Icons of Devotion/Icons of Trade Creativity and Entrepreneurship in Contemporary “Traditional” Ethiopian Painting

Home , Crosses (Andy Warhol), Ethiopian art, Gabra Manfas Qeddus

Neal Sobania and Raymond Silverman ksum is one of Ethiopia’s major tourist destinations. Although only a small town in the highlands of northern Ethiopia, it is the spiritual home of the All photos by Raymond Silverman and Neal Sobania Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) and rich in ancient monuments. Archaeologically it has been occupied since c. 350 bce. Later, c. 100–600 ce, it is where the capital of the Aksumite empire once stood, and Afrom where it dominated an area from the highlands of northern Ethiopia and southern Eritrea to the Red Sea and at times beyond. Its fine architectural stonework is plainly evident in the elite residences, tombs, and the carved stelae that dot the landscape. Coins of copper, bronze, and gold reveal the roots of an exceptional metalworking tradition, while works of stone and clay, including figurative sculpture, are evidence of a fine sculpture tradition. Not long after the introduction of Christianity to the region in the early fourth century, Aksum became a recognized center for the production of paraphernalia associated with the church. Today the production of metal objects, from censers, sistra, and horns to processional, hand, and neck crosses, continues to thrive. So too does a tradition of religious painting—illumi- nations in manuscripts, icons on wood, and large paintings on cloth destined for the walls of churches. A tradition that has been practiced for the better part of 1500 years, the paintings of the EOC have both taught and sustained the Christian faith. For those who could not read or write—which for many centuries was, and still is, the condition of most Ethiopians—the teach- ings of the church have been presented in pictorial narratives grounded in the Orthodox faith. Today, more often than not, paintings cover the walls of Ethiopian churches, and sometimes the ceilings as well (Fig. 1). Scores of metalworkers and painters in Aksum and the surrounding region remain prolific producers of such objects. Parishioners and church officials purchase and commission paintings and other religious paraphernalia directly from artists in their homes, and at religious festivals, where artists sell their work (Sobania and Silverman 2006). At the same time, the dozen or more tourist shops in Aksum are also full of their metalwork and paintings, often displayed and sold alongside much (opposite) P1 aintings on the walls, including the T rinity, older objects. The range of souvenirs for visitors is extensive. Adam and Eve, and the Crucifixion, with various There is archaeological material—primarily stone and clay figu- saints painted on the ceiling in the Church of the rative sculpture and metal coins associated with ancient Aksum, Four Animals (Arbaat Ensesa) in Aksum. 2001

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 27 11/21/2008 10:52:52 AM by the tourist industry as a cultural heritage destination and a place for adventure travel, this trade has rebounded and is once again on the verge of flourishing.2 Today, while a significant por- tion of artistic production in Aksum is still destined for use in the region’s churches, the more lucrative market for the town’s many painters and metalworkers is the foreigners who come to visit the historic town. Some of their products are also sent for sale to the tourist shops of Addis Ababa. Like many artists and artisans in Africa who originally were trained and participated in traditions that were primarily directed towards local communities, but later found other audiences for their work, Ethiopian painters, as well as metal and wood workers, participate in both of these markets. Although what they paint, carve, or fabricate is the same as what they have always produced, is what they make then art, artifact, or commodity? The recent observation of Ruth B. Phillips and Christopher Steiner, that art, artifact, and commodity should not be seen as 2 the inside of an distinct and separate categories, but must be “merged into a sin- Aksum tourist shop. 1997 gle domain where the categories are seen to inform one another rather than to compete in their claims for social primacy and cultural value” (Phillips and Steiner 1999:16), corresponds well and occasionally pre-Aksumite culture—some of it authentic, with the new directions in the spiritually grounded visual tra- some fake, but all illegal to export. Religious objects are ever- ditions of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. This observation is present, especially crosses of all shapes and sizes—neck crosses, most relevant in the context of the phenomenon we are study- hand crosses, and processional crosses of bronze, copper, iron, ing, where ecclesiastical objects function within the framework and silver. Visitors can also find a wide variety of paintings on of categories Phillips and Steiner have set forth.3 Though the new cloth, leather, or parchment, or on wood—primarily diptychs pieces being produced—be they icons, mural paintings, manu- and triptychs of various sizes—as well as jewelry—both used and script books, crosses, vestments, or a range of other objects—are new. Household objects include baskets as well as items of wood, purchased by visitors and taken home as souvenirs, artifacts, or from headrests and coffee trays carved in Ethiopia to masks from works of art, some of them are also purchased by parishioners, as far away as Ghana (Fig. 2). Many of these items are pastiches priests, and nuns for use in local churches. These works carry the or innovations created specifically for visitors to Ethiopia, such same symbolic and communicative qualities—the same “social as miniaturized grave posts from the Konso in the far south of primacy and cultural value”—as works produced solely for local the country, wood headrests decorated with beadwork, wood use in years past. For Ethiopian Orthodox Christians, these relief carvings of scenes of rural life, as well as religious paintings objects continue to have the same significance and are imbued on animal skin or set in elaborately carved wood cases. with the same spirituality they have always had, even with their Prior to the twentieth century, the liturgical objects and paint- recent appropriation by the souvenir market. ings were produced for local use in churches, or in the case of The Ethiopian Orthodox Church has a monastic tradition said metal jewelry, for individuals as adornment. The first shift in this to have begun in the late fifth and early sixth centuries with the localized production came when Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889– arrival of nine Syrian monks, each of whom founded a monas- 1913) began giving gifts of paintings to diplomats and other impor- tery (Munro-Hay 2006:131–58). Marilyn Heldman has argued tant visitors to his court. The most significant change, however, that it was in such monasteries, which once dotted the Ethio- came with the expansion of tourism in Ethiopia during the second pian landscape, that the earliest objects used in worship were half of the twentieth century. Two events in the early 1960s created first created. These practices were later refined in the royal courts an entirely new market for the makers of ecclesiastical art as well (Heldman 1998; Silverman and Sobania 2004:352–53). Royal as household objects. One was the founding of the Organization court production came to an end with the overthrow of Emperor of African Unity in Addis Ababa in 1963, which brought diplomats Haile Selassie in 1974, although remnants of a monastic pattern from across the continent and around the world to its headquar- of production are alive and well in the countryside that sur- ters in the capital. The other was the creation and marketing to rounds certain religious centers.4 This article looks at one such tourists of the “Ethiopian Historic Route” by the Ethiopian Tourist religious center, the town of Aksum, and considers the produc- Organization and Ethiopian Airlines about the same time.1 The tion of icons, including the carved wood cases in which these nascent trade in art and artifacts was dramatically curtailed dur- are painted.5 It does so by focusing on two exceptional individu- ing the reign of the Derg government (1974–1991), whose anti- als who have each played a significant role ensuring the survival Western politics discouraged foreign travel to Ethiopia. Further of these vibrant traditions—one a traditional church painter, challenges to the tourist trade came with the tensions that arose the other a successful local entrepreneur. Each in his own way following Eritrea’s independence in 1993 and the border war that is committed to upholding and maintaining the high quality of erupted in 1998. Over the past decade, with Ethiopia promoted painting and icons for which Aksum is known.

