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Chapter 3 Conservation

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3.1. Threats to Orchids and their Habitats As the largest family (over 25,000 species), the orchids are considered to have the highest rate of speciation, the highest rate of extinctions and the most rare species of any plant family (Molvray et al 2000). There is plenty of anecdotal evidence of how many of the remaining uncleared orchid habitats have substantially declined in quality throughout the WA wheatbelt, especially due to weeds, salinity and drought. Threats to the survival, growth and reproduction of orchids are listed in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 and illustrated in Figures 3.1 to 3.3. These most often include loss of suitable habitat, disturbance, grazing by animals, salinity, weeds and inappropriate fire.

Figure 3.1 provides examples of animals feeding on orchids, that can have a major impact on flowering and seed dispersal. A case study by Petit and Dickson (2005) established that the South Australian orchid ( behrii) survived best where protected from animal grazing by the grass-tree Xanthorrhoea semiplana, but this also resulted in a lower frequency of pollination. Other past examples of disturbance were use of tubers as a food source by indigenous people (Low 1989) and disturbance by animal diggings (native digging animals are now much rarer, but feral pigs are an increasing problem). Trampling of orchid habitats by orchid enthusiast can also have a major impact on soil quality and plant health near rare orchids (Light and MacConaill 2008). As shown in Figure 3.4, grazing of flowers and seed capsules are major threats to some rare orchids.

There already seems to have been major impacts due to climate change, especially in the drier parts of the eastern wheatbelt, due to the relationship between rainfall and orchid flowering (Chapter 1). In many recent years a very late start to the growing seasons has impacted severely on autumn flowering orchids (e.g. Fig. 5.5). There are also prominent examples of tree decline in WA linked to groundwater drawdown or Phytophthora dieback disease.

Table 3.1. The Main Global Threats to Orchids and their Relevance to Western Australia

Factor* Western Australia Rural land clearing Very high Habitat fragmentation Very severe Urban development Very high Logging Moderate Mining Moderate Weed invasion Very high Animal grazing Very high Common and the impact of autumn, winter and early spring fires is Fire believed to be damaging Salinity High Collecting for horticultural trade Low Two Endangered West Australian orchids Amateur collection Some occurs ▲▲ Caladenia graniticola the Granite Spider occurs on granite rocks in a few locations in the eastern Consumable orchids Aboriginal use was significant wheatbelt of WA *Threats listed by Hágsater and Dumont (1996) ▲ Caladenia williamsiae the William’s Spider is a small orchid restricted to one nature reserve in the wheatbelt of WA 35 Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation 36

It has often been observed that populations of orchids are not static but tend to fluctuate as orchids A B relocate to other locations within habitats. This may be a consequence of their fungi using up resources in one location while becoming established in other areas. In other cases, changes to habitat can be linked to orchid decline (e.g. weeds, grazing, etc. as explained above). Thus we need to conserve both current and potential future habitats for orchids within a landscape mosaic.

Land clearing is one of the greatest threats to orchids as it not only destroys their habitats but also isolates remnant patches of habitat so the probability of successful seed dispersal declines. Unfortunately the southwest of WA has sustained some of the highest levels of land clearing and fragmentation in Australia (Fig. 3.3A). Vegetation fragmentation is spatial separation of vegetation remnants by cleared or altering adjacent land. In addition to the total loss of habitats due to land clearing, there are also severe threatening processes that occur in the remaining habitats of orchids C D (Table 3.2). Of particular concern is the risk of rising saline groundwater for orchids growing in highly cleared catchments in close proximity to salt-lakes (Fig. 3.2I). In WA, major threats to orchids and other rare flora include (i) habitat factors including altered hydrology, salinity and drought, (ii) various types of disturbance by people, (iii) altered fire regimes, (iv) grazing by feral animals and (v) competition by weeds (Brown et al 1998).

