Conservation Value of the North American

Borealfrom an Ethnobotanical Forest Perspective

Author About the David Suzuki Foundation Amanda Karst The David Suzuki Foundation works with government, business, and individuals A report commissioned by the Canadian to conserve our environment through Boreal Initiative, the David Suzuki science-based education, advocacy, and Foundation, and the Boreal Songbird policy work, and acting as a catalyst for Initiative social change. The Foundation’s main goals include ensuring that Canada does Author bio its fair share to avoid dangerous climate Amanda Karst lives in Winnipeg and is change; protecting the diversity and a research associate at the Centre for health of Canada’s marine, freshwater, Indigenous Environmental Resources and terrestrial wildlife and ecosystems; (CIER). Her work at CIER has involved and making sure that Canadians can watershed planning, traditional foods maintain a high quality of life within the and medicines, climate change, and finite limits of nature through efficient environmental monitoring. Amanda is resource use. For more information visit: Métis, originally from Saskatchewan. www.davidsuzuki.org Before working at CIER, she worked on a number of projects in About the Boreal Songbird Initiative ethnobotany and plant ecology in British The Boreal Songbird Initiative (BSI) is Columbia, Saskatchewan, Quebec a non-profit organization dedicated to and Newfoundland and Labrador. raising awareness, through science, She obtained her M.Sc. in biology education, and outreach, of the (ethnobotany/plant ecology) from the importance of the Canadian Boreal University of Victoria in 2005. Forest to North America’s birds, other wildlife, and the global environment. Acknowledgements For more information visit: The author would like to thank Alestine www.borealbirds.org Andre, Kelly Bannister, Stuart Crawford, Ann Garibaldi, Cheryl Jerome, Marla Suggested citation Robson and Nancy Turner for their Karst, A. 2010. Conservation Value of valuable comments on the paper. the North American Boreal Forest from an Ethnobotanical Perspective. Canadian About the Canadian Boreal Initiative Boreal Initiative, David Suzuki Foundation Photos on cover: The Canadian Boreal Initiative (CBI) is and Boreal Songbird Initiative; Ottawa, Temiscamie River, Otis Mountains a national convener for conservation in ON; Vancouver, BC; Seattle, WA. Proposed National Park -Garth Lenz Canada’s Boreal Forest. We work with Highbush cranberries conservation organizations, First Nations, (Viburnum edule) -Nancy Turner industry and others – including members Cloudberries of the Boreal Leadership Council – to (Rubus chamaemorus) -Amanda Karst link science, policy and conservation solutions across Canada’s Boreal Forest. For more information visit: Copyright 2010 by the www.borealcanada.ca David Suzuki Foundation and the Boreal Songbird Initiative ISBN Number: 978-0-9842238-0-0

2 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Introduction Introduction use of a wide range of Boreal plants for food, medicine, shelter, transportation, and art (Andre et al. 2006, Arnason et The Boreal region in North America al. 1981, Kuhnlein and Turner 1991, covers a vast area (almost six million Marles et al. 2000, and Moerman 1998). km2) composed of a patchwork of Plants also hold spiritual and ceremonial unique habitats (Johnson et al 1995; CBI significance, important in maintaining 2005; Trelawny 1988). The traditional cultural well-being and identity. territory of many indigenous1 people is within the Boreal region; there are It has been estimated that the hundreds of Aboriginal communities current value of the Canadian Boreal in the Canadian Boreal (Senate to Aboriginal people in terms of subcommittee 1999). Indigenous subsistence (plant and animal) foods connections to the Boreal landscape alone is between 261.4 million and go far beyond utilitarian purposes. Not 575.1 million dollars (Anielski 2005). This only have indigenous people obtained estimate does not encompass aspects all the resources necessary for survival of the indigenous relationship to the from this environment, they have also Boreal landscape in which no monetary developed a sacred cultural connection value can be placed, for example, as a to the Boreal. Specifically, the Boreal has source of spiritual and cultural inspiration significant ethnobotanical (relationship Mountain River, a tributary Irene Owsley and wellbeing. However, this estimate between people and plants) importance of the Mackenzie River provides an indication of the economic to indigenous people from this region. importance of this region to indigenous This ethnobotanical importance along people living there. with the collective traditional knowledge that is unique to and intrinsically tied to this region and the rich variety of Boreal plants have always played a plants from which this knowledge significant role in the cultural fabric stems, lend tremendous weight to the of indigenous people living in the significant conservation value of the region. Food and beverage plants Boreal region. This paper will outline the provide significant nutritional benefits, variety of ways that indigenous people especially to predominantly meat- use the plants in the Boreal region, the based diets in the Boreal region. The significance of plants to their cultures knowledge of plant medicines and and the major threats to Boreal applications were and continue to be a plants today. fundamental component of the holistic healing practices of indigenous people. Comprehensive use of the Boreal Traditional ecological knowledge can landscape in early times would not have be defined as a “cumulative body of been possible without transportation knowledge, practice, and belief, evolving and other technological materials that by adaptive processes and handed were made from plant products. It is down through generations by cultural not only the detailed knowledge of plant transmission, about the relationship of resources but the cultural values and living beings (including humans) with social practices, communicated through one another and with their environment” stories, legends, and place names that (Berkes et al. 2000). These indigenous were and continue to be essential to knowledge systems have resulted in the

1 The use of “Indigenous” throughout this paper represents Aboriginal people (i.e. Inuit, Métis and First Nations people) in Canada and indigenous people (Alaska Natives and Native Americans) in the United States.