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 28 11/21/2008 10:52:56 AM An Artist’s Workshop whom are daughters, he has ensured this by sending all of them Aksum is home to many painters, but Berhanemeskel Fisseha to both public and church school. Indeed, three of his sons are (b. 1947) is arguably the leading “traditional” painter currently now deacons in the church.9 working in northern Ethiopia. Like many of the Aksum artists, his Significantly, though Berhanemeskel has produced icons, he is skills, insights, and expertise are solidly grounded in the traditions best known for, and spends most of his energy, producing paint- of the EOC, in which he serves as a deacon. He learned to paint ings on cloth. Parishioners, priests, nuns, and church officials working with his maternal grandfather, Aleqa Yohannes Teklu (c. from across the country commission his work for installation on 1883–1978), who was a priest in the EOC.6 When he creates images church walls (Fig. 4), as do businessmen for their hotels (Fig. 5), for the walls of local churches, Berhanemeskel draws upon his and on occasion, visitors to Aksum order a painting as a souvenir knowledge of paintings produced by his predecessors—especially (Fig. 6). While cloth paintings have found a place in the export his grandfather—that may also be seen on the walls of churches art market, they do not conform neatly to the criteria associated in Aksum and the surrounding countryside and also upon his with tourist art. Simply put, they are too big, ranging in length knowledge of Ethiopian Orthodox liturgical traditions, which he from 1–2 meters, so that even when rolled they present a transport acquired through a formal church education. When he paints Our challenge, and they demand a good deal of space when displayed. Lady Mary with Her Beloved Son, the Crucifixion and Resurrec- More popular are paintings on wood panels—double- and triple- tion narrative including Joseph and Nicodemus laying Christ’s panel triptychs—as well as variations on these formats. body in the tomb, events in the Life of St. Mary, an image of Saint Gabra Manfas Qeddus, or the martyrdom of a particular saint, it is A Creative Entrepreneur his training as a painter and his knowledge of the written sources Artists such as Berhanemeskel and those he has trained in that ensures his visual representation of these individuals and nar- his studio are not the painters creating most of the paintings ratives are recognized by Orthodox Christians. that one encounters in the tourist shops of Aksum. Although As he describes how he learned to paint, Berhanemeskel on occasion one of their works may turn up there, most of the states, “I grew up with him [Aleqa Yohannes] ... He would paint paintings found in the tourist shops are produced by young (and and I would sketch what he did.”7 Sketching at that time, how- a few not-so-young) men who sell their work directly to the ever, was done without benefit of pencil and paper, but instead shop owners. The most successful shop owners often work very in what Berhanemeskel laughingly calls “the culture of the closely with a group of painters, in effect establishing a kind of blackboard,” except that his blackboard was a large magogo, a workshop. These workshops are not physical spaces, but instead large, round pottery tray.8 As it is used, the surface of a magogo a collection of painters who, because the shop owner regularly becomes rough and is made smooth again by a thin coating of buys what they paint and may even provide them with the nec- meat fat (sebhi-hii). When covered with ash from the cooking essary paint, brushes, and wooden cases in which icons will be fire, the ash settles into the fat and a stick can be used to “sketch,” painted, have a degree of high loyalty to the shopkeeper. One of removing the ash and fat so the dark color of the magogo shows the most successful of these individuals is Hailemariam Zerue, through. When it was time to make another sketch, he would who in 1992, as a young, creative entrepreneur, opened a sou- “erase” the magogo by again coating it with fat and ash. Later venir shop in a prime location opposite what was then Axum he helped Aleqa Yohannes sketch the compositions for paint- Touring Hotel.10 Born in the 1960s, from a very early age Haile- ings on cloth that had been stretched on a wood frame. But the first task Berhanemeskel learned he says is the easiest—filling in with paint the larger spaces between the lines that Aleqa 3 berhanemeskel Fisseha’s son, Haileselassie, Yohannes had already sketched on the cloth. Indeed, we have painting on one of his father’s commissioned mural church paintings. 1997 watched several of Berhanemeskel’s children do this from the age of eight or nine on their father’s paintings (Fig. 3). After this, Berhanemeskel says, the next easiest task is sketching (nidife). The two most difficult painting techniques associated with the representation of humans are sibri (the rendering of folds and drapes in clothing) and wuz (the shading that features promi- nently in the depiction of faces). Once a young painter gradu- ates from filling in the large spaces between the sketch lines of his master, the training is embedded in practice—sketch, sketch, and sketch again, and only later, paint, and then do it again. Ber- hanemeskel, as a master artist, plays an important role training the next generation of painters. The studio space that fronts Ber- hanemeskel’s home, where he does his own painting, also serves as a traditional workshop. Here he has trained many emerging painters, who learn their skills as apprentices. Equally important to Berhanemeskel is that the painters he trains attain the neces- sary religious knowledge that comes with a church education. In the case of his own children who he has trained to paint, two of

