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Classification of Endocrine Tumors in the Age of Integrated Genomics 25 8 Endocrine-Related T J Giordano Genomic classification of 25:8 T171–T187 Cancer endocrine tumors THEMATIC REVIEW 65 YEARS OF THE DOUBLE HELIX Classification of endocrine tumors in the age of integrated genomics Thomas J Giordano Divisions of Anatomic Pathology and Molecular & Genomic Pathology, Departments of Pathology and Internal Medicine, Michigan Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA Correspondence should be addressed to T J Giordano: [email protected] This paper is part of a thematic review section celebrating 65 Years of the Double Helix. The guest editors for this section were Charis Eng, William Foulkes and Jérôme Bertherat. Abstract The classification of human cancers represents one of the cornerstones of modern Key Words pathology. Over the last century, surgical pathologists established the current f neoplasia taxonomy of neoplasia using traditional histopathological parameters, which include f neuroendocrine tumors tumor architecture, cytological features and cellular proliferation. This morphological f molecular genetics classification is efficient and robust with high reproducibility and has served patients f thyroid and health care providers well. The most recent decade has witnessed an explosion f adrenal cortex of genome-wide molecular genetic and epigenetic data for most cancers, including tumors of endocrine organs. The availability of this expansive multi-dimensional genomic data, collectively termed the cancer genome, has catalyzed a re-examination of the classification of endocrine tumors. Here, recent cancer genome studies of various endocrine tumors, including those of the thyroid, pituitary and adrenal glands, pancreas, small bowel, lung and skin, are presented with special emphasis on how genomic insights Endocrine-Related Cancer are impacting endocrine tumor classification. (2018) 25, T171–T187 Introduction Human cancers are genomic diseases characterized by common types of human cancer have been elucidated germline and somatic genetic defects that drive and define and characterized, largely due to remarkable advances in the neoplastic phenotype (Stratton et al. 2009), which next-generation sequencing technologies (Metzker 2010, includes the ability of transformed cells to invade adjacent Goodwin et al. 2016, Levy & Myers 2016). Coordinated normal tissues and metastasize to distant sites (Hanahan cancer genome discovery and characterization efforts by & Weinberg 2011). Identifying and understanding the multi-disciplinary networks of investigators, such as The cellular and molecular consequences of these mutations Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA; https://cancergenome.nih. has been one of the areas of intense focus in cancer gov) (McCain 2006, Cancer Genome Atlas Research 2013, research for the last several decades. These efforts were Wang et al. 2016) and the International Cancer Genome greatly accelerated by sequencing the human genome Consortium (ICGC; https://icgc.org) (Zhang et al. (Lander et al. 2001, Venter et al. 2001). Subsequently, 2011, Jennings & Hudson 2013), as well as numerous during the most recent decade, the genomes of the most institutional studies, have systematically addressed most http://erc.endocrinology-journals.org © 2018 Society for Endocrinology https://doi.org/10.1530/ERC-18-0116 Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. Printed in Great Britain Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 10/03/2021 10:09:38PM via free access -18-0116 Endocrine-Related T J Giordano Genomic classification of 25:8 T172 Cancer endocrine tumors common cancers, as well as some rare types. Collectively, number data to extract critical insights into the role of these integrated, multi-dimensional genomic studies have telomere maintenance and whole-genome doubling in permitted a re-evaluation of human cancer at the most these cancers. Such sophisticated bioinformatic analyses fundamental level, i.e. pathologic tumor classification, are not possible when only single-platform molecular which has been traditionally based on histopathology. data are available. As such, the true power of the TCGA, In many tumor types, these studies have confirmed ICGA and similar integrated genomic characterization existing tumor taxonomies, which in fact are the expected studies lies in their ability to leverage multi-dimensional results since the morphology of a given tumor reflects its genomic data to derive novel insights into the molecular cumulative genetic and epigenetic changes. However, underpinnings and classification of cancer. in most tumors, analysis of genomic data has revealed previously unrecognized molecular heterogeneity within pathologic entities and catalyzed significant refinements Thyroid cancer of tumor classification schemes. Together