In Perth, the biggest impact has been land clearing, as many of the places where orchids used to flower in profusion in Perth have been lost to urban sprawl (Fig. 3.3B). The remaining woodland habitats near Perth often have a high weed cover which impacts on orchids (key weeds include Perennial Veldt Grass, Cape Tulip and Watsonia). There are also many annual weeds that are becoming increasingly common in urban bushland and also compete directly with orchids for space. Weed impacts are often worse in damplands, which are key orchid habitats. E F G

Table 3.2. Major Causes of Orchid Mortality

Factor References Grazing by vertebrates such as rabbits and McKendrick 1995, Kéry & Gregg 2004, Petit and Dickson kangaroos 2005, Coates et al 2006, Faast et al 2011, Brundrett 2011

Grazing by invertebrates such as insects or snails Scade et al 2006

Disturbance causing loss of habitat or reduction in Brown et al 1998, Light and MacConaill 2005, Duncan 2012 habitat quality Human impacts due to trampling, picking, or off-road Kelly et al 2003, Light and MacConaill 2008 vehicles Increasing shade from vegetation due to land-use Willems et al 2001, Shefferson et al 2005, Wotavová et al change 2004, Kull and Hutchings 2006

Habitat fragmentation by land clearing Murren 2002, Newman et al 2013 Figure 3.1. Orchid Grazing by Insects and Larger Animals AB. Seed eating caterpillars from within seedpods of the Cowslip Orchid (Caladenia flava). C. Wholly Weed competition McKendrick 1995, Scade et al 2006 Bear Caterpillar (Anthema sp.) grazing on leaves of the Carousel Spider (Caladenia arenicola) in Climate - changes in rainfall and temperature Wotavová et al 2004, Kéry et al 2005, Light & MacConaill urban bushland. D. Aphids damaging a hammer orchid flower Drakaea( glyptodon). E. Wholly Bear 2005, Pfiefer et al 2006 Caterpillar feeding on Banded Greenhood (Pterostylis sanguinea). F. Weevil feeding on seedpods of a leek orchid (Prasophyllum sp.). G. Grazing of the rare Ballerina Orchid (Caladenia melanema) by larger animals (kangaroos or rabbits). 37 Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation 38 3.2. Orchids, Fire and Disturbance A B Orchids of Western Australia (Brown et al 2008) lists 48 species of orchids that flower predominantly after a hot summer fire and there are many others that flower more prolifically following fire. One of the most dramatic responses to fire is by the Red Beak(Pyrorchis nigricans) which very rarely flowers without fire, but is our commonest flowering orchid in a wide range of habitats (Chapter 18).

The abundance of flowering orchids after fire is expected to provide a great opportunity for seed set and dispersal in open landscapes, but may also have a downside if frequent fires are reducing the quality of habitats. The greatest negative impact of fire in natural habitats typically is increased weed invasion and a dense understory plant cover, especially of annual grasses, that compete directly with orchids (see Fig. 3.2D). In addition, autumn or winter fires could kill orchids, if C D E they are burnt while in active growth and have yet to form new tubers. Responses to hot fires are complex, as some species are stimulated by fire and others are reduced in numbers or eliminated in the short term (Duncan 2012).

The optimal flowering interval for fire-responsive orchids is unknown, but presumably fire responsive orchids need at least one suitable fire in their lifetime to produce seed. However, some of these orchids can also reproduce vegetatively and form large colonies that persist for many decades. In the case of these long-lived clonal orchids, optimal fire frequencies could be measured in decades or even centuries. Increasing the frequency of flowering by decreasing fire intervals is not necessarily good for orchids, as flowering and seed set can result in reduced vigour of individuals in subsequent years (Primack and Stacy 1998, Willems and Dorland 2000).

The presence of particular fungi and insects as well as soil, vegetation and climate define habitats for orchids. Key soil characteristics include texture, soil moisture and coarse organic matter - a key resource for orchids and their fungi. The strong association between orchid fungi and coarse soil organic matter and leaf litter requires further investigations, as these resources are depleted in F G many WA habitats due to frequent fires (Brundrett et al 2003). Fungus baiting with orchid seeds (Chapter 2) has shown that fungal activity is concentrated in coarse organic matter and surface litter. This implies that orchids may be most common in areas where litter accumulates under overstorey vegetation and this is certainly the case for some orchids, but others prefer open areas.