2 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 3 Indigenous People

lives of indigenous people in the Boreal and Alberta (e.g. Chipewyan). Many of region. The Boreal landscape was, and the names listed previously represent in many incidences continues to act as a names that were used in anthropological grocery store, pharmacy, school, church, literature, but may not necessarily a source of strength and the place in represent the names preferred by which wisdom is attained. Boreal plants indigenous people. Some groups have Plants have been an important are currently threatened by a number defined or reclaimed their own names part of indigenous Boreal cultures of factors such as habitat loss, climate for their people and languages. For for thousands of years. change, and industrial development. The example, many Ojibway speakers prefer health, wellbeing, and cultural identity of to identify themselves as Anishnaabe. indigenous people in the Boreal region Many indigenous groups in Labrador is rooted in the health of the land and and Quebec that were previously known waters. Traditional ecological knowledge, as Naskapi and Montagnais (languages unique to each local area, must continue belonging to the Cree language family), to be lived on the land for the social, now identify as Innu. The Métis, people cultural, nutritional, and economic with a mix of European and First Nations/ wellbeing of indigenous people, which Inuit ancestry, reside in areas across the necessitates conservation of the Boreal region. The Inuit people occupy Boreal region. areas North of the Boreal region, but occasionally travel south into forested areas (Marles et al. 2000).

Indigenous people Although there is substantial cultural diversity among the indigenous people in the Boreal region in the Boreal region, there are some commonalities. In the recent past, Indigenous people who reside in the most Boreal indigenous people were Boreal region are comprised of two main generally nomadic hunter-gatherers, language groups: Athapaskan (Dene) astute observers, who moved seasonally in the northwest and Algonquian in to follow resources (McClellan and the southeast (Marles et al. 2000). The Denniston 1981; Rogers and Smith two main branches of the Algonquian 1981). During the long winter seasons, language family are Cree and Ojibway when the land is covered in snow and (Rhodes and Todd 1981). Dialects of water bodies are frozen, people would Cree (e.g. Woods Cree, East Cree, often split into smaller groups to harvest Attikamek) are spoken by Aboriginal the fewer available resources. The main Garth Lenz people living in Alberta across to Traditional Dene beadwork in mode of transportation in the winter was the Northwest Territories Quebec. Dialects of Ojibway (e.g. by foot, snowshoe and toboggan. During Saulteaux, Central Ojibwa, Algonquin) the short warm summers, larger groups are spoken from Saskatchewan across would often gather together, along to Ontario. Languages from the Northern shores of rivers, lakes and waterways Athapaskan language group are spoken to trade resources, harvest fish and by indigenous people from the subarctic renew social ties. The main form of interior of Alaska (e.g. Koyukon, Tanana, travel during the summer period was by Dena’ina) across to Yukon and Northwest canoe. Subsistence was predominantly Territories (e.g. Gwich’in, Tutchone, by hunting big game, trapping, and North Slavey, Dogrib, Chipewyan) and fishing. Meat sources include caribou south to Northern British Columbia (Barren ground and woodland), moose, (e.g. Tahltan, Carrier, Sekani, Beaver)

4 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Inupiat Aboriginal peoples of North America's Boreal region

Koyukon Yupik Gwich’in ALASKA Han

Tutchone Dene Tlingit Dene Kaska Tahltan Dene-tha

Denesuline Dunne-za Denesuline Inuit Cree Denesuline Inuit Innu Cree Mi’kmaq Cree CANADA Cree Innu

Ojibway Anishinabe Atikamekw

North America’s Boreal region Algonquin UNITED STATES

Source: Canadian Boreal Initiative

bear, sheep, goat, lynx, partridge, Beattie et al. 2000; Dickson et al. 2004). waterfowl, beaver, rabbit/snowshoe Other archaeological excavations, hare, otter, porcupine, and fish (e.g. such as the Saskatoon Mountain site salmon, whitefish, trout) (McClellan and in northwestern Alberta, can provide Denniston 1981; Rogers and indirect evidence of plant use (Andre et Smith 1981). al. 2006). At this site, a hearth located at the base contained charcoal dated Plants have been an important part of from more than 9,000 years ago. At indigenous Boreal cultures for thousands this hearth there were a number of of years (Andre et al. 2006). A number carbonized seeds found from species of archaeological findings support this. (e.g. Rubus sp. [raspberry], Prunus sp. In 1999 the remains of Kwädáy Dän [chokecherry], Rosa sp. [wild rose], Ts’ìnchi (‘person of long ago that was Fragaria sp. [wild strawberry], and found’), who lived 550-600 years ago, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi [kinnikinnick was discovered along with numerous or bearberry]) that are still used by Two old Sahtu Dene Irene Owsley plant and animal remains. Discovered indigenous people in the Boreal today canoes in Fort Good in a melting glacier in the Saint Elias (Andre et al. 2006). Hope, NWT Mountains of Tatshenshini-Alsek Park, British Columbia (approximately 1,600 The next sections will outline the details m elevation), present day Southern of plant use by Indigenous people in the Tutchone territory, Kwädáy Dän Ts’ìnchi Boreal. Of course, as expected, there was found with a twined conifer-root hat, have been changes in plant use over mountain hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) time, for example, shifts in intensity of needles, and the fruit of mountain use, but in general, the reliance on and sweet-cicely (Osmorhiza berteroi, a applications of Boreal plants remain high. herbaceous plant) (Andre et al. 2006;

