Concretes Made of Magnesium–Silicate Rocks

minerals

Article Concretes Made of Magnesium–Silicate Rocks

Lyudmila I. Khudyakova 1, Evgeniy V. Kislov 2,*, Irina Yu. Kotova 1 and Pavel L. Paleev 1

1 Baikal Institute of Nature Management, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 670047 Ulan-Ude, Russia; [email protected] (L.I.K.); [email protected] (I.Y.K.); [email protected] (P.L.P.) 2 Geological Institute, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 670047 Ulan-Ude, Russia * Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: At present, there is a shortage of high-quality feedstock to produce widely used building materials—concretes. Depletion of natural resources and growing restrictions on their extraction, in connection with environmental protection, necessitate the search for an equivalent replacement for conventional raw materials. Magnesium–silicate rocks are a waste of the mining industry. We researched the possibility of using these rocks as coarse and fine aggregates in heavy concrete production. Following the requirements of the national standards, we studied the physical and mechanical characteristics of the obtained material. It was found that the strength of concrete, made of magnesium–silicate rock coarse aggregate, at the age of 28 days of hardening is within 28 MPa, while the strength of the control sample is 27.3 MPa. Replacing quartz sand with dunite sand also leads to an increase in concrete strength (~4%). Complete replacement of aggregates facilitates an increase in strength by 15–20% than the control sample. At the same time, the density of the obtained materials becomes higher. Concretes have a dense structure that affects their quality. Concrete water absorption is within 6%. The fluxing coefficient is 0.85–0.87. The application of magnesium–silicate rocks in concrete production enables the complete replacement of conventional aggregates with

mining waste without reducing the quality of the obtained materials. Furthermore, the issues of environmental protection in mineral deposit development are being addressed.

Citation: Khudyakova, L.I.; Kislov, E.V.; Kotova, I.Y.; Paleev, P.L. Keywords: mining waste; magnesium–silicate rocks; concretes; coarse aggregate; crushed stone; sand Concretes Made of Magnesium–Silicate Rocks. Minerals 2021, 11, 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11050441 1. Introduction Academic Editor: Fernando Rocha In the process of any mining, a huge number of overburden and host rocks is produced. Being in dumps negatively affects the whole environmental media [1–3]. At the present Received: 9 March 2021 stage of civilization development, it is a topical problem to involve these rocks into the Accepted: 19 April 2021 industrial turnover to produce new types of marketable products. Effective mining waste Published: 21 April 2021 management will minimize its amount and solve the problems of environmental safety at mining enterprises [4,5]. Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral The main industry that uses waste from mining enterprises is construction, for which with regard to jurisdictional claims in they are high-quality raw materials. Production of concrete, consisting mainly of coarse published maps and institutional affil- and fine aggregates, is the first in this industry. iations. In the literature, there are works on using dump rocks as coarse aggregates [6,7]. At the same time, the type of crushed stone and its properties have a great influence on the quality of the obtained material [8,9]. Depending on the type of coarse aggregate, the concrete compressive strength may differ, practically, by 50% from the strength of the Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. control sample [10]. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. River sand is conventionally used as fine aggregate. However, its shortage and This article is an open access article increasing restrictions on the extraction of natural sand in connection with environmental distributed under the terms and protection necessitate the search for alternative sources of raw materials. Rock crushing conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// sand, mine refuses of crude ore can act as this alternative [11,12]. Adding them to natural creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ sand improves the physical properties of binary mixes [13]. At the same time, the quality 4.0/).

Minerals 2021, 11, 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/min11050441 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals Minerals 2021, 11, 441 2 of 16

of the obtained concretes depends on the shape of the particles, their surface, composition and content [14–16]. Particles of crushed rock sand have an angular shape and smooth surface. Concretes containing the optimal amount of this aggregate have higher water demand, a smaller air volume, higher density and strength [17]. According to physical and mechanical characteristics, silicate rocks, formed as a result of phosphate raw material extraction, are suitable for producing concrete B25 (25 MPa). The tests showed that materials made of them have high strength, and their quality is not inferior to the control sample [7]. Studies on using granite extraction and processing waste (granite sludge) showed that it could be used to produce self-compacting mortar. If the granite sludge is up to 40% of the aggregate mass, the physical and mechanical characteristics of the mortar correspond with the control sample [18]. During coal mining, there is a huge amount of waste produced, consisting mainly of aleurolites and sandstones. After preparatory works, they can be used as a substitute for natural sand in concrete production. To obtain materials of good quality, the amount of waste should not exceed 50% of the fine aggregate mass [19]. Keramzite from coal processing waste is the raw material for light concrete production. The frangibility of keramzite concrete coarse aggregate from carbon-veil rocks is stabilized by 28 days of hardening. The compressive strength of the obtained material is 39–42 MPa and corresponds with the strength of the control sample [20]. Fluorite sand waste is an alternative to natural sand. Replacing this with up to 70% of the conventional aggregate, it is possible to obtain concretes with high elastic modulus, tensile and compressive strength [21]. When using mine refuse as fine aggregate, it is necessary to consider that adding it into the concrete composition reduces its placeability. It is shown in [22] that the maximum content of mine refuses for the beneficiation of lead-zinc and copper ores in concrete should not exceed 30% of the fine aggregate mass since a higher percentage leads to a decrease in the strength characteristics of the obtained material. However, when using iron ore mine refuses, the optimal replacement percentage of natural sand varies within different limits. In the research [23], it is 20%, and in the research [24] is 35%. A further increase in the waste content deteriorates the physical and mechanical characteristics of concretes. For road construction, concrete mixes can contain up to 40% of iron ore mine refuses (complete sand replacement). At the same time, slag cement activated by alkalis is used as bonding material [25]. Copper mine refuses to have an increased content of fine fraction. Therefore, their content should not exceed 15% of the concrete composition. The obtained materials are suitable for paving stone and block production [26]. Among the mining waste, there is a great number of magnesium–silicate rocks. They are part of ultramafic–mafic massifs distributed throughout the world. They include mineral deposits of various types: Ni-Cu and PGE [27], Cr [28], Fe- Ti-V [29], asbestos [30], jadeite and nephrite [31], magnesite, talc, vermiculite [32] et al. Kimberlite and lamproite pipes contain diamonds [33,34]. In their natural state, the complexes do not have a significant impact on the environment. However, they become a source of negative impact on nature in the process of mining. All these deposits contain a small proportion of valuable components. This is especially true for diamond and metal ore deposits. More than 90% of the extracted rock mass goes to dumps, taking into account dilution during mining. Minerals 2021, 11, 441 3 of 16

