding work has been done on best prac ces into insects as a food source compared or improved methods of wild with other agricultural industries. collec on.

Knowledge gaps Another knowledge gap concerns the scope and span of the edible insect One of the problems facing the sector market in Thailand as many produc on is that it has developed ahead of and consumption data are not academic research. As a result farmers recorded. Why this informa on is not encounter problems for which available is because the no on of academic and extension workers may ‘insects as food’ is not included in have no solu ons. na onal food data surveys conducted by various government agencies. Universi es should be aware of this emerging sector as a future career Capital and investment issues path for students. In the future, entomology courses will not only The capital cost of se ng up an insect focus on plant protec on but also on farm is not great, but may s ll be a commercial insect produc on. constraint for some otherwise mo vated farmers. At present, it is Further research is urgently needed difficult to borrow funds at a in all stages of the produc on of edible reasonable rate for se ng up an insects and par cularly postharvest enterprise. Some fi nance ins tu ons processing. Currently, harvested are disinterested in lending as they insects are sold with li le processing. are unaware of the economics There is poten al to develop processes involved. farming has been for preserva on but as yet li le work encouraged in Thailand through the has been done. Proteins extracted SMCE scheme under the Ministry of from edible insects are likely to be of Agriculture and Co-operatives. interest to food technologists and However, villages involved in this possibly the pharmaceu cal industry. scheme have minimal involvement in other edible insect species such as Moreover, informa on about wild palm weevils and the opera on of the harves ng of insects is limited and SMCE is not truly representa ve of a incomplete. Consequently, for many cooperative in terms of profit species we cannot be sure if collec on distribu on. pressure is at sustainable or unsustainable levels. In addi on, li le Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 47

Ideally, the lead should be taken by to create demand and raise interest government agricultural lenders, as among potential farmers and they can infl uence the development consumers. and loca on of insect farms based on their lending policy. But to date, the Although many people in Thailand agriculture banks are mainly unaware consume insect products, the market of the insect-farming industry and its is s ll rela vely small. There is great poten al. poten al to increase consump on demand through marke ng campaigns To raise the profi le of insect farming, aimed at segments of the popula on ideally an external organiza on such who are currently unaware of edible as FAO needs to raise the issue with insect products. Some processing and regional governments and poten al product development may be needed, leaders. Once awareness and but if undertaken along with clever understanding of the industry’s adver sing, both demand and prices poten al as a new or alterna ve could rise for the producers. Instant supplier of food protein are generated, products, new foods and microwavable funding is likely to fl ow into research, items will all appeal to young and processing and banking agencies middle class consumers. associated with the new industry. Policy-maker awareness The other possible boost to the industry could come from venture As men oned earlier, scant data on capital from a commercial operator the edible insect industry are gathered to fund research into processing and by Thai Government agencies. other aspects of insect produc on. Consequently, the extent and poten al of the insect food industry is largely Public education and overlooked by policy-makers. There marketing is a need to raise awareness of the growth and poten al of the edible There is a need to raise the profi le of insect sector amongst policy-makers edible insects among the public and to promote and guide future for farmers who may wish to become development and channel funding involved. Some promo on has been into research into key areas such as done already by the government for best management prac ces, food cricket farming in the SMCE, but more safety issues, promotion and widespread marke ng and promo on interna onal trade. of this new sector would be benefi cial 48 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

farmed insects are a major risk for the Conclusion industry. The current lack of The collec on of edible insects in government involvement in the Thailand is an historic prac ce, but promo on of the industry is seen as their farming is relatively new. a major weakness. Edible insects have Incomplete informa on na onwide huge poten al as a protein source indicates a growing and healthy with signifi cance both domes cally market. However, knowledge gaps and interna onally in helping to feed regarding sustainable wild collec on the burgeoning global popula on. and best management prac ces for Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 49

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Appendix 1. Insect species eaten in Northeast Thailand (source: RaƩ anapan 2000)

Order/Family/common name Scien fi c name

COLEOPTERA Bupres dae Metallic wood-boring beetles Sternocera aequisignata Saunders S. rufi cornis Saunders Cerambycidae Long-horned beetles Aeolesthus sp. Apriona germai Hope Aristobia approximator Thomson Dorysthenes buque Guérin-Méneville Plocaederus obesus Gahan P. rufi cornis Newman Curculionidae Snout beetles Arrhines hiruts Faust Arrhines spp. Astycus gestvoi Marshall Cnaphoscapus decoratus Faust Episomus sp. Genus near Deiradorrhinus Hypomeces squamosus F. Pollendera atomaria Motschulsky Sepiomus aurivilliusi Faust Tanymeces sp. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier Hydrophilidae Water scavenger beetles Hydrobiomorpha spinicollis Eschscholtz Hydrophilus bilineatus Redtenbacher Sternolophus rufi pes F. Dy scidae Predaceous diving beetles Erectes s cus L. Cybister tripunctatus asia cus Sharp C. limbatus F. C. rugosus MacLeay Hyda cus rhantoides Sharp Laccophilus pulicarius Sharp Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 53