4 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 5 Plant Foods Plant foods or families set up berry picking camps, staying for days or weeks (Jones 1983; Oswalt 1957; Parlee et al. 2004; Russell Plants used for food by indigenous 1991, 1994; Thornton 1999). Generally people have always been essential women and children were, and still are, components in a predominantly meat- the primary berry gatherers (Jones, based diet since they contribute 1983; Kari, 1987; Russell, 1991) but men important vitamins and nutrients, such as sometimes gather as well (Karst 2005; Vitamin C, A, calcium, and fibre (Arnason Oswalt 1957; Thornton 1999). Among et al. 1981; Marles et al. 2000; Kuhnlein the Algonquin and Innu whole bands Berries are the plant food type and Turner 1991). Indigenous people would move to good blueberry picking learned to take advantage of a variety of most frequently gathered by areas in August and September (Black, plant foods, which are generally divided contemporary indigenous people in 1980; McGee, 1961). Those that did not into categories of green vegetables, have close access to wild blueberries the Boreal region. “root” vegetables, fruits, and other would travel great distances (e.g. 90 plant foods, including the inner bark of miles by train) to collect them for their trees and plants used for beverages and own use and for selling, combining these flavourings (Andre et al. 2006). trips to visit relatives (Black 1980; Parlee et al. 2006). Berries are the plant food type most frequently gathered by contemporary Traditionally, people carried and stored indigenous people in the Boreal region their berries and other food in birchbark (Andre et al. 2006). They serve as a baskets (Andre and Fehr 2001; Kari sweet flavouring agent for foods and 1991; Marles et al. 2000). Berries can be also provide necessary nutrients, such eaten fresh, mixed with oil and/or sugar as Vitamin C and sometimes Vitamin or served in “Eskimo/Indian ice cream” A and calcium (Kuhnlein and Turner (Eidlitz 1969; Jones 1983; Kari 1987; 1991). Most berries such as crowberries Kuhnlein and Turner, 1991). This last dish, (Empetrum nigrum), low sweet popular with many indigenous groups, blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium), is made by whipping warmed animal fat bog blueberries (V. uliginosum), into a foam by hand. As the fat slowly saskatoon berries (Amelanchier alnifolia), cools, berries, and sometimes cooked Cree children picking blueberries Natasha Moine and cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus) or fermented greens, fish, or meat, are available between July and August are added (Jones, 1983). A number of (Andre et al. 2006). Some, such as indigenous people make foods from a small cranberries (V. oxycoccus), bog combination of plants, meat and fat/oil. blueberries (V. uliginosum), bearberries The Gwich’in eat itsuh, where berries are (Arctostaphylos alpina), rosehips, mixed with pounded dried fish or dried (Rosa acicularis) highbush cranberries meat (Andre and Fehr 2001). Pemmican, (Viburnum edule), and lingonberries a well known staple among prairie Plains (V. vitis-idaea), are still available into people, was made with dried, powdered September and in the winter (Andre et caribou meat, berries, and caribou lard by al. 2006). the Chipewyan (Marles et al. 2000). Berry gathering is typically a much Each type of fruit would require different anticipated event (Kuhnlein and Turner conditions for storage, commonly 1991). Often groups of friends and/ Crowberries (Empetrum nigrum) Nancy Turner drying or underground storage, before

6 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective freezers were available (Andre et al. stored for winter, they would be put 2006). Some people would mash some in barrels or pokes with animal oil or types of berries, like blueberries, and berries, and place in underground pits dry them in the sun into cakes; the (Jones 1983; Wennekens 1985). cakes would be eaten with other foods after being soaked in water (Kuhnlein Roots (roots, corms, bulbs, rhizomes and Turner 1991; Wennekens 1985). and tubers) serve as an important Historically, berries were often kept in source of carbohydrates in traditional underground pits to prevent spoiling, diets of indigenous people in the Boreal sometimes stored in seal oil or water (Andre et al. 2006). Alpine sweetvetch with other berries or greens (Andre and (Hedysarum alpinum; also known as Fehr 2001; Jones 1983; Wennekens Eskimo potato, licorice root, Alaska 1985). The containers used to store the carrot, or bearroot) is one of the most berries underground were often baskets popular root foods and was gathered or food pokes, which were pouches either just before freeze-up in the fall made of the skin or stomach of a seal or or as soon as the ground thaws in the other animal (Heller 1976; Jones 1983; spring (Andre and Fehr 2001; Kuhnlein Russell 1991; Shismaref Day School and Turner 1991). Water parsnip (Sium Students 1952). Some favoured Boreal sauve) was also a popular root that berries include bog blueberry (Vaccinium was dug in the spring and summer, uliginosum), cloudberry (also known as and it was eaten raw, fried, steamed, bakeapple, or for some, salmonberry; or roasted. Both alpine sweetvetch Rubus chamaemorus), saskatoon and water parsnip are very similar (also called serviceberry; Amelanchier in appearance to poisonous species alnifolia) and lingonberry, or lowbush (boreal sweetvetch [Hedysarum boreale] Cree prepping roots Natasha Moine cranberry (Viburnum edule; see Table 1). and water hemlock [Cicuta spp.], Some of the less flavourful berries (e.g. respectively), which underscores the bunchberry; Cornus canadensis) were importance of adeptness at recognizing generally harvested less intensely in the the proper species. The survival of past, except during times of famine. indigenous people and their continued use of plant resources depended on their Roots (roots, corms, bulbs, rhizomes Greens (stems, shoots, leaves of edible ability to skillfully identify the proper plants) provide essential nutrients such plant species. and tubers) serve as an important as vitamin C, carotene, folates, iron, source of carbohydrates in diets of calcium, and magnesium (Kuhnlein and Wild rice (Zizania aquatica) was a vital indigenous people in the Boreal. Turner 1991; Szczawinski and Turner food source to the Ojibway and Cree in 1980). Plants are often gathered while the eastern part of the Boreal (Kuhnlein they are young because when they and Turner 1991) and has more recently mature their taste often becomes too become a specialty item. It is harvested strong and they become toxic or difficult from late August to late September. to digest (Andre et al. 2006; Kuhnlein The traditional method of harvesting is and Turner 1991). Common greens by canoe, in which plants are initially include fireweed, cattails Typha( spp.), tied together in bundles. Two people and mountain-sorrel (Oxyria digyna). The work together, one poling through the plants can be eaten immediately, either bundles of wild rice, the other hanging fresh, cooked, or they were fermented the bundles over the canoe and beating in the past. Historically, if greens were the rice off the plants into the canoe.

