Introduction to Forensic Science

Module 12A Forensic Anthropology

I. Objectives

A. Define forensic anthropology and its related fields (taphonomy and archeology) B. Describe the pioneers and their contributions to the study of forensic anthropology C. Demonstrate proficiency in estimating age, sex, stature, and ancestry from human skeletal remains D. Interpret trauma to a skeleton including gunshot wounds, blunt force, and sharp force E. Determine the time since death

II. Definitions A. Forensic Anthropology - the application of methods of anthropology and archeology to the collection and analysis of physical evidence to solve forensic problems. This includes: 1. The study of bones, teeth, and cartilage (a.k.a. skeletonized remains) to determine their identity. 2. The recovery of buried remains. 3. Facial reconstruction. 4. Determination of the cause of death and the manner in which death occurred.

B. Forensic anthropologists have a great deal of training in anatomy and osteology and they work with other specialists such as osteologists, forensic pathologists and homicide investigators to help discover and examine human bone remains and subsequently suggest multiple features of the decedent, such as sex, gender, stature, age, and even the circumstances of death. (ABFA - American Board of Forensic Anthropology, 2010) 1. A forensic anthropologist's primary goal is to use his or her scientific and investigative skills to serve the community and its needs. Forensic anthropologists have a prominent role not only locally, but globally as well. They have assisted in identifying unknown or unidentified victims of such national tragedies as the Oklahoma City Bombing, World Trade Center disasters

2. A forensic anthropologist determines the identity of a decedent based on the available evidence. If a skeleton is found in a wooded area, the body is brought to a morgue for examination and identification. The anthropologist must first determine whether the remains are human, animal, or inorganic. If human, the forensic anthropologist attempts to estimate the age at death, racial category, sex, and stature of the decedent.

C. Forensic Taphonomy- the study of the processes (as burial, decay, and preservation) that affect animal and plant remains as they become fossilized as it applies to forensics

1. Postmortem changes include: a. Decay and decomposition b. Scattering of the body parts by coyotes and other scavengers c. Changes in the body due to freezing, drying, or other environmental conditions.

D. Forensic Archeology - the scientific study of material remains (as fossil relics, artifacts, and monuments) of past human life and activities as it applies to forensics 1. Methods of locating human remains: a. Aerial or infrared photography b. Use of metal detectors c. Ground-penetrating radar d. Use of (GIS) Geographical Information Systems

III. History of Forensic Anthropology

A. Father of American Forensic Anthropology – Dr. Thomas Dwight (1843-1911), the anatomist who succeeded Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. at Harvard, was perhaps the first to specifically address the issue of deriving someone's biological profile from skeletal remains.

B. Alphonse Bertillon – devised a system of criminal identification that relied on eleven bodily measurements and the color of the eyes, hair, and skin. “He first described his system in Photography: With an Appendix on Anthropometrical Classification and Identification (1890).” (Enotes.com, 2010)

C. The 1939 publication of Krogman’s “Guide to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material” in the Federal Bureau of Investigation Law Enforcement Bulletin, is now thought by many to be the historical event that finally brought forensic anthropology out of the closet.

D. 1947 – Formation of the Central Identification Laboratory in Hawaii (CILHI) – this organization is responsible for recovering and identifying U.S. soldiers from all the wars during the 20th century including WW1, WW2, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. In 2008, the Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command’s Central Identification Laboratory located on Hickam AFB, Hawaii opened the Forensic Science Academy, an advanced forensic anthropology program consisting of five courses, taught under the auspices of the Department of Defense.

E. 1972 – The American Academy of Forensic Science recognizes Forensic Anthropology as a discipline. This organization enabled the formerly unconnected anthropologists with a dynamic forum for the exchange of information and for the advancement of their work as a science. (American Academy of Forensic Sciences, 2010)

F. By 1978, a program was developed to certify diplomats in forensic anthropology much the same way physicians are certified in their field by a board of specialization. (Ubelaker & Scammell, 2006)

G. 1986 – The Forensic Data Bank (FDB) is created at the University of Tennessee through a grant from the National Institute of Justice. This database includes human skeletal measurements. In order to be of maximum value, this data must be continuously updated through contributions by forensic anthropologists working on new cases.

H. The University of Tennessee Anthropological Research Facility is the official name of the original “Body Farm”. 1. Anthropologist Dr. William M. Bass became head of the university's anthropology department in 1971. 2. Bass was frequently consulted in police cases involving decomposed human remains. Since no facilities existed that specifically studied decomposition, in 1981 he opened the department's first body farm. [1] a. For more information on U.S. body farms read How Body Farms Work

Detailed observations and records of the decomposition process are kept, including the sequence and speed of decomposition and the effects of insect activity.