Copelatus sp. Rhanta cus congestus Klug Scarabaeidae Rhinoceros beetles, elephant beetles Xylotrupes gideon L. Oryctes rhinoceros L. June beetles Adoretus spp. Agestrata orichalca L. Anomala anguliceps Arrow A. an que Gyllenhal A. chalcites Sharp A. cupripes Hope A. pallida F. Apogonia sp. Chaetadoretus cribratus White Holotrichia spp. Maladera sp. Pachnessa sp. Protae a sp. Sophrops absceussus Brenske S. bituberculatus Moser S. rotundicollis T. Ihto Sophrops spp. Sophrops species mean abscessus Brenske Tribe Sericini 7 spp. Dung beetles Aphodius (Pharaphodius) crenatus Harold A. (Pharaphodius) marginellus F. A. (Pharaphodius) putearius Rei er A. (Pharaphodius) sp. Cathasius birmanicus Lansberge C. molossus L. Copris (s.str.) carinicus Gillet C. (s.str.) nevinsoni Waterhouse C. (Paracopris) punctulatus Gillet C. (Microcopris) refl exus F. C. (Paracopris) sp. Gymnopleurus melanarius Harold Heliocopris bucephalus F. Heteronychus lioderes Redtenbacher Liatongus (Paraliatongus) rhadamitus F. 54 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

Oni s niger Lansberge O. subopagus Arrow Onthophagus orientalis Harold O. avoce a Arrow O. bonasus F. O. khonmiinitnoi Masumoto O. papulatus Boucomont O. sagi arius F. O. seniculus F. O. ragoides Boucomont O. tragus F. O. tricornis Weidemannn O. trituber Weidemannn Onthophagus sp. HEMIPTERA Belostoma dae Water bug Diplonychus sp. Giant water bug Lethocerus indicus Lepele er & Sepville Coriedae Leaf-footed bug Anoplocnemis phasiana F. S nk bug Homoeocerus sp. Gerridae Water strider Cylindrostethus scrutator Kirkaldy Nepidae Water scorpions Laccotrephes rubber L. Ranatra longipes thai Lansbury R. varripes Stal. Notonec dae Backswimmers Anisops barbutus Brooks A. bouvieri Kirkaldy Tessaratomidae S nk bugs Pygopaltys sp. Tessaratoma papillosa Drury T. javanica Thunberg ODONATA Aeshnidae Darner (nymph) Aeshna sp. Coenagrionidae Narrow-winged damselfl y (nymph) Ceriagrion sp. Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 55

Corduliidae Green-eyed skimmer (nymph) Epophtalmia vi gera bellicose Lie inck Libellulidae Common skimmer Rhyothemis sp. HYMENOPTERA Apidae Bees Apis dorsata F. A. fl orea F. Formicidae Weaver ants Oecophylla smaragdina F. Carebara castanea Smith Vespidae Wasps Vespa affi nis indosinensis Perez ORTHOPTERA Short-horned grasshoppers Acrida cinerea Thunberg Acrida sp. Chondacris rosea DeGeer Chor ppus sp. Cyrtacanthacris tatarica L. Duce a japonica Thunberg Locusta migratoria L. Mecopoda elongate L. Oxya sp. Parapleurus sp. Patanga japonica Bolivar P. succincta L. Shirakiacris shirakii Trilophidia annulata Thunberg Atractomorphidae Short-horned grasshopper Atractomorpha sp. Catantopidae Short-horned grasshopper Ratanga avis Rehn et Rehn Crickets Teleogryllus testaceus Walker T. mitratrus Burmeister Teleogryllus sp. Modicogryllus confi rmatus Walker Brachytrupes portentosus Lichtenstein 56 Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand

Gryllus bimaculatus DeGeer Gryllus sp. Gymnogryllus spp. Pteronemobius sp. Velarifi ctorus sp. Gryllotalpidae Mole cricket Gryllotalpa africana microphtalma Chopard Man dae Man ds Tenodera ariddifolia sinensis Saussure Man s religiosa L. Te rigidae Pygmy grasshopper Euparate x sp. Te goniidae Long-horned grasshoppers Euconocephalus incertus Walker Conocephalus maculatus LeGuillou Conocephalus sp. Onomachus sp. Pseudophyllus tan White Homeoxipha sp. ISOPTERA Termes dae Termite Macrotermes gilvus Hagen Bombycidae Silkworm moth Bombyx mori L. Hesperidae Skipper Erionata thrax thrax L. Pyralidae Bamboo caterpillar Omphisa fuscidentalis Hampson HOMOPTERA Chremis ca sp. Dundubia sp. Orientopsaltria sp. Platylomia sp. Six-legged livestock: edible insect farming, collecting and marketing in Thailand 57

Appendix 2. Insect species eaten in upper Southern Thailand (source: Lumsa-ad 2001)

Order/Family/common name Scien fi c name COLEOPTERA Curculionidae Snout beetles Hypomesus squamosus F. Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier Hydrophilidae Water scavenger beetles Hydrophilus sp. Dy scidae Cybister sp. Predaceous diving beetles Scarabaeidae Apogonia sp June beetles Lepidiota s gma F. HEMIPTERA Belostoma dae Giant water bug Lethocerus indicus Lepele er & Sepville Cicadidae Dundubia intermerata Walker ODONATA Libellulidae Common skimmer Rhyothemis sp. HYMENOPTERA Apidae Bees Apis fl orae F. Formicidae Weaver ants Oecophylla smaragdina F. Ants Carebara lignata Vespidae Wasps Vespa affi nis indosinensis Perez ORTHOPTERA Acrididae Short-horned grasshoppers Chondacris rosea burnneri Uv. Gryllidae Crickets Teleogryllus testaceus Walker Gryllus bimaculatus Degeer Gryllotalpidae Mole cricket Gryllotalpa africana Pal LEPIDOPTERA Bombycidae Bombyx mori L. Hesperiidae Erionota thrax thrax L.