with the Follicular cell-derived carcinomas identification of novel genetic alterations, these results have profound implications for the treatment of cancer Tumors of the thyroid gland derived from follicular cells are patients. broadly divided into differentiated and undifferentiated Tumors of endocrine organs are similarly genomic subtypes. Differentiated thyroid cancer includes papillary diseases. Compared to more common cancers, endocrine thyroid carcinoma (PTC) and its many histological tumors sometimes do not attract equal attention and variants, follicular thyroid carcinoma (FTC) and Hurthle resources largely due to their relative rare nature. cell (oncocytic) carcinoma. The remaining tumors are Fortunately for these patients, many endocrine cancer classified as either poorly differentiated thyroid carcinoma types have been investigated as part this genomic (PDCA) or anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) depending revolution. Here, the primary genomic studies of on their histology and degree of thyroid-related gene endocrine tumors will be reviewed, with special emphasis expression. By definition, ATC has essentially lost all of on those studies with significant taxonomic implications. its follicular cell differentiation; hence, its alternative designation of undifferentiated thyroid carcinoma. Despite the prognostic significance of the differentiated Power of integrated genomic analysis vs undifferentiated taxonomy, it is now fully recognized Initially, the majority of genome-wide genetic and that such a coarse classification scheme is inadequate to epigenetic studies interrogated a single molecular capture the full clinicopathologic and genetic diversity component of the cancer genome, such as the seen across thyroid cancers. transcriptome, methylome or compendium of copy PTC represents the most common follicular cell thyroid number alterations. While these single-platform studies cancer (Kitahara & Sosa 2016). As such, it was selected for have successfully advanced our knowledge of many study by TCGA for its project on thyroid cancer. The study cancer types, the availability of multi-platform molecular cohort included 496 primary tumors analyzed using their data on the same tumor cohort permits a higher level of standardized molecular platforms that included whole analytical integration, which yields greater understanding exome DNA sequencing, RNA sequencing, microRNA of tumorigenesis and enhanced hypothesis generation. For sequencing, copy number analysis, DNA methylation example, the TCGA thyroid cancer study (Cancer Genome profiling and proteomic profiling (Cancer Genome Atlas Atlas Research Network 2014) confirmed increased Research Network 2014, Giordano 2014). For the sake of expression of an oncogenic microRNA (mir-21) in tumors simplicity, PTCs were histologically classified into one of with BRAFV600E mutation and aggressive histologic three main subtypes: classical type, tall cell variant and features. However, by incorporating DNA methylation follicular variant. data, which revealed altered methylation of the mir-21 Despite the fact that PTC is a relatively indolent promoter, a hypothesis was generated in which epigenetic cancer with an excellent overall prognosis and survival, regulation of microRNAs plays a role in the development many insights were nonetheless derived from its of aggressive forms of BRAFV600E-mutated thyroid cancer. genomic characterization (Fig. 1). PTC was observed to Another such example from the TCGA adrenal cortical have an overall low tumor mutational burden (Table 1) carcinoma project (Zheng et al. 2016) combined telomere and a stable genome with few copy number alterations. length data with genotype, gene expression and copy Prevalent somatic alterations included BRAFV600E, RET and http://erc.endocrinology-journals.org © 2018 Society for Endocrinology https://doi.org/10.1530/ERC-18-0116 Published by Bioscientifica Ltd. Printed in Great Britain Downloaded from Bioscientifica.com at 10/03/2021 10:09:38PM via free access Endocrine-Related T J Giordano Genomic classification of 25:8 T173 Cancer endocrine tumors Figure 1 Genomic landscape of papillary thyroid carcinoma. (A) Tumor mutational burden. (B) Various molecular and clinicopathological features. (C) Number and frequency of recurrent somatic mutations. (D) Number and frequency of gene fusions. (E) Number and frequency of copy number alterations. (F) Types of driving alterations across the cohort. Reproduced, with permission, from Cancer Genome Atlas Research Network (2014). other tyrosine kinase gene fusions and RAS family point advantage. The mutual exclusive nature of BRAFV600E mutations. These mutations were almost entirely mutually and RAS mutations permitted the development of a exclusive, which strongly suggests that possessing more BRAFV600E-RAS score,
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