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 29 11/21/2008 10:53:12 AM 4 paintings by Berhanemeskel Fisseha in the church of Enda Iyesus of St. Mary with Her Beloved Son, and scenes from the Passion, the Deposition (left) and Resurrection (far right). 2001

(opposite) 5 A commissioned painting by Berhanemeskel Fisseha from his series about the story of the Queen of Sheba, showing the Emperor Menelik I returning to Aksum with the Ark of the Covenant. This series decorated the dining room of the Axum Touring Hotel until 2003. 2002

6 A commissioned painting by Berhanemeskel Fisseha presenting his interpretation of how the stelae at Aksum were raised. 1997

mariam focused his attention on producing souvenirs for visitors it is critically important that the depiction of Jesus, St. Mary, the to his town. Initially he worked with his elder brother making a Trinity, a saint, or a Biblical narrative be recognizable to all the variety of objects, especially stone carvings that he hawked on churchgoers who see it. In the context of icon production, the the streets to tourists. From this firsthand experience he learned one place where there is room for innovation and creative design about the fierce competition for tourist dollars and to place great is in the carving of the wood case in which the painting is set. emphasis on creativity. Hailemariam loves to talk about the new Details such as the type of wood, depth of carving, innovations in things he has commissioned or is thinking about, and conversa- design, and the shape and number of “window” openings on the tions, regardless of where they begin, often end with his show- outside of the cases are today all highly valued. This, of course, ing us examples of something new. It is his firm belief that he makes good sense since the quality of the cases and uniqueness always needs “new” products to entice tourists to patronize his in their design impacts Hailemariam’s bottom line. High-quality shop. Hailemariam equates these new products with success and cases, finely carved in local hard, difficult-to-carve olive wood, attributes his success to his creativity and his dedication to inno- cost him more to purchase from carvers. To make this added vation in their creation. Since he has one of the most successful expense worth his while, Hailemariam in turn requires a higher businesses in Aksum, it is hard to argue with him. He under- quality of painting in these cases since he must ask, and can usu- stands that if one is not out in front of the market, one soon falls ally receive, a higher price for these finished icons in his shop. It behind and it is not easy to catch up. is also worth his while to pay a higher price for these more finely What for Hailemariam constitutes an innovation has less to do carved cases since doing so helps him maintain a relationship with the painting and more to do with the context in which it is with the better carvers, who will then come to him first when presented. This is of necessity since in Ethiopian church paint- selling their work. For example, a priest from Tembien, Qes Kel- ing artists have limited opportunity for originality or creativity. lem, who is an especially fine carver, comes to Aksum for reli- Based upon long-established ecclesiastical canons and traditions, gious festivals and brings his work to Hailemariam to give him paintings for churches not only create an aura of sacredness and first right of refusal (Fig. 7). In 2001, Qes Kellem brought nearly offer a focus for veneration, they also serve a didactic role provid- two dozen diptych cases to Aksum, and Hailemariam bought ing worshippers with the model of a proper Christian life. Thus them all, later distributing some of them to painters with whom

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 30 11/21/2008 10:53:17 AM he regularly works. Innovation in Tradition Many of the objects sold in the tourist shops are often assumed A tabot, or more correctly the manbara tabot, is the container by visitors to be “authentic” and of considerable age, but they maintained in the maqdas, the sanctuary or innermost section of are instead based on long-established local prototypes that are an Ethiopian church, in which a stone or wood tablet is placed altered using various techniques to make them look old and used that has carved into its surface the name of the saint to whom (Fig. 8). As many of the painters have told us, they make them the church is dedicated, for example, St. Mary, St. George, or St look old because this is what the tourists want (cf. Steiner 1994). Michael. Thetabots that are elaborately painted and sold to tour- As already noted, one of the factors Hailemariam considers most ists look nothing like a proper manbara tabot. They are in fact important in his efforts to keep ahead of the competition and to miniature representations of the maqdas, and like the walls out- attract tourists to his shop is to have new and unique objects for side of this most holy of holy part of an Ethiopian church, are sale. This seems to have been a theme in his life since his youth decorated with paintings. Produced by carvers, some are square when he first began to carve stone. For example, where boys once in construction and others are round, as are the maqdas in Ethi- carved images of one of Aksum’s famous standing stela, today opian churches (Fig. 9). Although called a “tabot” such an object they create small representations of the stelae park, complete is not consecrated and not a religious object. However, the paint- with standing and fallen stelae and an archway. Where the carvings that adorn it are no different than those painted as an icon ing of a stela was once the tradition, today the more elaborate for religious purposes; the images retain their same symbolic stelae park model is considered traditional among these souve- significance and communicative properties and are recognizable nirs. In a similar way, icons were traditionally painted on a wood by Orthodox Christians. Today, no tourist shop is without one or board, or in either a diptych or double diptych case.11 Developing more of these tabot icons. While made in varying sizes, and usu- new designs for wood icon cases is one of the initiatives in which ally of wood, small tabot icons can also be found cast in metal or Hailemariam has most recently been involved, as have many of carved in stone. Whether square or round, of one or two stories, the wood carvers in Aksum. Examples of the originality found with a cross on top or not, the primary innovation is the “door” in these new designs—setting religious imagery in tabots, hand or “window” that opens like a diptych. These openings create crosses, and bookstands (atranos)—provides a means to explore eight surfaces for painting—one on the inside of each door, and this phenomenon of innovation that is so highly prized by Haile- one inside the niche (or if the tabot icon is especially tall, with mariam, and by extension the shopkeepers of Aksum. The key sixteen surfaces). These elaborate tabots require the hand of a innovation in each of these examples is the creation of more skilled painter since the basic investment in such an intricately “windows” or openings that offer additional surfaces on which carved icon is considerable. Without a commitment to sophisti- to paint more images. The basic assumption made by Hailemar- cated workmanship, the outlay for a finely produced wood struc- iam is that the more painting an object has, the greater will be its ture is largely wasted. value and sale price. Although we have not done a market study Similarly, wood hand crosses, of the sort carried by priests and of selling prices, it is clear that such icon cases require Haile- used to bless Christians who approach them, provide another mariam, or the painters who purchase their own cases, to pay opportunity for innovation. The earliest enhancements involved the carvers more and therefore, as finished icons, must be sold carving a “window” into such a cross, creating a small diptych at a higher price. Rarely is a wood carver also a painter, although that can be painted (Fig. 10). When carved more thickly than when a wood carver creates a new and unique icon case he may normal, and carefully cut in half longitudinally, the two halves pay a painter he knows well to paint it before taking it to a shop- can be hinged so that the entire cross becomes a diptych, creat- keeper to promote its sale. ing two larger surfaces onto which images can be painted. Seek-