Some WA orchids are ineffective at spreading to new habitats after disturbance, while others rapidly colonise these habitats, presumably because of effective seed dispersal coupled with the presence of compatible mycorrhizal fungi (Collins et al 2005). Unfortunately, disturbance or high fire frequency most often seems to result in the dominance of alien weeds at the expense of orchids and other native in most habitats (Fig. 3.2F). H I

Figure 3.2. Threats in Orchid Habitats ► AC. Bushfire impacts in urban bushland in Perth. B. Severe disturbance by feral pigs to habitat of the Elegant Spider (Caladenia elegans) (arrow) required fencing for management. D. Increased dominance of weeds after fire in a nature reserve with the Clubbed Spider (Caladenia longiclavata). E. Competition by grassy weeds (Brizia major) has a major impact on some populations of the rare Northampton Greenhood (Pterostylis sinuata) (arrow). F. Example of urban bushland with very high weed cover. G. Tracks from off-road vehicles in a damp forest area containing a rare orchid. H. Trampling of vegetation (arrow) surrounding orchids by wildflower enthusiasts in Perth. I. Degradation of habitat of the Hinged Dragon (Caladenia drakeoides) due to increasing soil salinity. 39 Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation 40

J K The mignonette orchid (Microtis media) and South African orchid (Disa bracteata) are our best known weedy orchids. The former is often found in open, highly disturbed situations such as lawn edges, garden beds, drains, weedy road reserves and tree plantations and is less common in undisturbed ecosystems. The later has a reputation as weed of garden beds and nursery plants where it has an affinity for mulch and organic potting mixes. These two orchids are usually the first to invade new habitats such as rehabilitated minesites and are well adapted to these habitats due to their capacity for self-pollination and their compatibility with a wider diversity of fungi than most other orchids (Collins et al 2005, Bonnardeaux et al 2007). Indeed, the study of Jarrahdale minesite by Margaret Collins et al (2005) was able to separate orchids that colonise new habitats rapidly, from those that do so more slowly or not at all. In addition to the weedy orchids Microtis media and L M Disa bracteata, snail and greenhood orchids (Pterostylis spp.) and the Cowslip Orchid (Caladenia flava) were the first to recover after mining. Surprisingly several of the commonest orchids of the , the Blue Lady Orchid (Thelymitra crinita) and Red Beaks (Pyrorchis nigricans), failed to colonise new forests altogether in the first 25 years. Other orchids that occur in semi-disturbed habitats within Perth include the Pink Fairy (Caladenia latifolia), the Dancing Spider (Caladenia discoidea) and the Blue Sun Orchid (Thelymitra macrophylla).

3.3. Conserving Rare Orchids The majority of West Australian orchids are fairly common in their particular habitats. However, Figure 3.2. Threats to Orchid Habitats (continued) you may also encounter some of the 40 species of orchids from this region that are very rare, J. Clearing of natural vegetation for urban expansion in Perth. K. Drainage of a wetland that contained so are listed as threatened and protected by legislation (Rare Flora). There were also 55 Priority a rare donkey orchid (Diuris purdei) for urban development. Severe example of Phytophthora dieback Flora orchids listed as of 2009 that are not currently protected by legislation but are thought to in the jarrah forest. M. Rising saline groundwater linked to land clearing in the wheatbelt. be rare or threatened and require further survey to ascertain their status (Fig. 3.5). There are also many more poorly known or recently recognised orchids which have yet to be fully assessed for rarity. Most rare orchids are endemic to a single habitat type and most are also restricted to a small geographical area (Table 3.3). For example the entire area where the Lonely Hammer Orchid (Drakaea isolata) grows is not much bigger than a sports stadium such as Subiaco Oval (Table A B 3.4). It is generally believed that the requirement for both a particular mycorrhizal fungus and 100 100 ) relatively specific insect pollinators helps explain why some rare orchids are restricted to small ( % 80 80 areas of habitats, despite having wind-dispersed seeds (Chapter 2). tion 60 60 get a e