While there are huge reserves, magnesium–silicate rocks are practically not used, although they are of good quality. Therefore, their application in the production of com- mercial products is an actual task. Let us examine the possibility of their application in the production of heavy concretes. The solution to using magnesium–silicate rocks is shown by the example of the Yoko– Dovyren dunite–troctolite–gabbro stratiﬁed massif, Northern Baikal region, Russia [35,36]. The Yoko–Dovyren intrusive is located in the southern folded margin of the Siberian craton, 60 km to the northeast of Lake Baikal. It lies subconcordantly in carbonate- terrigenous rocks (mainly black shale) of the Synnyr rift [37–39]. The Yoko–Dovyren massif is 26.0 × 3.5 km2 in size. It is part of the Synnyr–Dovyren volcanic-plutonic complex. The complex also includes underlying sills of plagioperidotites and dikes of gabbronorites [38,40] with similar dikes in the roof. The complex includes effusives of the Synnyr ridge, overlapping these bodies, highly titanian basalts of the Inyapuk suite, low-titanian andesites and basalts of the Synnyr suite [41]. The geochemical and isotope data indicate a genetic relationship between intrusive and low-titanian volcanic rocks [42]. U-Pb ages of zircons are 728.4 ± 3.4 Ma for the Yoko–Dovyren massif and 722 ± 7 Ma for the associating volcanites [43,44]. Using baddeleyite from pegmatoid gabbronorites in the roof, U-Pb dating gave 724.7 ± 2.5 Ma [45]. As a result of tectonic movements, the Yoko–Dovyren massif has an almost vertical position. The intrusive is composed of contact rocks (chilled gabbronorites and picrodolerites, further plagioclase lherzolites), there are ﬁve zones above them (bottom-up): dunite (Ol + Chr) → troctolite + plagiodunite (Ol + Pl. + Chr) → troctolite + olivine gabbro (Ol + Pl + Chr ± Cpx) → olivine gabbro (Pl + Ol + Cpx ± Chr) → olivine gabbronorite (Pl + Ol + Cpx ± Opx). Quartz gabbronorites and pigeonite-containing gabbro (Pl + Cpx ± Opx ± Pig) in the roof belong to the additional intrusion synchronously with the dikes of gabbronorites.

2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.1.1. Magnesium–Silicate Rocks of the Yoko–Dovyren Massif Magnesium–silicate rocks of the Yoko–Dovyren massif are dunites, wehrlites, troctolites and dunite sand of the following chemical composition (Table1).

Table 1. Chemical composition of magnesium–silicate rocks, wt %.

Basic Oxides Rock SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 FeO MgO CaO Na2OK2O LOI % Dunite 37.40 1.25 3.10 12.60 40.81 0.40 0.14 0.02 2.84 98.56 Wehrlite 39.70 1.80 0.42 10.70 43.83 0.81 0.12 0.07 1.29 98.74 Troctolite 40.60 12.00 1.11 9.45 28.60 5.57 0.57 0.04 1.33 99.27 Dunite sand 38.40 2.10 2.93 9.95 43.20 0.46 0.05 0.03 0.98 98.10 Note: This and the following analyses were performed using atomic absorption, spectrophotometric, ﬂame photometric, gravimetric, titrimetric methods at the Analytical Center of mineralogical, geochemical and isotope studies at the Geological Institute, SB RAS Ulan-Ude, Russia, analysts A.A. Tsyrenova, T.I. Kazantseva, V.A. Ivanova. LOI—loss on ignition.

The studied rocks have mainly Mg-rich olivine close to forsterite in their composition. The dunites are almost 97% olivine. In addition to olivine, wehrlites contain diopside, troctolites-anorthite (Figure1). Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 4 of 16

Figure 1. X-ray diffraction pattern of magnesium–silicate rocks: 1—dunite, 2—wehrlite, 3—troctolite. FigureFigure 1. 1.X-rayX-ray diffraction diffraction pattern pattern ofof magnesium–silicatemagnesium–silicate rocks: rocks: 1—dunite, 1—dunite, 2—wehrlite, 2—wehrlite, 3—troctolite. 3—troctolite. The dunite sandThe in dunite the X-ray sand diffraction in the X-ray pattern diffraction is represented pattern is represented by olivine by and olivine serpen- and serpen- tine (antigorite and chrysotile) (Figure2). tineThe (antigorite dunite sand and inchrysotile) the X-ray (Figure diffraction 2). pattern is represented by olivine and serpen- tine (antigorite and chrysotile) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. X-ray diffractionFigure patt 2.ernX-ray of dunite diffraction sand. pattern of dunite sand. Figure 2. X-ray diffraction pattern of dunite sand. The granulometric composition of the studied rocks is found by sifting samples throughThe granulometric sieves with different composition mesh sizes,of the and studied it is shown rocks in is Figures found 3by and sifting 4. samples through sieves with different mesh sizes, and it is shown in Figures 3 and 4.

Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16 Minerals 2021, 11, 441 5 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

60.00 The granulometric composition of the studied rocks is found by sifting samples through sieves with different mesh sizes, and it is shown in Figures3 and4.

50.00 60.00

40.00 50.00

30.00 dunite 40.00 wehrlite troctolite 20.00 30.00 granitedunite Residues on sieves, % sieves, on Residues wehrlite 10.00 troctolite 20.00 granite Residues on sieves, % sieves, on Residues 0.00 10.00 2.5 5 10 20 40 Sieve size, mm 0.00 2.5 5 10 20 40 Sieve size, mm Figure 3. Granulometric composition of the crushed stone. Figure 3. Granulometric composition of the crushed stone.

Figure 3. Granulometric composition of the crushed stone. 60.0

48.2 50.060.0

48.2 40.050.0

29.2 30.040.0 dunite 20.3 20.3 29.2 quartz 20.030.0 16.2 17.0 16.8 Residues on sieves, % sieves, on Residues dunite 10.620.3 20.3 7.5 quartz 10.020.0 16.2 17.0 16.8

Residues on sieves, % sieves, on Residues 3.4 10.6 0 10.00.0 7.5 0.16 0.32 0.63 1.25 2.53.4 5 0 Sieve size, mm 0.0 0.16 0.32Figure 4. Granulometric 0.63 composition 1.25 of the 2.5sand. 5

Sieve size, mm TheFigure analysis 4. Granulometric of graphical composition dependencies of the shows sand. that crushed stone, 10–20 mm in size, makes up more than 80% of the studied sample. The number of grains, less than 5 mm in size,The does analysis not exceed of graphical 2%. It was dependencies found that sh duniteows that sand crushed belongs stone, to the 10–20 group mm of in coarse size, Figure 4. Granulometric composition of the sand. makessands. up Its more composition than 80% contains of the studied 68.4% sample. of particles The number larger than of grains, 0.63 mm. less than The ﬁneness5 mm in size,modulus does (Mcr)not exceed of this 2%. sand It iswas 2.72. found that dunite sand belongs to the group of coarse The analysis of graphical dependencies shows that crushed stone, 10–20 mm in size, sands.The Its physicalcomposition and contains mechanical 68.4% characteristics of particles larger of the than magnesium–silicate 0.63 mm. The fineness rocks mod- are makes up more than 80% of the studied sample. The number of grains, less than 5 mm in ulusshown (Mcr) in Tables of this2 sandand3 .is 2.72. size,The does physical not exceed and 2%.mechanical It was found characteristics that dunite of sand the magnesium–silicatebelongs to the group rocks of coarse are sands. Its composition contains 68.4% of particles larger than 0.63 mm. The fineness mod- shown in Tables 2 and 3. ulus (Mcr) of this sand is 2.72. The physical and mechanical characteristics of the magnesium–silicate rocks are shown in Tables 2 and 3.

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 6 of 16

Table 2. Physical and mechanical characteristics of the crushed stone.