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 31 11/21/2008 10:53:25 AM ing still more surfaces onto which an artist can paint images, regularly ships to owners of souvenir shops in Addis with whom some carvers are also creating “windows” on the outer surfaces he has business relationships to sell to tourists who are looking of these crosses, which has the effect of creating still another dip- for a bargain. tych, and two more surfaces for painting. The number of such Nevertheless, Hailemariam holds firmly to his sense of what “windows” is only limited by size and thickness of the cross. constitutes fine painting, and is proud of the artists with whom Another innovation by the carvers is the miniaturizing of he works and the quality of the work they produce. This, after bookstands, which in their original size are used in churches to all, results in the extraordinary religious art he acquires and support the large parchment Bibles from which priests or dea- offers for sale in his shop. Particularly astute at identifying and cons read during a service. Carved from wood in this smaller cultivating talent, his skill goes beyond recognizing exceptional form, the surface on which a small book could be placed easily painting to include identifying and training artists who work in allows the carving of two “windows,” which when opened offer wood, metal, and stone. For example, when Hailemariam identi- four surfaces on which to paint. fies someone who he believes could produce fine paintings—this Carvers, painters, and shopkeepers alike know that once oth- might be someone who already is an accomplished painter, or ers see a new enhancement of an already extant tradition, or the someone who has expressed an interest in learning and seems creation of something entirely original, it will soon be copied bright, conscientious, and willing to work—he develops a rela- and become widely available in Aksum’s other tourist shops. It is tionship with the individual, providing him with the materials remarkable how quickly the competition responds by attempting he needs to paint, including pigments, brushes, cloth, and as to copy a new product. Hailemariam is resigned to this cycle of already noted, wood cases for icons.14 The most important roles inventiveness being the nature of business in Aksum, or as he said he plays are those of advisor, and in some situations, teacher, in one of our conversations, it is “all about creativity … competi- educating the painter as to how to produce work that he believes tion … creativity … competition … creativity ….”12 Not surpris- will sell. Drawing upon his own experience making objects des- ingly, to sustain the benefits of their newest creations for as long as tined for foreigners, Hailemariam understands the mindset of possible, shopkeepers often hide these new products in their back- the young men with whom he works. In contrast to the more rooms—a room at the back of the shop or upstairs reserved for the formal, studio-based workshop of Berhanemeskel, Hailemariam display of higher quality and higher priced pieces of religious art. trains and oversees young painters in a more loosely structured Thus, Hailemariam gave considerable thought to our request to relationship. Typically the painters he engages to produce for his photograph some of the works available for sale in his shop. So too shop come to him to show their work and, when it meets with did wood carvers with whom we have worked, and whose iden- his approval, to sell it, or if a new painter, to receive his critique tity a shop owner like Hailemariam carefully guards. These are the and eventually a few icon cases to paint. individuals who have the skills, knowledge, and creative energy to One artist Hailemariam was training in 2001 was Girmai produce new types and styles of objects.13 Kasai, then a boy of about twelve. Following a well-practiced As an entrepreneur, Hailemariam is focused on new products routine, Hailemariam first gave Girmai a copybook, a pencil, and innovations that he is convinced will enhance his sales in and a finished icon by one of the artists he features in his shop. Aksum’s competitive market. At the same time, however (and In the copybook Girmai sketched, but did not copy the model; for Hailemariam this is not contradictory), he is equally focused Hailemariam does not encourage direct copying because he on obtaining objects of high quality (Fig. 11). His obsession with wants to see what “style” will emerge from the student. When high quality is a part of who he is and has more to do with his the sketches progressed to a satisfactory level, Hailemariam pro- being an exceptional individual than with the demands of the vided paints, brushes, and a wood case into which Girmai could market. Indeed, this often leads to his considerable frustration transfer a sketch and produce an icon. All of this occurred under with tourists who do not recognize quality and do not have what he considers to be a proper respect for it. This surfaces most particularly when tourists will not spend serious money on a quality icon, and instead decide to wait until they get to Addis where they believe they can get something cheaper. Of course tourists often can purchase less expensive, lower-quality work in the Ethiopian capital, but it clearly is not the same as the high-quality work Hailemariam offers for sale in Aksum, leaving him to ask often “Don’t they see it?” Alas, they probably do not. Some tourists simply cannot imagine quality art coming from a small town such as Aksum, or they only want an inexpensive souvenir to take home to family and friends. As a result, Hailemariam also sells less refined icons at a lower price. These are often painted by younger, less skilled artists, and in less elaborately carved cases. In fact, it is this sort of icon, along with metal crosses, that he

7 Qes Kellem carving an icon case outside the back door of Hailemariam Zerue’s shop. 2001

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 32 11/21/2008 10:53:29 AM the watchful eye of Hailemariam, who also employed Girmai to look after the front of the shop when he was away or in the back with a customer. Sitting on a stool, Girmai painted one icon case, and then another, always receiving a detailed critique after each one, until Hailemariam liked what he saw. He then gave Girmai a dozen or so cases to paint, with the intention of selling them as less expensive icons. The training Hailemariam provides is rein- forced practice, but individualized and oriented toward the production of work that will sell. For the tourist market in Aksum, and even Addis Ababa, this means icons, because unlike large mural paintings, icons are understood to be markedly “Ethio- pian,” and of a size, even some of the largest, that can easily be packed and carried home as a souvenir. The relationship that Hailemariam establishes with a painter can last for years, or sometimes only a short time. By 2006, Girmai was no longer employed by Hailemariam. He had painted and sold an icon to another shop to try and earn more money; Hailemariam viewed this as disloyalty and ended their relationship. This is another manifestation of the keen competition that exists in Aksum, and if either party is dissatisfied with the relationship, another shopkeeper is ready to buy the work.