6 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 7 Historically the rice would be stored in birch and drank it as a beverage or added sacks or underground caches after it was it to soups (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). cured and the awns were thrashed off. Wild chives (Allium schoenoprasum) are Wild rice is the only cereal crop widely used to flavour foods. Wild ginger that grows wild in Canada and is (Asarum canadense) was often used by currently being marketed by some the Innu and Ojibway as seasoning in indigenous groups. cooking. It was also common to chew on the pitch (the older hardened sap) of Some indigenous people in the Boreal conifers, especially white spruce (Picea region ate the inner bark or cambium spp.), like a chewing gum (Andre et al. (the growing layer between the bark 2006; Andre and Fehr 2001; Hebda et al. and wood) of some tree species in the 1996; Jones 1983; Kuhnlein and Turner spring and early summer. The inner bark 1991; Marles et al. 2000; Wennekens was often grated into fluffy layers and 1985). Chewing pitch is said to help the eaten or dried and pounded into flour. teeth and gums as well as deter children The Eastern Gwich’in and Inupiat ate the from eating berries while out berry cambium of a number of willow species, picking, since the pitch “spoils the taste Amanda Karst Lichen on rocks and trees which are rich in vitamin C (Andre of any food for hours and hours” and Fehr 2001; Jones 1983). Western (Jones 1983). hemlock and mountain hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla, T. mertensiana) were also Lichen was a regular food source to used for their cambium by the Chugach some and a reliable famine food to other and others who had access to these indigenous people in the Boreal (Andre trees. The Ulkatcho Carrier, Chilcotin et al. 2006). Due to the indigestibility (Tsilhqot’in), and others ate the inner bark of complex polysaccharides contained of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) (Hebda in lichens, preparations of lichen that et al. 1996). The Innu ate the inner bark neutralize acids prior to consumption is of balsam fir Abies( balsamea) and paper critical. The most widespread method of birch (Betula papyrifera) and they were eating lichen is partially digested, from a known for their regular consumption caribou stomach or rumen (Andre et al. of inner bark (Arnason et al. 1981; 2006; Andre and Fehr 2001; Eidlitz 1969; Chamberlain 1891). Marles et al. 2000). The caribou stomach sometimes also contains mushrooms, People living in the Boreal region horsetails, birch, willow, shoots of consume a number of plants for sedges, cottongrasses, berries, and beverages and often the plants herbs and all the contents would be used to make drinks are considered fermented or cooked and eaten with medicinal as well. Labrador tea (Ledum meat (Andre and Fehr 2001; Eidlitz groenlandicum), a popular beverage for 1969). This food provides a number of indigenous groups across Canada, is nutritional benefits, such as vitamins C, available and gathered year round (Black B12, A, and D, carbohydrates, and some 1980; Kuhlein and Turner 1991; Marles protein (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). The et al. 2000; Speck 1917). Rosehips (Rosa complex carbohydrates and proteins acicularis) and wintergreen, or teaberry that are generally indigestible to humans (Gaultheria procumbens) are widely are partially broken down in the caribou gathered beverage plants (Black 1980; stomach (Kuhnlein and Turner 1991). Kuhnlein and Turner 1991; Turner and Other methods of eating lichen species Szczawinski 1978). Some indigenous are to soften it in hot water and mix with groups collected the sap from paper berries, fish eggs or grease (e.g.Cladonia

8 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective rangiferina, Alectoria spp.) or make a European explorers and traders made Due to the indigestibility of stew or gravy (e.g. rock trip lichen). The use of a number of edible plants (e.g. complex polysaccharides contained process of thoroughly washing, boiling berries, conifer teas, alpine sweetvetch in lichens, preparations of lichen or soaking lichen helps remove the [Hedysarum alpinum], rock tripe lichen mildly toxic secondary compounds that [Umbilicaria and related genera]) and that neutralize acids prior to are typically found in lichens (Crawford in some cases they relied on these consumption was critical. 2007). In general, it is assumed that plants for their survival (Andre et al. northern indigenous people did not eat 2006). Additionally there are a number mushrooms in the past, but there is of European plants that became evidence of minor use (Andre et naturalized in North America, such as al. 2006). lamb’s-quarters (Chenopodium album) and common dandelion (Taraxacum The knowledge and use of wild food officinale) that were adopted by Boreal plants not only benefited indigenous indigenous people (Andre et al. 2006). people (Andre et al. 2006). Some early

