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The Paper Is in Pdf Format The Realm of the Low-Surface-Brightness Universe Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 355, 2019 c 2019 International Astronomical Union D. Valls-Gabaud, I. Trujillo & S. Okamoto, eds. DOI: 00.0000/X000000000000000X Ultra-deep imaging with amateur telescopes David Mart´ınez-Delgado1 1Astronomisches Rechen-Institut, University of Heidelberg, M¨onchhofst. 12-14, DE-69120, Heidelberg, Germany email: [email protected] Abstract. Amateur small equipment has demonstrated to be competitive tools to obtain ultra-deep imaging of the outskirts of nearby massive galaxies and to survey vast areas of the sky with unprecedented depth. Over the last decade, amateur data have revealed, in many cases for the first time, an assortment of large-scale tidal structures around nearby massive galaxies and have detected hitherto unknown low surface brightness systems in the local Universe that were not detected so far by means of resolved stellar populations or Hi surveys. In the Local Group, low-resolution deep images of the Magellanic Clouds with telephoto lenses have found some shell- like features, interpreted as imprints of a recent LMC-SMC interaction. I this review, I discuss these highlights and other important results obtained so far in this new type of collaboration between high-class astrophotographers and professional astronomers in the research topic of galaxy formation and evolution. Keywords. galaxies:general, galaxies:dwarf, galaxies:halos, telescopes 1. Introduction Within the hierarchical framework for galaxy formation, the stellar halos of massive galaxies are expected to form and evolve through a succession of mergers with low- mass systems. Numerical cosmological simulations of galaxy assembly in the Λ-Cold Dark Matter (Λ-CDM) paradigm predict that satellite disruption occurs throughout the lifetime of all massive galaxies and, as a consequence, their stellar halos at the present day should contain a wide variety of diffuse remnants of disrupted dwarf satellites. These cosmological simulations also predict that significant numbers of stellar streams may still be detectable, with sufficiently deep observations, in the outskirts of the majority of nearby massive galaxies (Bullock & Johnson 2005; Cooper et al. 2010). Thus, the detection and characterization of faint substructures in the stellar halos and a complete census of survivor satellites in nearby massive galaxies is a vital test of the hierarchical nature of galaxy formation that has not yet been fully exploited, mainly because their extremely low surface brightness makes them challenging to observe. In addition, this scenario is challenged to provide a convincing explanation for the smaller than predicted number of observed satellite galaxies around Local Group spirals and other nearby galaxies (Klypin et al. 1999). However, the deep imaging of nearby galaxies has not yet been pushed to the feasible limit with professional facilities. Since the majority of surviving satellites around massive galaxies have surface brightness lower 2 than µg > 25 mag/arcsec , they remain undetected due to the shallow images available from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) or the PanSTARRs. Over the last decade, small amateur telescopes have demonstrated they can be com- petitive instruments to undertake ultra-deep imaging studies of the outskirts of nearby galaxies. This offers an alternative and low cost approach for the discovery of diffuse 1 2 David Mart´ınez-Delgado Figure 1. Two examples of the amateur equipment used in ultra-deep imaging of nearby galaxies shown in this review: (Left): The Officina Stellare PRO RC 500 half-meter telescope from the Black Bird II Observatory, located at 1,410 meters elevation in the California Sierra-Nevada Mountains near Alder Springs, California.(Right): Portable equipment composed by a double Takahashi FSQ106EDX, each one with a CCD camera SBIG STK11k CCDs. (Image credits: R.J. Gabany & R. Bernal) stellar halo substructure predicted by the Λ-CDM simulations and for completing the dwarf galaxy census around massive galaxies in the local universe. 2. Equipment and Observational Strategy The ultra-deep, wide-field imaging observations of nearby spiral galaxies and selected sky areas described in this review were mainly obtained with privately owned observato- ries equipped with modest-sized telescopes (0.1-0.8-meter; see Fig. 1) operating under very dark skies, in collaboration with high-class astrophotographers from Europe, the United States and Chile. Each observing location features spectacularly dark, clear skies with a typical seeing below 1.5". These small telescopes (and, in some cases, telephoto lenses; see Sec. 5) were coupled with commercially available CCD cameras equipped with the latest generation of single photographic-film sized imaging chips. This equipment can probe vast sky areas with unprecedented depth, reaching surface brightness levels that 2 are ∼ 23 magnitudes deeper (µr;lim ∼ 28 mag arcsec ) than both the classic photographic plate surveys (e.g., the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey) and