An Entrepreneur’s “Workshop” Two painters in Aksum with whom Hailemariam has had a particularly close working relationship are Aleqa Hailu Gebremedhin and Gard Geday. Both are extraordinarily skilled. Aleqa Hailu is now in his fifties and married with several children. He produces some of the finest work found in Hailemar- iam’s shop, both icons and mural paintings, and occasionally works on parchment. A painter since the age of twenty, and a deacon in the Church, Aleqa Hailu has produced paintings for some twenty churches including one outside Aksum in the village of Adit, others in the town of Shire, and one in the province of Gojjam (Fig. 12). When Aleqa Hailu speaks of the churches he has painted, he is not talking merely of a single commissioned painting hanging inside the church, but of having painted usually one and often two entire interior walls. For example, in Debra 8 two hand-carved icon cases; the one on the left is old, the one on right, Gabriel Church in Adit, Aleqa Hailu painted the north and south by Qes Kellem, is new. 2001 walls of the maqdas, depicting the “martyrs of the faith” and “the life of St. Mary” respectively.15 9 A “tabot” icon painted by Mebrata Yebeyin, revealing scenes of the Pas- sion: the Crucifixion (inside top) and the Resurrection (outside top). 2001 Hailemariam “discovered” Aleqa Hailu a number of years ago, when Aleqa Hailu already knew how to paint and had moved 10 An example of a wood hand cross that has been enhanced with “win- to Aksum. He began painting for Hailemariam in 1993. Their dows” to create double-diptychs for painting icon images. St. Mary with Her Beloved Son and St. George are on the top, the Resurrection and Crucifixion relationship is one of mutual respect, and Hailemariam clearly at the bottom. 2001

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 33 11/21/2008 10:53:37 AM 11 hailemariam Zerue explaining the qualities of an icon he considers particularly fine. 2001

12 Aleqa Hailu Gebramedhin painting an icon. 2001

13 Gard Geday painting a large icon depicting a Biblical narrative. 2001

admires one of Aleqa Hailu’s greatest strengths as an artist—his and Aleqa Hailu respond that they are largely self-taught. Gard skill to paint in several different styles, including an ability to says he just went to the church in Adit, where both he and Aleqa move between what Hailemariam refers to as old-style and new- Hailu are from, and began to sketch and copy. To questions about style. What he refers to as new-style draws upon variations in how he learned to paint, Gard responds, “I imitated the paint- imagery and colors that are often more vibrant, while old-style ing in the church; sketched on a smooth stone.”17 Because he had adheres more closely to the tenets associated with earlier tradi- no supporting family—his father, who was a priest, died before tions. To illustrate the old-style, Hailemariam keeps old icons Gard began to paint—and no land, Gard socialized with others that he uses as models to show artists less common religious aspiring artists in the village and “did what they did.”18 themes. He has also shown some of the painters, including Aleqa Gard began painting for Hailemariam while still living in Adit Hailu, copies of books, such as the beautifully illustrated cata- but he moved to Aksum in 1994 (Fig. 13). Gard says he prefers logue that accompanied the exhibition African Zion, which is to live in Aksum for a number of reasons, including the elec- full of photographs of historic icons (Grierson 1993). Hailemar- tricity that allows him to work and study at night and the fact iam tells painters, especially those who are more skilled, to note, that it is not rural and has more modern amenities, but he also among other things, the color schemes that are used, the style acknowledges the practicality of it: “I bring my paintings here [to in which the characters in the narratives are modeled, and the sell].”19 Whereas Aleqa Hailu is older and possesses more experi- proper positioning of the figures. He also makes it clear, how- ence as a “traditional” painter, including church commissions, ever, that they should never literally copy the images they see Gard thinks of himself as being more modern. For example, he in books. Several years ago, Hailemariam mentioned that Aleqa claims never to have copied a painting, yet says that Hailemar- Hailu was taking ideas from African Zion but that he, following iam sometimes brings him photographs of paintings he wants Hailemariam’s instructions, was being careful to incorporate his reproduced. The thought of copying a painting is not for Gard, own ideas into his images.16 Hailemariam knows that some of who says, “I’d rather do my own work.” He clearly derives great his customers may be familiar with the African Zion catalogue fulfillment from his work and often comments, “I like to paint!” and that they probably would not be interested in a copy of a He finds that it brings him happiness and spiritual satisfaction. known work of art. Today, Aleqa Hailu provides Hailemariam Going to look at paintings in churches and then producing his with superior icons and mural paintings to sell, and because own works is Gard’s preferred approach to painting. Still, he also his work is clearly of the highest quality, Hailemariam is able to openly admits that when Hailemariam tells him what he wants sell them for a good price. It is also clear that Hailemariam pays and how he thinks the painting should be done, he makes the Aleqa Hailu a fair price for his work, and thus keeps Aleqa Hailu suggested changes. He recognizes that in doing so, “It makes from selling his work to other shop owners. me a better painter.”20 Although he paints both icons and mural Gard, who is in his early thirties, is something of a challenge paintings, it is clear that Gard prefers the latter, and is well aware for Hailemariam. An unusual talent, he often tests Hailemariam’s that a commission for church mural painting is more profitable. patience, especially over matters of quality. Gard began paint- Few such commissions are, however, available and he must coming at the age of twelve, and today is a deacon. In 2001, when we pete with better-recognized, older artists such as Berhanemeskel first met him, Gard was continuing his religious education and Fisseha and Aleqa Hailu. studying in the ninth grade at a public night school. When asked Hailemariam has invested a great deal of time and money to how they learned to paint, or who their teacher was, both Gard keep this skilled artist painting. Today, Gard is also in a busi-