Labrador tea and reindeer lichen Amanda Karst

8 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 9 Medicinal Plants Medicinal plants addressed (Andre et al. 2006). Cultural values, beliefs, and rituals as well as the role of the family and other community Plants also play a central role in members are all necessary components traditional healing practices and wellness of healing (Andre et al. 2006; Andre, of indigenous people in the Boreal Welsh, and Turner 2003). Social activities region, through both the treatment of like medicinal plant collecting or berry- injuries and ailments and maintenance picking excursions provide a number of general health. Medicinal plants of health benefits: the nutritional/ come from all plant types: trees, shrubs, medicinal benefits of the plant, the herbaceous flowering plants, ferns and physical activity involved in gathering as fern allies, mosses and lichens, as well well as the opportunity to bring families as fungi (Andre et al. 2006). Shrubs and and community members together. For Nancy Turner trees (e.g. Abies balsamea, Larix laricina, Labrador tea (Ledum many indigenous people in the Boreal, groenlandicum) Picea spp, Pinus spp, Tsuga canadensis, the natural world and spiritual world are Thuja occidentalis) are the plant type connected, which plays an important part used most intensively for medicine in traditional medicine (Andre et al. 2006). (Andre and Fehr 2001; Arnason et al. 1981; Garibaldi 1999). Often there are specific protocols for the collection, preparation and Medicines are prepared and applied application of medicinal plants, which in various ways, depending upon the are fundamental to the healing process disease, injury, or ailment to be treated (Sherry and Vuntut to Gwitchin First (Andre et al. 2006). An extract or Nation 1999; Wennekens 1985). In many infusion, where plant parts are immersed cases, offerings of material things (e.g. in hot water, is often made to treat tobacco, matches, shells, money, tea) or internal ailments or as a general tonic. prayers are provided before a medicine is A poultice or plaster, where the plant ‘is harvested (Andre 2006; Garibaldi 1999). mash up or ground into a powder and Some indigenous people caution the applied to the body, or a powder made use of medicinal plants by individuals from the plant, is often used to treat not traditionally or properly taught by a external ailments. Colds and respiratory knowledgeable person or elder. Doing so ailments are sometimes treated by may bring harm to them, either from the having the patient inhale steam from potential misidentification or application boiling the medicine (Andre and Fehr of a plant or out of not following the 2001; Garibaldi 1999; Marles et al. appropriate protocols. 2000; Ryan et al. 1994). Other methods of preparation include: bath (an herbal soak for part of or whole body), powder Some protocols for plant collection or snuff (plant material ground into a pertain to the effectiveness of the powder, often inhaled through the nose), medicine or the resulting health of the and salve (thick herbal paste applied to plant or environment. The Innu believed skin) (Garibaldi 1999). that when bark is collected from a tree it should always be peeled downward and if it was peeled upward, the effect Indigenous people traditionally have a of the infusion would be “annulled” holistic approach to health, in which both (Tantaquidgeon 1930). Many groups the physical and emotional aspects are maintain the necessity of not stripping

10 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Other Uses

bark (called ‘girdling’) from the entire were an integral item. There were a tree trunk when collecting inner or variety of snowshoe styles, from more outer bark, since this stripping kills the oval shapes in the East to the more tree (Andre et al. 2006; Andre and Fehr narrow style in the West (Rogers and 2001). These protocols were sometimes Smith 1981). Snowshoes are made communicated through storytelling. For using a frame from larch (tamarack) or example the Gwich’in narrative about birch wood and some people continue to spruce gum informs people that spruce make snowshoes today. The toboggan or gum applied to a wound must fall off sled was necessary for moving supplies on its own (and not be pulled off before and belongings in the winter. Toboggans this) in order for the medicine to work are often made from two long boards (Andre 2006). of larch or birch, attached to each other with cross bars.

The canoe allowed for comprehensive Other uses use of expansive waterways in the Boreal region. Canoes were often made Most indigenous people in the Boreal from birch bark with cedar, spruce, or fir historically relied on animal products to for the frames. Some groups also used meet all their clothing, manufacturing, spruce-bark canoes. The construction of and construction needs (Andre et al. a birch bark canoe was a labour-intensive 2006). However, plant materials, namely process that required the cooperation tree products, were and still are used and expertise of a network of individuals in a variety of different ways, some of (Evans 2008). Canoe building would which were fundamental to the survival typically take place in the spring or early of Boreal indigenous people in the summer, when the bark was more past. As nomadic people, the ability easily removed. The canoe invented by to travel across the landscape was indigenous people in North America is essential to existence. The main modes the only bark canoe in the world that of transportation for most indigenous continued its use even after European Boreal people were the canoe, contact (Jennings 2002). European snowshoe and toboggan or sled, which water craft was adapted from the North were made using plant products. By American canoe due to its superior making use of the vast waterways and design and engineering and it became extensive snow cover indigenous people the primary means for communication in the Boreal were able to cover great and trade across the continent. distances, which was necessary in order to follow the spatially and temporally Many Boreal indigenous people variable resources in this region. traditionally had hide-covered lodging but some used boughs or birch bark In the Boreal region, the snow often as a covering and all used trees for the does not pack down right away and structural foundation (McClellan and remains soft for long periods, which Denniston 1981; Rogers and Smith means any person trying to travel over 1981). Spruce boughs were also used to this snow requires the means to support line the floor of houses and as bedding their weight. Since all winter hunting (Rogers and Smith 1981; Marles et al. Natasha Moine was carried out on foot, snowshoes 2000). Historically, food containers were Cree men carving paddles

10 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 11 North Shore of Lake Superior Garth Lenz

commonly made from birch, spruce or the hand, the other held in the teeth, pine and sometimes made from coiled are split into thin fibres. Spruce gum is spruce-root (McClellan and Denniston mixed with animal lard or fat and applied A number of conifers (e.g. black 1981). A common traditional method as a sealant to canoes and baskets. spruce) and deciduous trees (e.g. for cooking food was in a birch bark birch, balsam poplar, willow) container using water and hot stones. Birch bark bitings are an art form are used for fuel. Each species is Food containers or baskets were not practiced predominantly by indigenous selected for different purposes, only utilitarian but they served other people from the Algonkian linguistic purposes as well, for example, the group (Oberholtzer and Smith 1995). such as smoking hides or kindling decorative designs sometimes served as Algonquin named it ‘picture-biting’ fires, based on the characteristics identifying marks for a person or family. (mizi’nikatowa) and the Cree refer to it of the fuel. Today some indigenous people continue as ‘bitings.’ This art form was created by the tradition of making containers and folding up a piece of birch bark multiple baskets, primarily as an art form. Spruce times, inserting it between the teeth, roots and gum were important materials and biting down on the bark as it’s in the construction of canoes, containers moved around with the hands to form and other products. Spruce roots can intricate patterns. Birch bark biting was be split into thin fibres and used to an activity shared by women and used stitch items such as birch bark baskets as a pastime around the fire, a teaching or make coiled sewing baskets (Marles tool by parents and grandparents or et al. 2000). The roots, one end held in as templates for decorating baskets