V

40 40 Threats to rare orchid populations can be addressed by conservation actions in the field (Coates ining

a and Atkins 2001). These “recovery actions” require surveys and monitoring to measure the size 20 20 Re m Vegetation remaining (%) of known populations, as well as attempts to locate new populations of and habitat management

0 0 actions such as fencing to reduce grazing impacts. Examples of recovery plans for rare WA orchids

that identify threats and propose management options are available on the DPaW website (www. Mallee Warren Marine Wetlands dpaw.wa.gov.au). These actions require collaboration between community groups and conservation Jarrah Forest DandaraganPlateauGingin Scarp Avon Wheatbelt Pinjarra Plain FoothillsHill (RidgeShelf) Swan Coastal Plain SpearwoodQuindalup Dunes Dunes scientists, as well as landowners and funding sources. The abundance of rare plants in WA (>2300 BassendeanPinjarraBassendean Dunes/ Plain Dunes Geraldton Sandplains taxa) has resulted in major gaps in the knowledge and the capacity required to protect threatened species (West Australian Auditor General 2009).

Figure 3.3. Land Clearing Impacts in Southwest Western Australia The first priority for rare orchids is to conduct regular surveys that estimate the size of populations A. Land clearing, primarily for agriculture, has had a major impact on the entire southwest region and the condition of habitats. From 2007 to 2011, he Wheatbelt Orchid Rescue (WOR) project (Commonwealth of Australia 2002). These data are for IBRA regions as shown in Figure 1.4. conducted surveys with the Department of Environment and Conservation (DEC) and volunteers B. Loss of native vegetation due to urbanisation on the Swan Coastal Plain near Perth. Data for major landform elements from the Local Biodiversity Program in 2013 (pbp.walga.asn.au/Publications). from the WA Native Orchid Study and Conservation Group (WANOSCG) (Fig. 3.6). These surveys provided comprehensive data on numbers of flowering and nonflowering individuals 41 Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation 42

Table 3.3. Examples of Population and Habitat Sizes for Endangered Orchids and the area of habitat occupied by endangered orchids (see Table 3.3). In addition to surveying the size and area of populations, vital statistics data for orchids was also gathered annually from Orchid Number of Estimated total Habitat Area populations plants (ha) permanent monitoring plots to determine annual variations in plant numbers, flowering, seed set Ballerina orchid Caladenia melanema 3 5000+ 1.2 and predation, as shown in Figure 3.4. In the case of the Ballerina Orchid (Caladenia melanema), high rates of grazing were identified as a major risk by the WOR project using transect data (40% Granite spider orchid Caladenia graniticola 5 450 5 of plants and most of the seed was eaten). This impact was then addressed by DEC who erecting William’s spider orchid Caladenia williamsiae 1 450 1 fenced enclosures in areas where orchid densities were highest (Fig. 3.7E).

Lonely hammer orchid Drakaea isolata 1 300 9 Management of rare orchids aims to reduce the risk of extinction of species by implementing

Underground orchid Rhizanthella gardneri 5 500? 32 actions to manage risks such as grazing, weed invasion and habitat degradation in habitats. They also may increase population size by growing orchids and translocating them back into a site to (Data are from Brundrett 2011) augment numbers in existing populations, or to establish new populations in suitable habitats. The principle method of terrestrial orchid propagation for conservation is by symbiotic germination A 60 with a compatible mycorrhizal fungus (Clements 1982, Warcup 1973, Rasmussen 1995, Brundrett 2007 2008 2009 2007). Propagation of these orchids by germination, or tissue culture on sterile media without a 50 fungus is also effective (Ramsay and Dixon 2003). When rare orchids are to be propagated, flowers are usually hand pollinated to ensure seed set (Fig. 3.7B). After collection, seeds are cleaned (Fig. 40 3.7F), dried and kept at 4°C for short-term storage or frozen in liquid nitrogen for long-term storage (Batty et al 2001b). Examples of rare WA native orchids grown from seed are provided in 30 Figures 2.1 and 2.3.