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 34 11/21/2008 10:53:44 AM 14 in the church of Seaka Iyasus in the village of Adit, paintings by Aleqa Yohannes Teklu such as these of St. George and an equestrian saint are said by local painters to provide their major inspiration for the images they paint. 2001

I15n the village of Adit, Hailemariam Zerue inspects a mural painting (behind) and icons by T sehay Mekonen. 2001

ness relationship with Hailemariam, who has assisted Gard in clear, but it is evident that quite a few painters from the area opening a music shop in Aksum. Selling music cassettes, play- have met with success, and this has apparently prompted others ers, radios, and batteries certainly appeals to Gard’s attraction to to take up the brush. Painting has the potential to offer a viable modern things. At the same time, this is not entirely altruistic on source of income, and as Hailemariam noted in 2005, “Today, Hailemariam’s part, since the arrangement requires Gard to pro- everyone in Adit is painting ….”23 duce a specific number of icons as his part of the deal. It demon- The majority of paintings found on the walls of the church of strates the extent to which Hailemariam is willing to go to keep a Seaka Iyasus are the work of Aleqa Yohannes, Berhanemeskel’s talented young artist painting for him. grandfather, and were painted, we believe, sometime in the late Both painters, Aleqa Hailu and Gard, produce wood icons and 1950s or early 1960s.24 For most of the mid-twentieth century, cloth paintings. The icons take much more time to paint, and Aleqa Yohannes was perhaps Aksum’s most widely known and as miniatures of a sort, require painstaking attention to detail. respected priest-painter, much as his grandson is today. Espe- Icons, especially the larger more elaborate ones, are sold for cially active during the middle decades of the twentieth century, considerably more money than cloth paintings. Hailemariam his work can be seen in churches throughout northern Ethio- informed us that many of the painters who produce icons for pia. From small rural churches to Aksum’s seventeenth century him, also produce cloth paintings. They do so as a break … a cathedral of Maryam Tsion, his large mural paintings were pro- way to rest their eyes from the close detail work associated with duced in the same way that traditional artists today continue to painting icons.21 work—painting on cloth that is stretched and nailed to a wood frame, and only when completed, removed from its frame and A Village that Paints pasted to a church wall (Silverman 1999, 2005). A curious fact emerged as Hailemariam introduced us to It is the paintings of Aleqa Yohannes in Seaka Iyasus that many of these artists, first through their work and later to many painters from Adit, young and old, unanimously speak of as of them personally. Over and over we kept hearing the name of both their inspiration to paint and the examples they drew from one village, Adit. Aleqa Hailu is from Adit; Gard is from Adit. A when they first began to develop their artistic skills.25 The most small village far off the paved road some 20 kilometers south- commonly referenced works are his paintings of St. Mary and west of Aksum, it has a population of probably no more than St. George (Fig. 14). Significantly, paintings of these same sub- several hundred people. As typical rural villages go, it would jects by Aleqa Yohannes are also found in the Maryam Tsion be of little note but for two factors. One, it includes the finely cathedral in Aksum. Many artists admire and respect Aleqa painted church of Seaka Iyasus,22 and two, it is home to many of Yohannes’s work. One of them, Gush Woldemichael, expresses the artists whose work, although not signed, is found widely in what many had to say about the paintings in Adit’s local church both the tourist shops of Aksum and Addis Abba, and also on when he commented, “No one comes close to him … we really the walls of churches across the Tigrai regional state. Indeed, in admire his work.”26 2001, we compiled a list of more than thirty active painters who In 2001, accompanied by Hailemariam on a visit to Adit, we either lived and worked in Adit and sold their paintings to shop met Tsehaye Makonnen, who was then twenty-five years old and owners in Aksum, had moved to Aksum to be closer to where had been painting for Hailemariam for almost ten years. As with they made their living, or had relocated to Addis Ababa. Pre- many other painters in this small town, he comes from a line cisely why so many artists have emerged from Adit is not entirely of traditional church painters, including a brother, father, and