12 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Social Significance

or moccasins using beadwork and may have also influenced the ranges of quillwork. While this practice has certain plant species, since there are declined, there are still some who records of people moving plants and carry on the tradition. Pat Bruderer, animals from one locality to another a contemporary birch bark biter, (Black 1978). Indigenous use of plants describes all the teachings that birch was also tied to the animals in the region bark biting provides for her: “patience, (Andre et al. 2006). In some cases, respect, kindness, creativity, medicine, animals have shown people safe (i.e. imagination, and sharing.” not poisonous) plants to eat and in other cases, plants have aided in hunting by A number of conifers (e.g. black indicating whether an important animal spruce) and deciduous trees (e.g. was in an area (Hebda et al. 1996; Kari birch, balsam poplar, willow) are used 1991). for fuel. Each species is selected for different purposes, such as smoking The significance of plants to indigenous hides or kindling fires, based on the Boreal communities is illustrated by characteristics of the fuel (Andre et al. the complex social practices related to 2006). Materials from shrub and tree plant use. Historically, plants played a species were historically used to make a very important role in the local economy variety of products including fishing nets of indigenous people, from trade with (made from willow bast or nettle fibre), neighbouring bands to sharing or bow and arrows, snares, cradleboards, trading between members in the same hide stretching frames, snow goggles, community (Leighton 1985; Kuhnlein digging sticks, drum frames, implement and Turner 1991; Parlee et al. 2006). For handles, and moose callers (Marles some people there are rules that govern et al. 2000; Rogers and Smith 1981). access to certain plant resources, such Tradtional Dene drum dance in Garth Lenz Sphagnum (moss) has been used as berries. The areas where individuals the Northwest Territories extensively by indigenous people due to harvest berries are dependent on its antiseptic and absorbent properties. It family ties and friendships or personal can be used for purposes such as toilet knowledge; some individuals pick in the paper, sanitary napkins, diapers, and floor same location where their parents and scrubbers (Marles et al. 2000). grandparents picked berries (Karst 2005; Parlee et al. 2006). In some areas where individuals or families were known to ‘own’ berry patches, others had to ask Management, social permission if they want to pick in that area. This practice continues in some significance and values places to this day. Some individuals can of plants be secretive about their berry picking areas and might only share information Landscape burning was a common about berry harvesting locations with practice in the Boreal region to maintain family and close friends (Karst 2005; a diversity of habitats (Davidson-Hunt Parlee et al. 2006). The ecological 2003; Johnson Gottesfeld 1994a; Lewis qualities of the berry or plant can also 1982; Lewis and Ferguson 1988, Natcher influence use. For example, for the et al. 2007); this was most often done Teetl’it Gwich’in, individuals are more to enhance the growth of berries (Black likely to be secretive about harvesting 1980; Grenfell 1910). Indigenous people areas when these areas produce more

12 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 13 Threats to Boreal Plants A Labrador Métis elder picking annually predictable and long lasting for another type of resource, such as cloudberries (Rubus chamaemorus). berries. Locations are often highly prized fish (Andre 2006; Karst 2005, Parlee et if they have a number of resources, al. 2006). These values and traditional such as a fish camp and berry picking beliefs were developed through the patches (Legat et al. 2000; Parlee 2006). intimate relationship of indigenous The detailed rules of use and knowledge people and their environment. pertaining to plant resources indicates how important they are to the culture The detailed ecological knowledge and identity of indigenous people. of plants, cultural values and social practices are encoded in indigenous Each indigenous Boreal group has beliefs people’s languages and are passed and values which helped guide and on through stories and place names continues to guide their relationship to (Cruikshank et al. 1990; Heine et al. the plants and their whole environment 2001; Johnson 1992; Sherry and Vuntut (Freeman and Carbyn 1988; Johnson to Gwich’in First Nation 1999). Often Gottesfeld 1994a, b; Ryan et al. 1994). there are words and phrases within each Many belief systems promote the value indigenous language that are specific to of reciprocity: you take care of the land their plant resources, for example, the through respectful use of resources and plant names, categories, developmental the land will take care of you (Andre stages, habitat, and processing. 2006; Autsyl K’e Dene First Nation and Indigenous culture and history is ‘written Stephen Ellis 2002; Johnson 2000; on the land’, as the Boreal landscape is Marles et al. 2000; Parlee 2006). This covered with stories and place names promotes a sense of stewardship among (Davidson-Hunt and Berkes 2003; Heine indigenous people (SENES Consultants et al. 2007; Johnson 2000). These stories Ltd. 2008). In the Northwest Territories, provide cultural teachings, detailed Gwich’in berry pickers describe their knowledge of resource use, as well rules of use as ‘ways we respect each as a historical record of past events. other and the berries’ (Parlee et al. 2006). In many cases, place names or areas Another common value is the need for used by an indigenous group are related balanced or moderate use of the land. to the available resources in the area. Gwich’in, Tanaina and many other groups For example, the Gwich’in identified are taught to just take what is needed, ‘black currant island’ in the Husky River not to overharvest a whole area, not area, and a hill along the Arctic Red to waste anything or destroy a plant River whose place name translates into if it is not necessary (Andre and Fehr ‘rosehips ripened by the sun’ (Andre 2001; Andre, Welsh, and Turner 2003; 2006). The Dogrib call Mesa Lake in the Garibaldi 1999; Kari 1991; Marles et al. Northwest Territories Gots’ôkatì, which 2000). However, the Tanaina also believe translates as cloudberry lake (Legat that the edible plants that are available et al. 2000). In Labrador, residents of would become less and less available if Charlottetown have many stories for they are not gathered regularly. Another nearby islands about past berry picking common theme is the importance of experiences; some areas or islands are sharing what you gather. It is a common named after people who were known practice to share the harvest with friends to pick berries there (Karst 2005). The and family, especially those who cannot ‘place-based’ nature of indigenous gather themselves, or to trade plants knowledge illustrates the importance of