Characteristics Dunite Wehrlite Troctolite Granite Bulk specific gravity, kg/m3 1745.0 1739.0 1728.0 1400.0 True density (specific gravity), kg/m3 3004.0 3012.0 2913.0 2640.0 Humidity, % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 Crushability grade 1200 1200 1200 1000 Abrasion capacity grade II II II II Grain content of lamellar (flaky) and needle-shaped grains, % - - - 24.4 Content of soft rock grains, % - - - 7.9 Content of dust-like and clay particles, % 0.7 0.7 0.8 2.5 Content of clay in lumps, % - - - - Mass loss during decomposition, % 1.0 1.0 1.2 1.4

Dunites, wehrlites and troctolites are hard rocks. Grains of weak rocks were not found in their composition. They have a high grade of crushing (1200) and abrasion (II), and high speciﬁc gravity. They do not contain any impurities or harmful components. The magnesium–silicate rocks underwent freezing and thawing processes. Based on this test, it was concluded that they have an F400 frost resistance grade. The crushed stone from these rocks belongs to the I group of crushed stone because it lacks lamellar and needle-shaped grains. The studied rocks are not exposed to the environment. They do not interact with alkalis and are also resistant to all types of decomposition [35]. The crushed stone from magnesium–silicate rocks is of high quality and, following the requirements of GOST 8267-93, “Crushed stone and gravel of solid rocks for construction works. Speciﬁcations”(Russian Federation) [46], can be used as coarse aggregate in concrete production.

Table 3. Physical and mechanical characteristics of the sand.

Characteristics Dunite Sand Quartz Sand Bulk density (density in loose bulk condition), kg/m3 1900.0 1700.0 True density (speciﬁc gravity), kg/m3 3038.0 2650.0 Humidity, % 1.0 2.8 Content of dust-like and clay particles, % 3.0 2.0 Content of clay in lumps, % 0.4 0.3 Fineness modulus 2.7 2.5

Dunite sand does not contain harmful components and impurities [35]. According to its characteristics, it meets the Interstate Standard of the Russian Federation GOST 8736– 2014 “Sand for construction works. Speciﬁcations” [47] and can be used as ﬁne aggregate in concrete production.

2.1.2. Other Materials CEM II/A-P 32.5N Portland cement of the Timlyui Cement Plant (Timlyui Cement LLC, Russia, Republic of Buryatia) was used as a binder in the concrete preparation. This material was prepared following the technical documentation of the Russian Fed- eration GOST 10178–85, “Portland cement and Portland blast furnace slag cement specifications” [48] and GOST 30515–2013, “Cements general specifications” [49]. The water meets the requirements of GOST 23732-2011, “Water for concrete and mortars specifications”(Russian Federation) [50]. Minerals 2021, 11, 441 7 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16 Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16 During the research, the object of comparison was concrete, where granite crushed stone was used as coarse aggregate, and quartz sand was used as ﬁne aggregate. In the X-rayIn the imageX-ray image of granite of granite crushed crushed stone (Russia,stone (Russia, Republic Republic of Buryatia), of Buryatia), you can you can In the X-ray image of granite crushed stone (Russia, Republic of Buryatia), you can observeob intenseserve intense reﬂexes reflexes of quartz of andquartz microcline and microcline (Figure5 (Figure). The grain 5). The size grain composition size composition of observe intense reflexes of quartz and microcline (Figure 5). The grain size composition crushedof stonecrushed is shown stone is in shown Figure 3in, andFigure the 3, main and characteristicsthe main characteristics are shown are in Tableshown2. in Table 2. of crushed stone is shown in Figure 3, and the main characteristics are shown in Table 2.

Figure 5.FigureX-ray 5. diagram X-ray diagram of the granite of the granite crushed crushed stone. stone. Figure 5. X-ray diagram of the granite crushed stone. The studiedThe studied granite granite crushed cru stoneshed meets stone the meets requirements the requirements of the technical of the technical documenta- documen- The studied granite crushed stone meets the requirements of the technical documen- tion andtation can beand used can forbe used the production for the production of concrete, of concrete, graded “100–400”. graded “100–400”. tationQuartz and can sand be (Russia,used for Republicthe produc oftion Buryatia) of concrete, was used graded as ﬁne “100–400”. aggregate. According to Quartz sand (Russia, Republic of Buryatia) was used as fine aggregate. According to the mineralogicalQuartz sand composition(Russia, Republic (Figure of 6Buryatia)), it consists was of used quartz, as fine orthoclase aggregate. and According muscovite. to the mineralogical composition (Figure 6), it consists of quartz, orthoclase and muscovite. the mineralogical composition (Figure 6), it consists of quartz, orthoclase and muscovite.

Figure 6. Cont.

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 8 of 16 Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure 6. X-ray diagram of the quartz sand. Figure 6. X-ray diagram of the quartz sand. The granulometric composition of quartz sand is shown in Figure4. Its physical and mechanicalThe characteristics granulometric are composition shown in Tableof quartz3. sand is shown in Figure 4. Its physical and mechanicalThe quartz characteristics sand fineness modulusare shown Mcr in Table is 2.5. 3. According to this characteristic and the total sieveThe residue quartz of sand 0.63, fineness it is included modulus in theMcr group is 2.5. of According medium sands.to this characteristic The physical andand the mechanicaltotal sieve characteristics residue of 0.63, of the it sandis included meet the in requirements the group of ofmedium the technical sands. documentation The physical and (GOSTmechanical 8736–2014), characteristics and this material of the sand can be meet used the as requirements fine aggregate of in the concrete technical production. documentation (GOST 8736–2014), and this material can be used as fine aggregate in concrete pro- 2.2. Methods duction. 2.2.1. Concrete Sampling 2.2.The Methods concrete mixes were prepared under the following conditions. Four types of crushed stone with grains 5–40 mm in size were used as the large aggregate. The volume 2.2.1. Concrete Sampling of rubble remained constant. The amount of sand was 40% of the aggregate mass. The weight ofThe the concrete concrete mixes was the were same. prepared under the following conditions. Four types of crushedThe proportions stone with ofgrains the raw5–40 materialsmm in size were were the used following: as the large cement:sand:crushed aggregate. The volume stone:waterof rubble = remained 1.00:1.50:2.25:0.55. constant. The amount of sand was 40% of the aggregate mass. The weightThe prepared of the concrete concrete was mix the was same. molded in cubes with a face size of 100 mm. WeThe prepared proportions two series of ofthe samples: raw materials (1) crushed we stonere the from following: magnesium–silicate cement:sand:crushed rocks, usedstone:water as coarse aggregate,= 1.00:1.50:2.25:0.55. quartz sand, used as fine aggregate; (2) crushed stone from magnesium–silicateThe prepared rocks, concrete used mix as coarse was molded aggregate, in cubes dunite with sand, a face used size as of fine 100 aggregate. mm. ConcreteWe made prepared of granite, two series crushed of samples: stone, and (1) crus quartzhed sandstone isfrom accepted magnes asium–silicate the reference rocks, standard.used as Moreover, coarse aggregate, there were quartz samples sand, made used ofas granitefine aggregate; crushed (2) stone crushed and dunitestone from sand. magnesium–silicateThe samples were rocks, solidified used as coarse in the airaggregat at a temperaturee, dunite sand, of (20used± as5) fine◦C foraggregate. 24 hours. Con- Then,crete the made samples of granite, were taken crushed out of stone, the mold and andquar placedtz sand in is a accepted chamber withas the a reference temperature stand- of (20ard.± Moreover,2) ◦C and relativethere were humidity samples of made (95 ± of5)%. granite The samplescrushed werestone tested and dunite after 7,sand. 14, 28 and 90 daysThe ofsamples hardening. were solidified in the air at a temperature of (20 ± 5) °C for 24 hours. Then,The studiesthe samples were were carried taken out out following of the mold the requirements and placed in of a thechamber national with standards a temperature of theof Russian (20 ± 2) Federation. °C and relative humidity of (95 ± 5)%. The samples were tested after 7, 14, 28 andThe 90 data days presented of hardening. in the article is the average of three simultaneous test repetitions The studies were carried out following the requirements of the national standards of the Russian Federation. The data presented in the article is the average of three simultaneous test repetitions