20 Short-term survival of propagated and planted orchids has been reported for several species in Number of plants Western Australia (Ramsay and Dixon 2003, Batty et al 2006, Scade et al 2006). Andrew Batty 10 (2002, 2006) and Nigel Swartz (2009) describe examples of translocation attempts for Critically Endangered orchids, but long-term monitoring of survival rates for these orchids is still required. 0 Figure 3.7GH provide other examples of rare orchid translocated as part of the Wheatbelt Orchid Leaves Flowers Grazed Seed Rescue Project. This project utilised help from volunteers in the Friends of Kings Park Orchid Carers group to propagate orchids (Fig. 3.6EFG). Volunteers from Australian Native Orchid Study B 2 Group of Victoria also propagate orchids for conservation in collaboration with the Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment (Fig. 3.6H).

1

0

Declared Rare Figure 3.5. The Proportion -1 Flora (11%) of Rare Orchids in WA 2007 2008 2009 Data are from Florabase -2 (florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au) 0 5 10 15 Priority Flora accessed in 2009. m (15%)

Figure 3.4. Vital Statistics Data for a Very Rare Orchid Seasonal variations in emergence and reproduction by the Granite Spider (Caladenia graniticola) measured during the Wheatbelt Orchid Rescue Project (Brundrett 2011). A. Three years of data on Not Rare numbers of plants with a leaf only or with a leaf and flowers and plants that set seed or are grazed. (74%) B. The relative position of plants in a 20 x 2 m area revealed that most plants only emerged once over three years. 43 Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation 44

A B A B C

D C D

E F

E F

Karen Clarke G H G H

Figure 3.6. Volunteers have Key Roles in Rare Orchid Conservation Figure 3.7. Examples of Work to Conserve Rare Orchids ABCD. Surveys by members of the West Australian Native Orchid Conservation and Study Group, for A. Permanent transect used to monitor a population of the rare Granite Spider (Caladenia the Wheatbelt Orchid Rescue Project. Surveys aimed to count and record locations for all orchids in graniticola). B. Hand pollination to ensure seed set of the Granite Spider. C. A seed bag protects a population. CD. Surveys counted rare orchids such as the Granite Spider (Caladenia graniticola). developing seed of the Ballerina Orchid (Caladenia melanema). D. Processing seed of the Granite EFG. Volunteers in the Friends of Kings Park Orchid Carers Group propagating rare orchids for Spider. E. Fence used to protect the Ballerina Orchid from grazing. F. The Author processing orchid the Wheatbelt Orchid Rescue Project. H. Australasian Native Orchid Society of Victoria members seeds from seed bags. G. Establishing an orchid translocation trial. H. Seedlings of the Ballerina propagating native orchids for conservation and collections (www.anosvic.org.au). Orchid re-emerge the following year after translocation. Text copyright © Mark Brundrett 2014 except where otherwise stated.

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A User-friendly Guide ISBN: 978-0-9925905-0-5

Edition 1.0. First published 2014

Published by Western Australia Naturalists’ Club Inc., Perth Western Australia PO Box 8257, Perth Business Centre 6849. www.wanaturalists.org.au