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 35 11/21/2008 10:53:56 AM uncle, and he attended religious school.27 Yet, when asked how art form. The values attached to such objects are fluid in Aksum, he learned to paint, Teshaye unhesitatingly told us Hailemariam as they are with comparable material traditions in many other trained him. During that visit, Hailemariam looked at one of Tse- regions of Ethiopia. This state of affairs is an example of what haye’s mural paintings and complimented the young artist on the James Clifford refers to as the “Art-Culture System” and demon- facial tones and shading, noting that they were greatly improved strates the fluidity of categories that have been created for objects from earlier work. He also noted, however, that the fingers were that circulate in various transcultural spaces, and the shifting too long, and some had no fingernails. Later, commenting on values that are ascribed to these objects—authentic-inauthen- one of Tsehaye’s icons, Hailemariam criticized the composi- tic, masterpiece-artifact, art-not art, culture-not culture (Clifford tion, pointing out that the birth of St. Mary (with SS. Anne and 1988). That the intense competition of the international market- Joachim, the parents of Mary) looked essentially the same as the place in this small community in northern Ethiopia is fueling birth of Christ in the next register. Though this was not theologi- new creative endeavors and reorienting artists and their art can cally incorrect, Hailemariam does not think the birth of St. Mary be seen with the appearance of painted icons in new and inter- is a subject in which tourists are interested (Fig. 15). esting shapes and sizes. Yet at the same time, the market stalls In another conversation, Hailemariam told us that he is aware that are an important part of the festivals of St. Mary’s Day and that tourists come from different countries, different cultures, Hosanna (Palm Sunday) bring throngs of Christians to Aksum and that they have different tastes—so he offers them different from across the region, and even from the Diaspora.30 These pil- styles of painting in his shop. He also offers a range of subjects grims purchase religious paraphernalia that they later present as and types of objects on which they are depicted. He noted, donations to their local churches. Clearly, the church-based tra- These days I have to be concerned with not only those things that are dition upon which contemporary practices are based is still vital. good for me, but those things that are good for the tourists … differ- That throughout the year individuals find their way to Aksum ent tourists are interested in different things. Many Italians [Catholics] with the express purpose of commissioning an artist to produce are like us, they like what we like. Protestants only believe in [the life an icon or a mural painting, or, although more rare, mural paint- of] Jesus, so I tell my painters to make icons with only Jesus … People ings for an entire interior wall of a church, offers further support from Israel don’t like icons, so they buy masks, and other things.28 that “traditional” painting is alive and well in Aksum. Artists such as Berhanemeskel, Aleqa Hailu, and Gard are A church education provides painters with grounding in the among the contemporary “traditional” painters of Aksum who Biblical stories that form the basis of most paintings. Indeed, produce these paintings. Their works are modern-day manifes- young painters without this education present Hailemariam tation of the centuries-old painting tradition of the Ethiopian with one of his greater challenges because their lack of Biblical Orthodox Church. And as with past painters in this tradition, knowledge is the source of the often numerous misinterpreta- they are also responsive to the market demands of Orthodox tions, which he refers to as “mistakes,” that occur in their work. parishioners and clergy who buy and commission their works, as The most common of these is incorrectly ordering the sequence well as the tourists who also purchase it. Exceptional individuals of events in the pictorial narratives of the life of Christ. We once such as Berhanemeskel and Hailemariam have been a key ele- observed Hailemariam critiquing the work of a young painter, ment in this process. As mentors, they play an essential role in telling him that the Resurrection cannot occur before the Cruci- sustaining the magnificent painting tradition of the Ethiopian fixion! He commented to the artist, “If tourists are going to take Orthodox Church. As advisors, and Hailemariam as an entrepre- the paintings home, they expect the correct order.”29 Occasion- neur who buys and sells the work of painters, they ensure that the ally, a strange aberration may slip into a painting. For example, innovation and creativity that is introduced, remains within the one artist, in his depiction of the crucifixion, painted Christ boundaries of the tradition—appropriately recognizable depic- with a nail in his forehead, in addition to the usual iconographic tions of saints and narratives that do not impinge on the theo- representation of nails piercing Christ’s hands and feet. Look- logical and visual tenets of the church. By setting and reinforcing ing at an icon produced by another painter, Hailemariam liked high standards for the production of both icons and mural paint- the quality of the painting, but then noted that it was painted ings, Berhanemeskel and Hailemariam are dedicated to ensuring in a poorly carved wood case. He explained that he did not give that parishioners, clergy, and tourists alike, are presented with high-quality cases to a painter until the artist had proven himself paintings that are both contemporary and traditional; paintings worthy of the investment. However, he sometimes gives a case to that are suitable as an object of personal devotion, as a donation someone who shows signs of being a good artist, providing the to a local church, or as a reminder of a journey to Aksum and to painter an opportunity to demonstrate to Hailemariam that he is Ethiopia. worthy of such an investment. Neal Sobania is a professor of history at Pacific Lutheran University and executive director of the Wang Center for International Programs. Continuity and Change [email protected] Throughout the centuries, Ethiopian church painting has gone through periods of transformation with the introduction of Raymond Silverman is professor of art history and Afroamerican and new themes and styles. The dynamic of continuity and change African Studies at the University of Michigan, where he also serves as occurring today in religious painting in Aksum offers interesting director of the Museum Studies Program. [email protected] insights into both the stability of artistic production for religious purposes as well its transformation into a commodity and tourist