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 9 of 16

2.2.2. Research Methods The research methodology included chemical analysis, as well as physical and mechanical tests. The chemical analyses were performed by atomic absorption, spectrophotometric, gravimetric, titrimetric methods. For spectrophotometric analysis, spectrophotometer PE–5300VI (ECROSKHIM, St. Petersburg, Russia) with a spectral range of 325–1000 nm and separable spectral range of 4 nm was used. For gravimetric analysis, electronic scale VSL–200/0.1A (VESSERVICE, St. Petersburg, Russia) with Max: 205 g, Min: 0.1 g, d = 0.0001 g, e = 0.001 g was used. The chemical analysis was performed by atomic absorption spectroscopy on Unicam spectrophotometer SOLAAR–6 M (Thermo Electron, Franklin, MA, USA) with suitable software and gravimetry on electronic scale VSL–200/0.1A (Nevskiye Vesy, St. Petersburg, Russia). The XRD analysis was performed on an X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS, D8– Advance, Bruker, Karlsruhe, Germany) with a Cu tube and scanning range from 5◦ to 70◦ 2theta, with a step of 0.02◦ and 0.2 s/step measuring time. The microscopic analysis was performed on scanning election microscope SEM TM- 1000 (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan), magnification from 20 to 10,000, field depth 0.5 mm, resolution 60 nm. The macrophotographs were taken on an MBS-9 stereoscopic microscope (Micromed, St. Petersburg, Russia), magnification 4.8, working distance 64 mm. The mechanical tests were performed on PG–100 test hydraulic press (DEG, St. Petersburg, Russia) with a load range of up to 10 t and a plate movement speed of 10 ± 1 mm/min. The abrasion capacity of the concrete was calculated by weight loss after four cycles of testing on laboratory abrasion wheel LAW–4 (RNPO RosPribor, Chelyabinsk, Russia), the rotation speed of the abrasive disc (30 ± 1) min−1, vertical load on the sample (300 ± 5) N. Freeze-resistance tests were performed in the freezing chamber (FC) (Mayak, Yoshkar- Ola, Russia), operating temperature up to minus 30 ◦C. We applied the basic method for studying freeze resistance. The cycle included freezing samples (saturated with water) in the air (in a freezing chamber with a temperature of minus (18 ± 2) ◦C ), and then thawing them in water with a temperature of (20 ± 2) ◦C. The time of both freezing and thawing was 3 hours. While studying the water absorption, the samples were immersed in water at a temperature of (20 ± 2) ◦C and weighed every 24 hours. The tests were carried out until the results of two successive weighings began to differ by more than 0.1%. The water absorption (by mass) Wmas is the ratio of the difference between the weight of the water-saturated and dry sample to the weight of the dry sample, expressed as a percentage. To study the placeability of the concrete mixes, we used a steel cone 300 ± 2 mm high and internal diameters 100 ± 2 mm and 200 ± 2 mm. The cone was filled with a concrete mix in one step, the mix was compacted, and its excess was cut off. The cone was removed smoothly, and the mix slump was measured. By measuring the bottom diameter of the spreading cake, the spreading of the mix was found.

3. Results and Discussion When making concretes from various aggregates, we determined the placeability of concrete mixes characterized by mobility values (cone ﬂow and cone slump). The results are shown in Table4. Minerals 2021, 11, 441 10 of 16

Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW Table 4. 10 of 16 Characteristics of concrete mixes. Aggregates Characteristics Crushed Stone Sand Cone Flow, mm Cone Slump, mm Density, kg/m3 Dunite Quartz160 170560 590 2794 2889 Dunite Quartz Dunite170 160590 560 2889 2763 Wehrlite Dunite Quartz160 170560 590 2763 2826 Wehrlite Quartz Dunite170 160600 560 2826 2656 Troctolite Quartz 170 600 2656 Troctolite Dunite 160 570 2714 Quartz Dunite180 160610 570 2714 2371 Granite Quartz 180 610 2371 Granite Dunite 170 570 2432 Dunite 170 570 2432 The cone slump and the cone flow of all the presented compositions of the concrete mixes reachThe satisfactory cone slump and values. the cone However, flow of all theit should presented be compositions noted that of adding the concrete magnesium– mixes reach satisfactory values. However, it should be noted that adding magnesium– silicatesilicate aggregates aggregates reduces reduces theirtheir fluidity. fluidity. It is It influenced is influence by thed size by andthe shape size ofand aggregates shape of aggregates (Figure(Figure7). 7).

(a) (b) FigureFigure 7. Macro 7. Macro photographs photographs ofof sand sand particles: particles: (a) dunite;(a) dunite; (b) quartz. (b) quartz. Quartz sand has a rounded shape without sharp corners. The shape of the dunite sand Quartzparticles sand has a roughhas a surface rounded with numerousshape without protrusions sharp and depressions.corners. The This shape contributes of the dunite sand particlesto a tighter has adhesion a rough of the surface aggregates with to n theumerous binder. protrusions and depressions. This contributes toThe a tighter average adhesion density of concrete of the aggregates mixes also depends to the on binder. the type of aggregate and has 3 Thethe lowestaverage value density for the standardof concrete sample mixes (2371 also kg/m depends). on the type of aggregate and has The main characteristic of the concrete quality is compressive strength since, by its 3 the lowestchange, value you can for observe the standard changes insample the microstructure (2371 kg/m of the). hardened stone. This charac- Theteristic main depends characteristic on aggregates of addedthe concrete in the concrete quality composition is compressive [10]. The strength compressive since, by its change,strength you can of the observe samples changes (P) at the agein the of 7, microstructure 14, 28 and 90 days of (the the average hardened value stone. of three This char- acteristiccubes) depends is shown on in Tableaggregates5. The variation added ofin the the change concrete in strength composition is estimated [10]. by The charac- compressive teristic α, which represents the ratio of the strength of the studied sample to the strength of strength of the samples (P) at the age of 7, 14, 28 and 90 days (the average value of three the control sample at the respective hardening age. cubes) is shown in Table 5. The variation of the change in strength is estimated by characteristic α, which represents the ratio of the strength of the studied sample to the strength of the control sample at the respective hardening age.

Table 5. Compressive strength of the concrete samples.