III. Objectives of a Forensic Anthropological Investigation A. Identification of remains of those who died due to homicide, accidents, suicide, war, or mass disasters 1. Age 2. Sex 3. Ancestry 4. Height 5. Pathology

B. Determination of what happened after death

C. Cause of death and any traumatic circumstances surrounding and/or preceding the death

D. Multidisciplinary approach to investigation 1. During a legal investigation, the forensic anthropologist may find himself/herself working with other professionals in related fields such as: a. Forensic Pathologist – whose study of the soft tissues of a body may permit the pathologist to determine the manner and time of death b. Forensic Entomologist – whose study of insects found on the body may indicate a very precise time of death

IV. Crime Scene or Burial Scene Processing

A. Locating remains 1. Buried remains – cadaver dogs are often used to locate buried and/or scattered remains. These dogs are trained to locate the scent of decomposing remains. 2. A cadaver dog can actually detect human remains through concrete, buried underground, or at the bottom of a body of water, using its extremely well honed noses to search for faint traces of the chemicals emitted by the human body during decomposition.1

B. Physical evidence at burial sites 1. Human skeletons

a. Hair b. Fingernails and Teeth c. Skin 2. Clothing (depending on the manner of burial and the time elapsed since death) 3. Fibers 4. Jewelry (depending on the substance from which it is made, may be one of the longest lasting clues)

V. Steps in collection of anthropological evidence A. Documentation – Before human remains are touched in any way, the evidence should be photographed and the person or officer who found the remains should be interviewed. Written descriptions of the crime scene/or burial site should be completed before collection of evidence begins. 1. Chain of Custody – A formal, written process recording the persons having custody of evidence from initial point of receipt to final disposition (Rush, 2000) 2. In order to keep accurate records of the chain of custody, each time evidence is touched by a new person documentation is necessary

B. Collection – collection of evidence should not begin until photographs and sketches have been completed

C. Preservation – each type of evidence must be kept as close to its original state as possible in order for it to be analyzed in the future

D. Analysis – some methods of analysis change rapidly, others remain the same for many years. The use of DNA evidence is a prime example of the value of new methods to prove or disprove the identity of a suspect.

VI. Identification of Remains A. The majority of identifications are made by medical examiners and coroners who require positive identification. Positive identification can be determined through any of the following legally accepted practices: 1) DNA analysis, 2) fingerprints, 3) dental records, 4) x- rays, 5) any uniquely identifiable congenital defect or prosthetic limb. 1. Dental records comparison a. The age of young children is often determined by their dental development. b. Certain populations have specific dental © 2003-1010, Golden Lady Unlimited, LLC 5 Mod12A.doc

characteristics not found in other populations c. Females’ teeth develop earlier than males

B. The amount of time since death plays a crucial part in determining whether a forensic anthropologist is necessary to determine the identity of a victim. The legal consequences diminish as time passes due to the statute of limitations, and the death of the perpetrator and/or witnesses. 1. Visual Identification Possible – When a recent death is investigated, it is usually possible for a forensic pathologist or forensic odontologist to identify the body 2. Visual Identification Impossible – as time passes, or in the case of death by burning or dismemberment, visual identification is no longer possible. The forensic anthropologist, forensic archeologist, and a forensic odontologist may all be needed to determine the victim’s identity. 3. Ancient Death – Archeologists are involved in the unearthing of remains that have been buried for a substantial amount of time. These remains are used to determine the identity of the person despite the lack of legal consequences.

VII. Skeletal analysis of the remains A. Sex 1. The differences between men and women are most notable in the pelvic region a. Pubic length – males – short, females – long 2. Females have rounded or pointed chins, males have square chins.

B. Age 1. The determination of age is often based on: a. Formative changes – changes that happen during formation and growth b. Degenerative changes –deterioration of a body because of disease, age, and normal wear and tear 2. Use a wide age range rather than limiting your scope and failing to identify the body altogether.

C. Race

ii. White Europeans – wavy cross section iii. American Indians – straight round cross section c. shape of eye d. size and shape of lips e. nose structure and size i. African Blacks - wide D. Height

1. Before measurements are taken regarding height, it is beneficial to know the sex and race of the individual since the long bone size is generally determined by the sex and race of an individual. 2. The height is determined by the measurement of long bones and the comparison of these findings with average measurements, including: a. humerus - the long bone of the upper arm b. radius - the shorter of the two long bones in the forearm c. ulna - the longer of the two long bones in the forearm d. femur - the thigh bone, the largest, longest, and strongest bone of the human skeleton e. fibula - The long thin outer bone of the lower leg 3. Radius – is the shorter of the two long bones of the forearm, extending from the elbow to the wrist; it is the bone on the thumb side of the arm. 4. The ulna is the other forearm bone. 5. The thighbone, aka the femur, is the largest, longest, and strongest bone of the human skeleton. 6. Its rounded, smooth head fits into a socket in the pelvis called the acetabulum to form the hip joint (an example of a ball and-socket joint 7. These measurements may be taken using: a. osteometric board b. tree calipers