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10A17_AMM401_p26-37.indd 36 11/21/2008 10:53:56 AM Notes cases, paintings by new artists, and other products of Chojnacki, Stanislaw. 2000. Ethiopian Icons. Milan: Skira. parchment, metal, and stone. Still, on occasion, he has This article is drawn from three unpublished confer- Clifford, James. 1988. Predicament of Culture. Cam- requested that we not show certain photographs to ence papers by the authors, “Painting for the Ferenj: bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. anyone for a year or two, and certainly not to anyone in Tourism and Art in Contemporary Axum (Ethiopia)” at Aksum, in order to guard the identity of the artists who Grierson, Roderick, ed. 1993. African Zion: the Sacred the 46th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Associa- produce the new innovation on which his continued Art of Ethiopia. Fort Worth, TX: InterCultura. tion, Boston MA, 2003; “Icons of Devotion / Icons of success depends. Trade: Religion and Contemporary Visual Culture in Heldman, Marilyn. 1998. “Creating Religious Art: The 14 As mentioned in note 9, it is extremely rare for Ethiopia.” at the 14th Triennial Symposium on African Status of Artisans in Highland Christian Ethiopia.” women to paint, and although on occasion Hailemar- Art, Gainesville FL, 2007; and “The ‘Adit’ Factor: Tradi- Aethiopica 1:131–47. iam has sold a work painted by one of Berhanemeskel’s tion and Creativity in the Production of Contemporary daughters, it is sold as Berhanemeskel’s work. See Mellors, John, and Anne Parsons. 2002. Ethiopian Book- Aksum Icons” at the XVI International Conference of Makda Teklemichael in this issue. making. London: New Cross Books. Ethiopian Studies, Trondheim, Norway, 2007. 15 Interview with Aleqa Hailu Gebramedhin, 1 The original 1960s Historic Route moved pas- Munro-Hay, Stuart. 2006. Ethiopia: Judaism, Altars, and December 8, 2001. On the proper order for placing sengers on Ethiopian Airlines DC-3s from Addis Abba Saints. Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers. paintings on the walls of Ethiopian Orthodox Churches, to Bahir Dar, Gondar, Lalibela, Aksum, and Asmara see Sobania 2003. Phillips, Ruth B., and Christopher Steiner. 1999. Unpack- with a day and night at each location on the route. 16 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, November ing Culture: Art and Commodity in Colonial and Postcolo- Today, Asmara, the capital of Eritrea, is no longer part 13, 2002. nial Worlds. Berkeley: University of California Press. of the Historic Route and Ethiopian Airlines promotes 17 Interview with Gard Geday, December 8, 2001. other tourist destinations such as the Muslim walled Silverman, Raymond. 1999. “Qes Adamu Tesfaw—A 18 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, December 7, city of Harar. Priest Who Paints: Painting in the Ethiopian Orthodox 2002. 2 The number of tourists to Ethiopia remains but Church.” In Ethiopia: Traditions of Creativity, ed. R. 19 Interview with Gard Geday, December 8, 2001. a small fraction of those who vacation on East Africa’s Silverman, pp. 132–55, 261–66. Seattle: University of 20 Ibid. coast or visit its famous game parks. Washington Press. 21 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, December 7, 3 For the purposes of this paper we have purpose- 2001. ______. 2003. “Painting for the Ferenj: Tourism and Art fully left blurred the boundaries between categories 22 Seaka is the name of the specific location in in Contemporary Axum (Ethiopia).” Paper presented at such as traditional and contemporary, and art, artifact, Adit, and Iyasus means “Jesus”. the 46th Annual Meeting of the African Studies Asso- and commodity. We have discussed this elsewhere; see 23 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, March 23, ciation, Boston, MA. Silverman and Sobania in press. 2005. 4 For another similar contemporary center see _____. 2005. Painting Ethiopia: The Life and Work of Qes 24 On a visit to the church in November 2001, we Mellors and Parsons 2002. Adamu Tesfaw. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum. spoke with a farmer who said his relative, Ato Shetu, 5 Icons come in a wide range of sizes and formats. housed Aleqa Yohannes when he painted the church; this _____. 2007. “Icons of Devotion / Icons of Trade: Reli- Some are small enough to be worn around the neck as guided us in trying to determine the date of its painting. gion and Contemporary Visual Culture in Ethiopia.” an amulet; others are so large they need a stand to hold 25 This pattern of young men entering a church, Paper presented at the 14th Triennial Symposium on them. Some are paintings on a flat wood panel; while being awed by the paintings, and wanting to produce African Art, Gainesville, FL. others are contained in plain to elaborately carved dip- such work themselves, is found across Orthodox Chris- tychs, double diptychs and triptychs. Silverman, Raymond, and Neal Sobania. in press. “Ethi- tian areas of Ethiopia. For example, Qes Adamu Tesfaw 6 Aleqa is a church title for a learned person. opian Traditions of Creativity: ‘Art’ or ‘Handicraft’?” recalled that as a boy “… whenever I visited the church, 7 Interviews with Berhanemeskel Fisseha, April In Ethiopian Art and Architecture, ed. R. Pankhurst. I was enraptured by the paintings on the walls. They 2001, November 27, 2002, and December 3, 2002. Lawrenceville, NJ: The Red Sea Press. inspired awe in my heart. I studied images of saints, 8 A magogo is a circular cooking tray used to martyrs, emperors, and nobles with wonder and never _____. 1999. “Silverwork in the Highlands: The Life and make injera, the bread eaten with most Ethiopian meals. thought they were created by human beings.” (Adamu Work of Gezahegn Gebre Yohannes and Abib Sa’id.” In 9 By training his daughters to paint, Berha- Tesfaw 2005:15) Ethiopia: Traditions of Creativity, ed. R. Silverman, pp. nemeskel is breaking with the tradition, in which only 26 Interview with Gush Woldemichael, November 183–99, 271–72. Seattle: University of Washington Press. males have been trained to paint. See Makda Tecklemi- 29, 2001. chael in this issue. _____. 2004. “Mining the Mother Lode: Early European 27 The work of his brother Mahari Mekonnen, his 10 Since 1992 we have been working with church Travel Literature and the History of Precious Metalwork- father Mekonnen Gebremichael, and his father’s brother painters, as well as with silver- and goldsmiths, interview- ing in Highland Ethiopia.” History in Africa 31:335–55. Qes Libanos Gebremichael, who all were painters, is ing and collecting information about the history and also found in the Adit church of Seaka Iyasus. Sobania, Neal. 2007. “The ‘Adit’ Factor: Tradition and contemporary socio-economic dynamics of these two 28 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, December Creativity in the Production of Contemporary Aksum groups. As part of this project, Hailemariam has become 2, 2001 Icons.” Paper presented at the XVI International Con- more than just one of our respondents. He is, in fact, a 29 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, November ference of Ethiopian Studies, Trondheim, Norway. good friend who, as our relationship has grown over the 22, 2001 years, has willingly introduced us to many of the painters Sobania, Neal, with Daniel Berhanemeskel. 2003. “Litur- 30 Today, many Ethiopians who emigrated during who make up the talented group from whom he pur- gical Painting in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.” Cres- the period of the Derg to North America, Europe, Aus- chases and sells the finest works in his shop. set 66 (4):14–17. tralia, and other parts of the world return to Ethiopia 11 Among many volumes that consider Ethiopian Sobania, Neal, and Raymond Silverman. 2006. “Patrons to visit, especially for holidays and festivals such as St. icons historically are Grierson 1993, and Chojnacki 2000. and Artists in Highland Ethiopia: Contemporary Prac- Mary’s Day and Hosanna. 12 Interview with Hailemariam Zerue, December tice in the Commissioning of Religious Painting and 2, 2001. Metalwork.” In Proceedings of the XVth International References 13 In the end, as our relationship with Haile- Conference of Ethiopian Studies, ed. Siegbert Uhlig, pp. mariam grew, he essentially gave us carte blanche to Adamu Tesfaw. 2005. “A Brief Account of My Life.” In 469–77. Wiebaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. photograph what we wanted and introduced us to his Painting Ethiopia: The Life and Work of Qes Adamu Steiner, Christopher B. 1994. African Art in Transit. best painters, the carvers from whom he purchases, Tesfaw, ed. R. Silverman, pp. 15–17. Los Angles: UCLA Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. as well as silversmiths, who showed us new-style icon Fowler Museum.

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