Crushed stone Sand Р7 (MPa) α7 Р14 (MPa) α14 Р28 (MPa) α28 Р90 (MPa) α90 Quartz 16.0 1.00 19.2 1.00 27.3 1.00 32.1 1.00 Granite Dunite 17.3 1.08 20.6 1.07 28.4 1.04 33.8 1.05 Quartz 18.3 1.14 21.8 1.14 28.8 1.05 34.5 1.07 Dunite Dunite 21.9 1.37 25.3 1.32 32.8 1.20 38.9 1.21 Quartz 17.1 1.07 20.4 1.06 28.3 1.04 34.2 1.07 Wehrlite Dunite 21.7 1.36 25.1 1.31 32.0 1.17 37.9 1.18 Quartz 16.9 1.06 20.0 1.04 28.0 1.03 33.6 1.05 Troctolite Dunite 20.7 1.29 24.2 1.26 31.5 1.15 37.7 1.17

As shown in the table, the mechanical characteristics of all samples increase over the hardening time. The main strength gain occurs by 14 days of concrete hardening and is

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 11 of 16

Table 5. Compressive strength of the concrete samples.

Crushed Stone Sand p7 (MPa) α7 p14 (MPa) α14 p28 (MPa) α28 p90 (MPa) α90 Quartz 16.0 1.00 19.2 1.00 27.3 1.00 32.1 1.00 Granite Dunite 17.3 1.08 20.6 1.07 28.4 1.04 33.8 1.05 Quartz 18.3 1.14 21.8 1.14 28.8 1.05 34.5 1.07 Dunite Dunite 21.9 1.37 25.3 1.32 32.8 1.20 38.9 1.21 Quartz 17.1 1.07 20.4 1.06 28.3 1.04 34.2 1.07 Wehrlite Dunite 21.7 1.36 25.1 1.31 32.0 1.17 37.9 1.18 Quartz 16.9 1.06 20.0 1.04 28.0 1.03 33.6 1.05 Troctolite Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16 Dunite 20.7 1.29 24.2 1.26 31.5 1.15 37.7 1.17

As shown in the table, the mechanical characteristics of all samples increase over the hardeningmore time.than 70% The of main the strengthstrength gainat 28 occursdays of by age. 14 The days mechanical of concrete characteristics hardening depend and is moreon thanthe type 70% and of thethe strengthquality of at the 28 used days aggregates. of age. The Magnesium mechanical– characteristicssilicate aggregates facili- depend ontate the an type increase and the in quality strength of the of usedthe studied aggregates. samples. Magnesium–silicate The greatest increase aggregates in strength is facilitate anobserved increase in in concretes, strength of where the studied dunite samples. sand is used The greatestas fine aggregate. increase in It strength differs from is quartz observed insand concretes, in composition, where dunite size and sand shape is used of asthe ﬁne particles. aggregate. As you It differs know, from these quartz characteristics sand in composition,significantly size affect and the shape mechanical of the particles. properties As of you the know,obtained these materials characteristics [16,18,51,52]. signiﬁcantly affectWe thefound mechanical the average properties density ofof thehardened obtained concrete; materials it is [16 shown,18,51 ,in52 Figure]. 8. We found the average density of hardened concrete; it is shown in Figure8.

3000

2500 2000 1500 1000

Meandensity, Kg/m3 500 0 dunite

wehrlite

troctolite quartz sand granite dunite sand

Figure 8. FigureDependence 8. Dependence of theof the average average density density of theof the concrete concrete on on the the aggregate aggregate type. type. The type of aggregate has an impact on the concrete density. The highest values The type of aggregate has an impact on the concrete density. The highest values are are observed in samples where magnesium–silicate rocks are used as coarse aggregates, observed in samples where magnesium–silicate rocks are used as coarse aggregates, and and dunite sand is used as ﬁne aggregate. Simultaneously, the concrete density decreases dunite sand is used as fine aggregate. Simultaneously, the concrete density decreases de- depending on the type of coarse aggregate in the row dunite → wehrlite → troctolite pending on the type of coarse aggregate in the row dunite → wehrlite → troctolite → → granite and has the following values 2800 kg/m3 → 2763 kg/m3 → 2666 kg/m3 → granite and has the following values 2800 kg/m3 → 2763 kg/m3 → 2666 kg/m3 → 2358 kg/m3. It can be explained by the high specific gravity of the raw materials and the packing density of the obtained materials. In Figure 9, on the contact border aggregate-cement stone, cavities of small thickness are formed around the aggregate surface. The cavities have rounded edges, which indicates their formation during the hydration of the cement dough. In addition, the cement particles themselves have cavities and cracks of sufficiently small sizes that are inaccessible to water penetration. No deep cracks were found in the concrete structure; the cracks are caused by loose convergence of cement particles due to insufficient hydration.

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 12 of 16

2358 kg/m3. It can be explained by the high speciﬁc gravity of the raw materials and the packing density of the obtained materials. Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW In Figure9, on the contact border aggregate-cement stone, cavities of small thickness12 of 16

are formed around the aggregate surface. The cavities have rounded edges, which indicates their formation during the hydration of the cement dough. In addition, the cement particles themselves have cavities and cracks of sufﬁciently small sizes that are inaccessible to water Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16 penetration. No deep cracks were found in the concrete structure; the cracks are caused by loose convergence of cement particles due to insufﬁcient hydration.

(a) (b) (c) Figure 9. Microstructure of concretes made of: (a) dunite, (b ) wehrlite, (c) troctolite. (a) (b) (c) As a result of the research, it was found that new formations that crystallize in the Figure 9. a b c Figurecement 9. MicrostructureMicrostructure with the of ofaddition concretes concretes madeof made magnesium–silicate of: of: (a () )dunite, dunite, (b () )wehrlite, wehrlite, rocks (c () )troctolite.lead troctolite. to the strengthening of the structureAsAs of a a resultnew result types of of the the ofresearch, research, concretes it it was wasand found foundan incr that thatease new new in formations formationsthe strength that that of crystallize crystallizethe obtained in in the the materials.cementcement with with the the addition addition of of magnesium magnesium–silicate–silicate rocks rocks lead lead to to the the strengthening strengthening of of the the structurestructureWhen studyingof of new new types types the ofphysical concretes and andand mechanical anan increaseincrease characteristics in in the the strength strength of ofof the thethe obtained obtained materials. mate- concretes, werials. identified When studyingtheir water the physicalabsorption. and mechanicalThe study characteristics was conducted of the following obtained concretes,the require- mentswe of identiﬁedWhen the Russian studying their waterstandard the physical absorption. (GOST and mechanical The12730.3-7 study was8, characteristics “Concretes. conducted following ofMethod the obtained theof determination requirements concretes, of waterweof absorption”) theidentified Russian their standard [53]. water The (GOST absorption. results 12730.3-78, are The shown st “Concretes.udy in was Figure conducted Method 10. of following determination the require- of water mentsabsorption”) of the Russian [53]. The standard results (GOST are shown 12730.3 in Figure-78, “Concretes. 10. Method of determination of water absorption”) [53]. The results are shown in Figure 10.

9 8 9 7 8 6 7 5 6 5 dunite sand 4 dunite sand 4 quartz sand 3 quartz sand 3

Water absorption, % 2

Water absorption, % absorption, Water 2 1 1 0 0 dunitedunite wehrlitewehrlite troctolitetroctolite granite granite CrushedCrushed stone stone Figure 10. Dependence of water absorption of the concrete samples on the aggregate type. FigureFigure 10. Dependence10. Dependence of ofwater water absorption absorption ofof the concreteconcrete samples samples on on the the aggregate aggregate type. type.