14 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Threats to Boreal Plants

experiential learning in these cultures. Climate change and its effects on Indigenous understandings of the Boreal ecosystems, including the plants environment cannot be perpetuated by and animals the people depend upon, only recording this knowledge in written is a significant concern (IPCC 2007; form. This knowledge must continue Rosenzweig et al. 2007). Since plants to be lived and learned out on the land and animals require specific climatic and Studies have already shown and through this, will strengthen the environmental conditions, changes to phenological changes (e.g. leaf resiliency of indigenous communities these conditions due to climate change unfolding, flowering, leaf fall) in (Davidson-Hunt et al. 2005; Davidson- could have negative impacts on species. plants in response to climate change. Hunt and Berkes 2003). These changes would be especially harmful if species are unable to move into areas where the climate is suitable because of barriers to movement, slow Threats to Boreal plants migration rates, unsuitable growing substrate, or lack of habitat. Studies have Although very few plants species in the already shown phenological changes Boreal region are currently classified (e.g. leaf unfolding, flowering, leaf fall) as threatened or endangered under in plants in response to climate change. Indigenous people have observed plants the Federal Species at Risk Act or provincial/territorial species legislation, blooming earlier and berries being they currently face widespread human- ‘burned up’ by the sun before the time induced pressures. These pressures when they are typically harvested (CIER include habitat loss and fragmentation, 2007; Nickel et al. 2005). Climate change climate change, and invasive species. is also predicted to lead to increased Even if certain plants have a large frequency and intensity of forest fires distribution across Canada and are at low as well as increased incidents of insect risk of being threatened on a national outbreak (e.g. mountain pine beetle, scale, some face local extinction due to spruce budworm) in tree species, human pressures, which has significant which require cold winters to keep their impacts for indigenous people who are populations in check (Rosenzweig et al intimately tied to these local places. 2007). In addition, the increased average Additionally, in areas where the plant temperature in the Boreal region could species are still found, the ‘health’ of result in a greater likelihood of invasive these plants may be compromised by species from more southern regions, human activities, especially industries which may displace local plant species. such as mining, logging, and oil and Boreal systems have been found to be gas. If plant foods or medicines are susceptible to invasive species (Rose contaminated they could have a and Hermanutz 2004). Climate change significant impact on the health of impacts will further exacerbate stresses indigenous people (NorthWatch and on the Boreal ecosystem that result from MiningWatch 2008). This could be human activities or development. detrimental in terms of their personal consumption of plants or consumption of There are a number of human activities the animals that rely on these plants, but that have an impact on Boreal systems, one of which is forestry. In addition also because the integrity of the land is Alpine sweetvetch (Hedysarum Nancy Turner to the actual clearcutting of trees, the tied to the wellbeing of the people. alpinum; also known as Eskimo development of roads through forested potato, licorice root, Alaska carrot, or bearroot)

14 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 15 Emerging Issues

areas could support the introduction of Ltd. 2008). Even if plants are still present invasive species (Chornesky et al. 2005). in an area that is contaminated, they Clearcutting can have impacts on the may no longer be fit for consumption frequency or abundance of understory by humans or by the animals that The replacement of traditional foods herbs that are found in these areas humans rely on for subsistence; this with alternative “convenience foods,” such as Goldthread (Coptis trifolia), is especially true when confronted which are highly processed, high in prickly current (Ribes lacustre) and wild with cumulative effects of industrial sarsaparilla ( ), which activity from multiple companies in a sucrose, and lower in nutrients has Aralia nudicaulas are important edible and medicinal plant region. Industrial contaminants (e.g. led to increased diseases such species (Moola and Vasseur 2008). The polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy as diabetes. chemicals sprayed following a clearcut metals) in the food chain are already a to inhibit growth of undesirable species problem in northern ecosystems and the can have a negative impact on blueberry foodways of indigenous people (Berti et plants, through reduced fruit availability al. 1998; Kuhnlein, Receveur, and Chan (Moola et al. 1998). Some indigenous 1999; Kuhnlein et al. 2003; Kuhnlein people have expressed concerns that and Chan 2000; Stout, Dionne and Harp this spraying is making the plants that 2009; van Oostdam et al. 2005). Some are used in the area less ‘healthful’ indigenous people have voiced concerns (Moola et al. 1998; Senate subcommittee that pollution has ‘weakened’ the plants 1999). For example, Elders from Prophet and decreased the effectiveness of River First Nation were concerned the the medicines (Inkpen 1999; Senate herbicides were contaminating their Committee 1999). Since indigenous moose, since they ate the sprayed people are inherently tied to the land, it vegetation (Bannister 2006b). Regardless is not an option for them to simply move of whether the spraying has been shown away from the contamination when it to significantly negatively affect plants takes place in their traditional territory. and animals, this fear discourages traditional lifestyles of living off the land.