E. Right handed or left handed 1. 90% are predisposed to right handedness 2. 10% - the remaining people are either predominately left- handed, ambidextrous, or use one hand for some activities and the other hand for others

VIII. Causes of death

1. Fractures 2. Fragmented bones 3. Impact marks

B. Gun shot wounds 1. Full metal jacket bullets normally exit the body 2. Hollow points rarely exit the body 2. Whenever the bullet exits the body, the exit hole is always larger than the entrance. 3. Shotgun pellets rarely have the force to exit the body 4. Beveling a. Inward beveling indicates entry b. Outward beveling indicates exit

C. Cutting Wounds 1. Knives – paring, Swiss, switchblade, serrated, French knife – usually indicated by clean, straight lines 2. Tools – screwdrivers, hammers, ice picks 3. Saws – handsaw, crosscut saw, chain saw

D. Fractures 1. Simple – skin not penetrated 2. Compound - broken bones protrude through open skin wound 3. Compression - crushed bone

E. Sharp Force Trauma - injuries received from sharp objects, which produce incised wounds

F. Chemical Trauma - Alcohol is a contributing factor in 50 % of traumatic deaths

IX. Specialties in Forensic Anthropology

A. Osteology – the study of the bony structure of an organism, including the development, function, variations and degeneration of bones. The osteologist can determine the following: 1. Age, sex, stature of the person 2. General health of the person 3. Cause of death and how it occurred 4. Approximate time of death 5. What has happened since death - postmortem

C. Entomology - the study of insects, including their identification, collection, and rearing immature insects to adulthood for forensic purposes

D. Botany – the study of plants and their relationship to the crime scene. Bodies are sometimes removed from the crime scene and are found in other locales. Plant material found on the body may indicate the area where the crime took place.

E. Biology – the study of living organisms (i.e. DNA analysis may be necessary in the case of a mass grave where all of the remains are lumped together)

F. Facial Reconstruction – the construction of a facial likeness through the use of: 1. Superimposition of photos 2. Computerized age progression techniques

X. Mass Fatalities

A. Whenever groups of people are killed simultaneously, forensic anthropologists are used to identify victims. Mass fatalities may occur because of war, terrorist events, plane crashes, natural disasters, or genocide. Forensic anthropologists have been used to identify the dead while uncovering mass graves in Sierra Leone, Guatemala, Bosnia, Croatia, Afghanistan, and Iraq. For more information on this fascinating area of study, read Clea Koff’s “The Bone Woman,” listed in the recommended reading list.

XI. Recommended Reading List

A. “Dead Men Do Tell Tales" - by Maples and Browning

B. “Silent Witness – How Forensic Anthropology is Used to Solve the World’s Toughest Crimes”, by Roxana Ferllini

C. "Bones" - Dr. Douglas Ubelaker and Henry Scammell

D. Forensic Anthropology and the FBI - Douglas Ubelaker

E. Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton – Mary Anne Katzenberg & Shelley Rae Saunders

F. “The Bone Woman - A Forensic Anthropologist's Search for Truth in the Mass Graves of Rwanda, Bosnia, Croatia, and Kosovo – Clea Koff

XII. Web Resources for further study

A. Forensic Anthropology - Tom O'Conner

B. California State University, Chico - Forensic Anthropology

C. Forensic Talk - A Forensic Nurse's Weblog

D. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History

E. Bone Clones - Reproductions of human and animal skeletons

F. Hips Don't Lie - Researchers Find More Accurate Technique to Determine Sex of Skeletal Remains (Science Daily)

G. DMORT - Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team

H. Careers in Forensic Anthropology

I. 3D Scanning - A New Tool for Cracking Tough Cases

XIII. Bibliography

ABFA - American Board of Forensic Anthropology. (2010, August 10). Home Page. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from American Board of Forensic Anthropology: http://www.theabfa.org/

American Academy of Forensic Sciences. (2010, August 10). Home. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from American Academy of Forensic Sciences: http://www.aafs.org/

Enotes.com. (2010, August 10). Bertillon, Alphonse - World of Forensic Science. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from Enotes.com: http://www.enotes.com/forensic-science/bertillon-alphonse

Ubelaker, D., & Scammell, H. (2006). Bones. Lanham, MD: M.Evans.