It isIt knownis known that that the the water water absorption of of the the concrete concrete samples samples depends depends on the on aggre- the aggregate type [54]. Aggregates, made of magnesium–silicate rocks, have a positive effect on gate type [54]. Aggregates, made of magnesium–silicate rocks, have a positive effect on this characteristic. Adding them into concretes decreases the water absorption. The high- thisest characteristic. value of this characteristic Adding them is observedinto concre in thetes concretesdecreases made the water of granite absorption. crushed stoneThe highest andvalue quartz of this sand. characteristic is observed in the concretes made of granite crushed stone and quartzThe watersand. resistance of the concretes was calculated, which is characterized by sof- teningThe coefficientwater resistance Csoft, equal of theto the concretes ratio of the was strength calculated, of the whichwater-saturated is characterized samples toby sof- teningthe strengthcoefficient of the Csoft dry, equal samples. to the In ratiothe work of the process, strength some of theof the water-saturated samples were kept samples in to thewater strength for two of days,the dry after samples. which their In thestrength work values process, were some measured of the. The samples conducted were stud- kept in wateries showedfor two days, that magnesium after which–s ilicatetheir strength rock concretes values have were softening measured. coefficient The conducted equal to studies 0.85showed–0.87. Forthat the magnesium–silicate control samples, the rockwater concretesresistance washave 0.82. softening coefficient equal to 0.85–0.87. For the control samples, the water resistance was 0.82.

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 13 of 16

It is known that the water absorption of the concrete samples depends on the aggregate type [54]. Aggregates, made of magnesium–silicate rocks, have a positive effect on this characteristic. Adding them into concretes decreases the water absorption. The highest value of this characteristic is observed in the concretes made of granite crushed stone and quartz sand. The water resistance of the concretes was calculated, which is characterized by softening coefﬁcient Csoft, equal to the ratio of the strength of the water-saturated samples to the strength of the dry samples. In the work process, some of the samples were kept in water for two days, after which their strength values were measured. The conducted studies showed that magnesium–silicate rock concretes have softening coefﬁcient equal to 0.85–0.87. For the control samples, the water resistance was 0.82. The obtained data are consistent with the concrete frost resistance. The values are shown in Table6.

Table 6. Concrete frost resistance values.

Weight Loss, %, After the Cycles Frost Resistance Coefﬁcient, After the Cycles Crushed Stone Sand 25 50 75 25 50 75 Quartz 1.57 1.83 2.03 1.02 0.99 0.89 Granite Dunite 1.48 1.80 1.98 1.03 1.00 0.90 Quartz 1.14 1.26 1.41 1.07 1.01 0.97 Dunite Dunite 1.09 1.18 1.37 1.11 1.03 0.96 Quartz 1.31 1.39 1.54 1.07 1.00 0.95 Wehrlite Dunite 1.27 1.34 1.51 1.10 1.02 0.96 Quartz 1.66 1.72 1.96 1.04 1.00 0.90 Troctolite Dunite 1.59 1.67 1.91 1.08 1.01 0.91

After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, no damage was observed on the surface of the concrete samples. The samples withstood 50 freeze–thaw cycles without signiﬁcant changes in weight. The loss of mass of the concrete samples with the addition of aggregates from dunite by 1.18%, from wehrlite—by 1.34%, from troctolite—by 1.67% was recorded. For the control sample, it was 1.83%. After 75 cycles, this characteristic was at the limit of acceptable values (2%). The frost resistance coefﬁcient also reaches its limit values after 75 freeze–thaw cycles. Based on the obtained values, as well as the compressive strength values after the testing completion, the concrete was graded F50 for frost resistance. The increased water absorption and frost resistance values in the concrete samples with the addition of magnesium–silicate rocks are explained by a denser structure than in the control sample. The decrease in open porosity reduces the amount of absorbed liquid, which helps to soften the structure of the obtained material. Abrasion testing has shown that the weight loss of the samples, made of magnesium- containing aggregate, does not exceed the weight loss of the control sample (Figure 11). Dunite concrete has the best characteristics (0.63 g/cm2). This can be explained by the quality of the raw material. Magnesium–silicate rocks do not contain grains of weak rocks. Concretes on them made of this material have increased density and strength, which also affects this characteristic. According to the abrasion capacity, the concretes have grade G1 Thus, concretes, made of magnesium–silicate rock aggregates, have high physical and mechanical properties and can produce load-bearing and special structures. Minerals 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

The obtained data are consistent with the concrete frost resistance. The values are shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Concrete frost resistance values.

Weight Loss, %, After the Cycles Frost Resistance Coefficient, After the Cycles Crushed stone Sand 25 50 75 25 50 75 Quartz 1.57 1.83 2.03 1.02 0.99 0.89 Granite Dunite 1.48 1.80 1.98 1.03 1.00 0.90 Quartz 1.14 1.26 1.41 1.07 1.01 0.97 Dunite Dunite 1.09 1.18 1.37 1.11 1.03 0.96 Quartz 1.31 1.39 1.54 1.07 1.00 0.95 Wehrlite Dunite 1.27 1.34 1.51 1.10 1.02 0.96 Quartz 1.66 1.72 1.96 1.04 1.00 0.90 Troctolite Dunite 1.59 1.67 1.91 1.08 1.01 0.91

After 75 freeze–thaw cycles, no damage was observed on the surface of the concrete samples. The samples withstood 50 freeze–thaw cycles without significant changes in weight. The loss of mass of the concrete samples with the addition of aggregates from dunite by 1.18%, from wehrlite—by 1.34%, from troctolite—by 1.67% was recorded. For the control sample, it was 1.83%. After 75 cycles, this characteristic was at the limit of acceptable values (2%). The frost resistance coefficient also reaches its limit values after 75 freeze–thaw cycles. Based on the obtained values, as well as the compressive strength values after the testing completion, the concrete was graded F50 for frost resistance. The increased water absorption and frost resistance values in the concrete samples with the addition of magnesium–silicate rocks are explained by a denser structure than in the control sample. The decrease in open porosity reduces the amount of absorbed liquid, which helps to soften the structure of the obtained material.

Minerals 2021, 11, 441 Abrasion testing has shown that the weight loss of the samples, made of magnesium-14 of 16 containing aggregate, does not exceed the weight loss of the control sample (Figure 11).