the available large-scale digital surveys (e.g. the SDSS). Their sensitivity, fast operation and lack of competition for observing time typical of professional observatories have placed these low-cost robotic amateur facilities at the front line of ultra-deep imaging and providing a high impact to the research of low surface brightness galactic structure in nearby galaxies. The observing strategy strives for multiple deep exposures of each target using high throughput clear filters known as luminance (L) filters (4000 A˚< λ <7000 A;˚ see Fig. 1 in Mart´ınez-Delgado et al. 2014) and with typical exposure times of 7-8 hours. The Ultra-deep imaging amateur telescopes 3 Figure 2. A comparison of deep amateur images (bottom panels) with data obtained with large professional telescopes and large scale CCD imaging surveys (top panels). From left to right: NGC 4216 (Paudel et al. 2013), NGC 2275 (Morales et al. 2016), NGC 3631 (Mart´ınez-Delgado et al. 2019) and NGC 4631 (Tanaka et al. 2017). Amateur images taken by R. Jay Gabany and Karel Teuwen. typical 3-σ SB detection limit (measured in random 2" diameter apertures) is ∼ 28 and 27.5 mag/arcsec2 in g and r, that is approximately two magnitudes deeper than the SDSS-II images. The typical 1-σ accuracy of the background subtraction (as estimated from the box-to-box variance of the average residual surface brightness) is 29.5 and 28.5 mag/arcsec2 in g and r bands, respectively. From a direct comparison with SDSS data, it was found that these images are ten times deeper than the SDSS ones in terms of photon statistics, with comparable systematic background uncertainties. The magnitudes in the L-filter are transformed to r-band with an accuracy of 1%. These observations have demonstrated for first time the suitability of small telescopes to detect very faint, diffuse structures in large fields around nearby galaxies. Fig. 2 shows a comparison of some of these amateur telescopes results with some wide-field data produced with professional intermediate-size (3.5{8 meter) telescopes and large scale surveys (SDSS, DECaLs). This illustrates the advantages of small telescopes in detecting features with low surface brightness spread over a large sky area. First, small short- focal-length telescopes, combined with single chip cameras, covered a larger field of view (30{120 arcmin). The use of these single-chip detectors also made it easier to flatten the external regions around galaxies in comparison to standard multi-chip detector arrays used with professional telescopes. Furthermore, observations with large telescopes are sometimes subject to significant sky background variations from different sources (e.g. flatfield corrections, photometric zero-points for different chips, fringes, scattered light, reflections, etc). These artifacts complicate the detection of faint structures (see Tal et al. 2009) and their correction adds significant observing time over-head to the data gathering process. Interestingly, Fig. 2 shows the NGC 4631 tidal stream traced by its resolved red giant branch stars obtained with the Subaru 8.2-m telescope (top right 4 David Mart´ınez-Delgado Figure 3. Left panel: Two examples of the results from the observational approach designed to trace diffuse stellar systems as unresolved, rounded over-densities using low-resolution telescopes and telephoto lens (see Sec. 2). In the top panel, an image of the Leo I dSph taken by Andrea Pistocchini with a Tecnosky Apo triplet 80/480 telescope and a exposure time of 3.8 hours. In the bottom panel, a cropped image of Sextans dIrr galaxy taken from a wide-field image obtained by the CEDIC team with a Canon EF 200mm f/2.8L telephoto lens and a total exposure time of 4.5 hours. Right panel: The double Takahashi FSQ106EDX, each tube with a focal reducer and a CCD camera SBIG STK11k CCDs, is one of the best equipment used in this project to look for unknown dwarf galaxies in the Local Group. panel; Tanaka et al. 2017) is in excellent agreement with the diffuse-light feature visible in a 0.3-meter ROSA telescope image (bottom left panel), confirming that this stream is mainly composed by old-population stars. Ultra-deep imaging in wide sky areas with portable amateur telescopes and telephoto lenses can also help to complete the census of these hitherto unknown low surface bright- ness galaxies. In the Local Group spirals, the discoveries of dwarf satellites have been made using stellar density maps of resolved stars, counted in selected areas of the color- magnitude diagrams (CMDs), made from the photometric star catalogs of large scale surveys(e.g. SDSS, Pan-STARRs, DES). In the case of the Milky Way, the main tracers to find these diffuse systems are blue stars 2{3 magnitudes fainter than the main sequence (MS)-turnoff of the old stellar population. However, the relatively shallow photometry of these surveys (with a g-band limiting magnitude for point sources of ∼ 21.5) and the significant contamination by foreground stars and distant blue galaxies, make it very dif- ficult to complete the census of faint dwarf companions at distances larger than 100 kpc using this data.
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