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www.wanaturalists.org.au iii Identification and Ecology of Southwest Australian Orchids iv Table of Contents Chapter 17: Hammer, Flying Duck and Elbow Orchids...... 234 17.1. Hammer Orchids ...... 236 Acknowledgements...... xi 17.2. Flying Duck Orchids...... 247 Foreword ...... xii . 17.3. Elbow Orchid ...... 257 Abbreviations, Terms and Symbols ...... xiii Chapter 18: Beak Orchids ...... 260 Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 2 . Chapter 19: Slipper Orchid ...... 266 1.1. The Diversity of Orchids. 2 Chapter 20: Sun and Babe-in a-cradle Orchids ...... 268 1.2. Orchid Habitats...... 4 20.1. Blue Sun Orchids . 271 1.3. Orchid Flowering Times . 7 20.2. Crested Sun Orchids . 275 1.4. Iconic West Australian Species...... 9 20.3. Striped Sun Orchids...... 277 Chapter 2: Orchid Biology and Ecology ...... 12 . 20.4. Yellow Sun Orchids ...... 281 2.1. Why Orchids are Unique . 12 20.5. Brown Sun Orchids ...... 283 2.2. Orchids and Mycorrhizal Fungi . 15 20.6. Spotted Sun Orchids. 289 2.3. Orchid Reproduction and Seasonal Growth ...... 17 20.7. Spiral Leaf Sun Orchids...... 292 2.4. Pollination of Orchids...... 21 20.8. Babe-in-a-cradle...... 299 2.5. How Pollination Works ...... 25 Chapter 21: Beard Orchids...... 302 Chapter 3: Orchid Conservation ...... 34 Chapter 22: Mignonette Orchids...... 306 3.1. Threats to Orchids and their Habitats . 34 Chapter 23: Leek and Pygmy Orchids...... 318 3.2. Orchids, Fire and Disturbance ...... 37 23.1. Leek Orchids. 318 3.3. Conserving Rare Orchids...... 40 23.2: Pygmy Orchid...... 335 Chapter 4: Safe and Ethical Orchid Viewing ...... 46. Chapter 24: Donkey Orchids ...... 338 4.1. Safe and Effective Orchid Hunting...... 46 24.1. Pansy Orchids . 341 4.2. Protecting Orchids and their Habitats . 47 24.2. Bee Orchids...... 348 4.3. Orchid Photography . 48 24.3. Late Flowering Donkeys . 351 4.4. Where to See Orchids and Find Information...... 50 24.4. Nanny Goat Orchids . 355 Chapter 5: Identifying Orchids...... 52 Chapter 25: The South African Orchid ...... 357 5.1. Orchid Names and Diversity ...... 52 5.2. Understanding Orchid Flowers ...... 57 Chapter 26: Greenhoods ...... 360 5.3. Identifying Orchids ...... 57 26.1. The Jug Orchid. 364 5.4. Keys to Orchid Genera ...... 62 26.2. Bird Orchids...... 365 26.3. Banded Greenhoods. 368 Chapter 6: Introduction to Spider, Fairy & Dragon Orchids ...... 68 . 26.4. Midget Greenhoods...... 373 Chapter 7: Fairy Orchids ...... 72 26.5. Rufous Greenhoods...... 376 Chapter 8: King Spiders ...... 80 . 26.6. Shell Orchids ...... 383 Chapter 9: White Spiders...... 104 26.7. Snail Orchids. 391 Chapter 10: Wispy Spiders...... 124 Chapter 27: Parasitic Orchids ...... 398 27.1. Underground Orchid...... 399 Chapter 11: Other Spiders ...... 156 27.2. Potato Orchid ...... 401 11.1. Small Smooth-lipped Spiders ...... 157 11.2. Small, Fringed Spiders . 163 Chapter 28: Glossary ...... 404 11.3. Large Clubbed Spiders. 171 28.1. Orchid Biology and Ecology...... 404 11.4. Dense Calli Spiders...... 175 28.2. Orchid Flowers and Plants. 405 11.5. Hinge-lipped Green Spiders...... 178 Chapter 29: References ...... 408 . Chapter 12: Dragons ...... 184. 29.1. Introduction ...... 408 29.2. Orchid Biology and Ecology...... 408 Chapter 13: Spider Relatives ...... 190 29.3. Orchid Conservation . 411 13.1. Blue China Orchids ...... 191 29.4. Practical and Ethical Orchid Viewing ...... 413 13.2. Blue Beard Orchid . 197 29.5. Orchid Classification and Identification ...... 413 13.3. Sugar Orchid. 198 13.4. Enamel Orchids...... 200 Chapter 30: Indices ...... 418 13.5. Leafless Orchid ...... 203 Latin Names Index ...... 418 Common Names Index ...... 421 Chapter 14: Bunny Orchids ...... 206 Topics Index (Chapters 1-5)...... 423 Chapter 15: Hare and Rabbit Orchids ...... 220 Chapter 16: Helmet and Midge Orchids ...... 224 16.1. Helmet Orchids ...... 224 16.2. Midge Orchids . 230

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