0.7

0.68

0.66 dunite sand 0.64 quartz sand 0.62 Weight loss, g/cm2 0.6 dunite wehrlite troctolite granite Crushed stone Figure 11. Dependence of the weight loss of concrete samples during abrasion on the aggregate type. Figure 11. Dependence of the weight loss of concrete samples during abrasion on the aggregate type. 4. Conclusions 2 DuniteAmong concrete mining has waste, the best there characteristics are many magnesium–silicate (0.63 g/cm ). This rocks. can be They explained are part by of the qualityultramafite–mafite of the raw material. complexes, Magnesium–silicate which are found rocks everywhere do not and contain include grains various of weak mineral rocks. Concretesdeposits. on Havingthem made high physicalof this material and mechanical have increased characteristics, density they and can strength, be used as which coarse also affectsand this fine characteristic. aggregates in heavyAccording concrete to production.the abrasion capacity, the concretes have grade G1 Thus,As concretes, a result of themade studies, of magnesium–silicate it was found that adding rock magnesium–silicate aggregates, have rockshigh tophysical the and compositionmechanical ofproperties concrete mixes and reducescan produc theire fluidity. load-bearing The use and of dunite special sand structures. helps to reduce the water demand of concrete mixes and makes a dense structure of the hardened material. The compressive strength of the concretes made of magnesium–silicate rock coarse aggregate at the age of 28 days of hardening is within 28 MPa, while for the control sample, this characteristic is 27.3 MPa. Replacement of quartz sand with dunite sand also leads to an increase in the concrete strength (~4%). Complete replacement of coarse and fine aggregates with magnesium–silicate rocks increases the concrete strength by 15–20% than the control sample. The concrete density depends on the type of aggregate as well. The samples containing dunite have the highest density values (2800 kg/m3), the reference samples have the lowest ones (2358 kg/m3). This can be explained by the high specific gravity of the used raw material and by the packing density of the obtained material. The concrete water absorption is within 6%. The softening coefficient is 0.85–0.87. They are marked F50 for freeze resistance and G1 for abrasion capacity. The obtained results showed that concretes made of magnesium–silicate rocks are a promising replacement for conventional concrete in building constructions. This will contribute to developing the concept of a closed-loop economy and will facilitate the environmental safety of the mining industry. However, to determine the possibility of using the obtained materials in special structures, it is necessary to investigate the aspects of chemical decomposition of magnesium– silicate rock concretes in an aggressive environment.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.I.K. and E.V.K.; Methodology, L.I.K.; Validation, L.I.K., I.Y.K. and P.L.P.; Formal Analysis, L.I.K. and I.Y.K.; Investigation, L.I.K., I.K. and P.L.P.; Resources, E.V.K.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, L.I.K. and E.V.K.; Writing—Review & Editing, E.V.K.; Vi- sualization, L.I.K.; Supervision, L.I.K.; Project Administration, L.I.K. and E.V.K.; Funding Acquisition, L.I.K. and E.V.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: The study was carried out within the framework of the state assignment by Baikal Institute of Nature Management, SB RAS-Project No AAA-A21-121011890003-4 and Geological Institute, SB RAS-Project No AAA-A21-121011890029-4. The study was conducted using facilities of the Center for “Analytical center of mineralogical, geochemical and isotope Studies” at the Geological Institute, SB RAS, and equipment of the CCU BINM SB RAS, Ulan-Ude, Russia. Minerals 2021, 11, 441 15 of 16

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The new data were created andr analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article. Acknowledgments: The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to the editorial board and 3 anonymous reviewers for their helpful remarks, which significantly improved the quality of the paper. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References 1. Emmanuel, A.Y.; Jerry, C.S.; Dzigbodi, D.A. Review of environmental and health impacts of mining in Ghana. J. Health Pollut. 2018, 8, 43–52. [CrossRef][PubMed] 2. Jain, M.K.; Das, A. Impact of mine waste leachates on aquatic environment: A review. Curr. Pollut. Rep. 2017, 3, 31–37. [CrossRef] 3. Wellen, C.; Shatilla, N.J.; Carey, S.K. The influence of mining on hydrology and solute transport in the Elk Valley, British Columbia, Canada. Environ. Res. Lett. 2018, 13, 074012. [CrossRef] 4. Tayebi-Khorami, M.; Edraki, M.; Corder, G.; Golev, A. Re-Thinking mining waste through an integrative approach led by circular economy aspirations. Minerals 2019, 9, 286. [CrossRef] 5. Carvalho, F.P. Mining industry and sustainable development: Time for Change. Food Energy Secur. 2017, 6, 61–77. [CrossRef] 6. Benarchid, Y.; Taha, Y.; Argane, R.; Tagnit-Hamou, A.; Benzaazoua, M. Concrete containing low-sulphide waste rocks as fine and coarse aggregates: Preliminary assessment of materials. J. Clean. Prod. 2019, 221, 419–429. [CrossRef] 7. Machi, A.E.; Mabroum, S.; Taha, Y.; Tagnit-Hamou, A.; Benzaazoua, M.; Hakkou, R. Use of flint from phosphate mine waste rocks as an alternative aggregates for concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021, 271, 121886. [CrossRef] 8. Góra, J.; Piasta, W. Impact of mechanical resistance of aggregate on properties of concrete. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2020, 13, e00438. [CrossRef] 9. Strzałkowski, J.; Garbalinska, H. The effect of aggregate shape on the properties of concretes with silica fume. Materials 2020, 13, 2780. [CrossRef][PubMed] 10. Prajapati, J.; Karanjit, S. Effect of coarse aggregate sources on the compressive strength of various grade of nominal mixed concrete. Jpn. Soc. Civ. Eng. 2019, 7, 52–60. [CrossRef] 11. Wang, Y.; Qiu, J.; Deng, W.; Xing, J.; Liang, J. Factors affecting brittleness behavior of coal-gangue ceramsite lightweigh aggregate concrete. Front. Mater. 2020, 7, 554718. [CrossRef] 12. Gayana, B.C.; Chandar, K.R. Sustainable use of mine waste and tailings with suitable admixture as aggregates in concrete pavements—A review. Adv. Concr. Constr. 2018, 6, 221–243. 13. Pilegis, M.; Gardner, D.; Lark, R. An investigation into the use of manufactured sand as a 100% replacement for fine aggregate in concrete. Materials 2016, 9, 440. [CrossRef][PubMed] 14. Tebbal, N.; Rahmouni, Z.E.A. Influence of local sand on the physicomechanical comportment and durability of high performance concrete. Adv. Civ. Eng. 2016, 2016, 3897064. [CrossRef] 15. Tapkire, G.V.; Wagh, H.D.; Jade, Y.R. The effect of sand particle size and shape on compressive strength of cement. Int. J. Adv. Res. Sci. Eng. 2017, 6, 672–677. 16. Belhadj, B.; Bederina, M.; Benguettache, K.; Queneudec, M. Effect of the type of sand on the fracture and mechanical properties of sand concrete. Adv. Concr. Constr. 2014, 2, 13–27. [CrossRef] 17. Mavroulidou, M. Mechanical properties and durability of concrete with water cooled copper slag aggregate. Waste Biomass Valor. 2017, 8, 1841–1854. [CrossRef] 18. Shen, W.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Z.; Cao, L.; Wu, D.; Wang, Y.; Ji, X. Influence of manufactured sand’s characteristics on its concrete performance. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 172, 574–583. [CrossRef] 19. Lozano-Lunar, A.; Dubchenko, I.; Bashynskyi, S.; Rodero, A.; Fernández, J.M.; Jiménez, J.R. Performance of self-compacting mortars with granite sludge as aggregate. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 251, 118998. [CrossRef] 20. Santos, C.R.; Tubino, R.M.C.; Schneider, I.A.H. Mineral processing and characterization of coal waste to be used as fine aggregates for concrete paving blocks. IBRACON Struct. Mater. J. 2015, 8, 14–24. [CrossRef] 21. González, J.S.; Boadella, I.L.; Gayarre, F.L.; Pérez, C.L.-C.; López, M.S.; Stochino, F. Use of mining waste to produce ultra-high- performance fibre-reinforced concrete. Materials 2020, 13, 2457. [CrossRef][PubMed] 22. Gou, M.; Zhou, L.; Then, N.W.Y. Utilization of tailings in cement and concrete: A review. Sci. Eng. Compos. Mater. 2019, 26, 449–464. [CrossRef] 23. Ugama, T.I.; Ejeh, S.P.; Amartey, D.Y. Effect of iron ore tailing on the properties of concrete. Civ. Environ. Res. 2014, 6, 7–13. 24. Tian, Z.X.; Zhao, Z.H.; Dai, C.Q.; Liu, S.J. Experimental study on the properties of concrete mixed with iron ore tailings. Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2016, 2016, 8606505. [CrossRef] 25. Krivenko, P.; Kovalchuk, O.; Boiko, O. Practical experience of construction of concrete pavement using non-conditional aggregates. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2019, 708, 012089. [CrossRef] Minerals 2021, 11, 441 16 of 16

26. Lam, E.J.; Zetola, V.; Ramírez, Y.; Montofré, Í.L.; Pereira, F. Making paving stones from copper mine tailings as aggregates. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 2448. [CrossRef][PubMed] 27. Naldrett, A.J. Magmatic Sulfide Deposits: Geology, Geochemistry and Exploration; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2004; p. 728. 28. Stowe, C.W. Compositions and tectonic settings of chromite deposits through time. Econ. Geol. 1994, 89, 528–546. [CrossRef] 29. Force, E.R. Geology of titanium-mineral deposits. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Pap. 1991, 259, 19–37. 30. Virta, R.L. Asbestos: Geology, mineralogy, mining, and uses. In United States Geological Survey Open-File Report 02–149; USGS: Reston, VA, USA, 2002; p. 38. 31. Harlow, G.E.; Sorensen, S.S. Jade (nephrite and jadeitite) and serpentinite: Metasomatic connections. Int. Geol. Rev. 2005, 47, 113–146. [CrossRef] 32. Pohl, W. Economic Geology: Principles and Practice: Metals, Minerals, Coal and Hydrocarbons—Introduction to Formation and Sustainable Exploration of Mineral Deposits; Wiley-Blackwell: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2011; p. 695. 33. Gurney, J.J.; Helmstaedt, H.H.; Richardson, S.H.; Shirey, S.B. Diamonds through time. Econ. Geol. 2010, 105, 689–712. [CrossRef] 34. Tappert, R.; Tappert, M.C. Diamonds in Nature: A Guide to Rough Diamonds; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 2011; p. 142. 35. Kislov, E.V.; Khudyakova, L.I. Yoko–Dovyren Layered Massif: Composition, Mineralization, Overburden and Dump Rock Utilization. Minerals 2020, 10, 682. [CrossRef] 36. Timofeeva, S.S.; Kislov, E.V.; Khudyakova, L.I. Yoko-Dovyren layered dunite-troctolite-gabbro massif, North Baikal region, Russia: Structure, composition and use of mineral raw materials. Earth Sci. Front. 2020, 27, 262–279. 37. Konnikov, E.G. Differentiated Ultrabasic-Basic Complexes in the Precambrian Rocks of Transbaikalia; Publishing House of Science: Novosibirsk, Russia, 1986; p. 127. (In Russian) 38. Kislov, E.V. The Yoko-Dovyren Layered Massif ; RAS SD Buryat Scientific Centre Publishing House: Ulan-Ude, Russia, 1998; p. 265. (In Russian) 39. Rytsk, E.Y.; Shalaev, V.S.; Rizvanova, N.G.; Krymskii, R.S.; Makeev, A.F.; Rile, G.V. The Olokit Zone of the Baikal Fold Region: New isotopic geochronological and geochemical data. Geotectonics 2002, 36, 24–35. 40. Ariskin, A.; Danyushevsky, L.; Nikolaev, G.; Kislov, E.; Fiorentini, M.; McNeill, A.; Kostitsyn, Y.; Goemann, K.; Feig, S.; Malyshev, A. The Dovyren Intrusive Complex (Southern Siberia, Russia): Insights into dynamics of an open magma chamber with implications for parental magma origin, composition, and Cu-Ni-PGE fertility. Lithos 2018, 302, 242–262. [CrossRef] 41. Manuilova, M.M.; Zarubin, V.V. Precambrian Vlcanogenic Rocks of the Northern Baikal Region; Publishing House of Science: Leningrad, Russia, 1981; p. 88. (In Russian) 42. Ariskin, A.A.; Danyushevsky, L.V.; Konnikov, E.G.; Maas, R.; Kostitsyn, Y.A.; McNeill, A.; Meffre, S.; Nikolaev, G.S.; Kislov, E.V. The Dovyren Intrusive Complex (Northern Baikal region, Russia): Isotope-geochemical markers of contamination of parental magmas and extreme enrichment of the source. Russ. Geol. Geophys. 2015, 56, 411–434. [CrossRef] 43. Ariskin, A.A.; Konnikov, E.G.; Danyushevsky, L.V.; Kislov, E.V.; Nikolaev, G.S.; Orsoev, D.A.; Barmina, G.S.; Bychkov, K.A. The Dovyren Intrusive Complex: Problems of petrology and Ni sulfide mineralization. Geochem. Int. 2009, 47, 425–453. [CrossRef] 44. Ariskin, A.A.; Kostitsyn, Y.A.; Konnikov, E.G.; Danyushevsky, L.V.; Meffre, S.; Nikolaev, G.S.; McNeill, A.; Kislov, E.V.; Orsoev, D.A. Geochronology of the Dovyren Intrusive Complex, Northwestern Baikal area, Russia, in the Neoproterozoic. Geochem. Int. 2013, 51, 859–875. [CrossRef] 45. Ernst, R.E.; Hamilton, M.A.; Söderlund, U.; Hanes, J.A.; Gladkochub, D.P.; Okrugin, A.V.; Kolotilina, T.; Mekhonoshin, A.S.; Bleeker, W.; LeCheminant, A.N.; et al. Long-lived connection between southern Siberia and northern Laurentia in the Proterozoic. Nat. Geosci. 2016, 9, 464–469. [CrossRef] 46. GOST 8267–93 Crushed Stone and Gravel of Solid Rocks for Construction Works. In Specifications; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2018; p. 27. (In Russian) 47. GOST 8736–2014 Sand for Construction Works. In Specifications; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2019; p. 16. (In Russian) 48. GOST 10178–85 Portland Cement and Portland Blastfurnace Slag Cement. In Specifications; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2008; p. 14. (In Russian) 49. GOST 30515–2013 Cements. In General Specifications; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2019; p. 39. (In Russian) 50. GOST 23732-2011 Water for Concrete and Mortars. In Specifications; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2012; p. 21. (In Russian) 51. Li, B.X.; Ke, G.J.; Zhou, M.K. Influence of manufactured sand characteristics on strength and abrasion resistance of pavement cement concrete. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 3849–3853. [CrossRef] 52. Dilek, U. Effects of manufactured sand characteristics on water demand of mortar and concrete mixtures. J. Test. Eval. 2015, 43, 562–573. [CrossRef] 53. GOST 12730.3-78 Concretes. In Method of Determination of Water Absorption; Standartinform: Moscow, Russia, 2007; p. 6. (In Russian) 54. Apeagyei, A.K.; Grenfell, J.R.A.; Airey, G.D. Influence of aggregate absorption and diffusion properties on moisture damage in asphalt mixtures. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 2015, 16, 404–422. [CrossRef]