Industrial development such as mining Emerging issues in and oil and gas can also have a negative effect on the system. The scale of some ethnobotany current projects, such as the Alberta Nancy Turner The increasing pressure on Boreal Labrador tea (Ledum Tar Sands, the proposed Mackenzie groenlandicum) ecosystems from climate change, Gas Pipeline, and the proposed Alaska logging, mining and oil and gas Pipeline Project, are such that they cause exploration necessitates greater long-term and widespread impacts on conservation efforts in the Boreal region. the landscape (Andre et al. 2006). These Historical approaches to conservation projects would not only have an impact have sometimes been to the detriment through their direct operations but the of indigenous people and their continued roads and other infrastructure required to use of the land and waters, which has support these projects would also further resulted in the development of new fragment the landscape and support the approaches to conservation. In the past, potential introduction of invasive species. some conservation efforts, such as the In addition to landscape fragmentation, creation of parks and protected areas, mining activity can also lead to soil have excluded indigenous people from contamination (NorthWatch and their traditional territories, and as a MiningWatch 2008; SENES Consultants

16 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Emerging Issues

result, deprived them of the opportunity to carry out their traditional practices (Gladu et al. 2003). More contemporary approaches to conservation recognize indigenous rights to land and water and include the active involvement of indigenous people.This year, Parks Canada signed a co-management agreement with The Sahtu Dene community of Deline for the Saoyu and Ehdacho National Historic Site of Canada. The people of Deline had been working for over a decade to protect this area, which has significant cultural importance to them. Indigenous people are finding new approaches or frameworks to help protect their traditional territories, which are relied on for activities such as plant gathering. For example, Pimachiowin Aki, a non-profit organization comprised of five First Nations in Manitoba and Ontario as well as government representatives, is applying to have their traditional territory designated as a UNESCO world heritage site (Voora and Barg 2008). Fisher River Cree Nation is actively seeking provincial park status for the Fisher Bay Park Reserve. Other indigenous groups (e.g. Takla Lake First Nation, Kitchenuhmaykoosib Inninuwug) are struggling to protect their traditional territories and the habitats and species within. Bear Rock and Mackenzie River Garth Lenz Rising interest in the commercial potential of traditional medicines by the be overharvested or disrespected by herbal and pharmaceutical industries outside parties. Concerted international over the last two decades has led to a effort has gone into defining what heightened awareness by Indigenous constitutes ethical and equitable conduct people of issues related to “intellectual for ethnobotanical research (ISE 2006). property rights” (Bannister 2005). International consensus supports respect Some people have concerns that their for Indigenous cultural and intellectual knowledge will be taken and used by property and the direct involvement of companies (e.g. pharmaceutical) without indigenous people in applications of their properly acknowledging or involving plant knowledge (Laird 2002). them or their community. Additionally there is concern that these plants may Since the health of indigenous people is inherently tied to the land, some

16 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 17 Moving Forward

indigenous people have suffered health Social and Cultural Institute, whose impacts of decreased access to or use mandate is “to document, preserve, of plants and other components of the and promote Gwich’in culture, language, land (Richmond and Ross 2009). In some traditional knowledge and values.” Some cases, cultural teachings and practices communities have started to monitor were not passed on as a result of the their lands and waters using community- residential school system or through a defined indicators, for example the loss of access to traditional areas due abundance of berries in traditional berry to forced relocation or contamination patches, to watch for any environmental of traditional lands and waters. The changes (Lutsel K’e Dene First Nation replacement of traditional foods with and Stephen Ellis 2002) and support alternative “convenience foods,” which land-based activities. are highly processed, high in sucrose, and lower in nutrients has led to There are also opportunities to support increased diseases such as diabetes in indigenous people who choose to many indigenous communities (Berkes market non-timber forest products, and Farkas 1978; Kuhnlein et al. in press; as a way to continue to practice their Kuhlein and Receveur 1996; Receveur traditional activities while supporting and Kuhnlein 1998; Receveur et al. the local economy (Berkes et al. 2002; 1997). In addition to the nutritive and Davidson-Hunt et al. 2001; Marles 2000). medicinal qualities of traditional foods Supporting a market for these products, and medicines, indigenous people in which rely upon sustainable harvesting the Boreal also lose the health benefits and use of indigenous people’ traditional Riviere Saint Marguerite, Highway Garth Lenz of physically going out on the land to resources, would provide an alternative 172 scenic corridor harvest plants and the opportunity to to purely industrial opportunities for strengthen relationships with family economic development (Andre et al. and community members and pass on 2006). traditional beliefs, practices and the language associated with these activities (Kuhnlein in press). The conservation of the Boreal will be crucial in supporting Moving Forward the efforts of some indigenous people to renew biocultural ties and After reviewing the essential role Boreal ethnobotanical practices. plants play in the culture and identity of indigenous people in this region, it Indigenous people are using a number is clear that the loss of this relationship of methods to maintain, strengthen or and the associated knowledge would revive this knowledge and traditional have a significant effect on these activities. For example, some indigenous communities. The conservation of the people have developed their own plant Boreal region in large unpolluted intact guides for community use in educational areas is fundamental to the cultures of programs or to inform land management indigenous people. If these areas no planning (e.g. Bannister 2006, Bruce et longer exist, all the knowledge, values al. 2002; Jones 1983). Another emerging and history tied to these areas will practice is organizing elder-youth eventually diminish, and be lost forever, camps for learning and teaching cultural which would be a loss to all humankind. practices. Some groups have developed The importance of plants to these organizations, such as the Gwich’in

18 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Moving Forward

cultures as well as the importance of promoted. New approaches developed There are current proactive maintaining these unique knowledge by indigenous people for protecting measures by governments to conserve systems and understandings of the their traditional territories need to be Boreal landscape clearly necessitates the encouraged and supported. Additionally, the Boreal, for example, the conservation of the Boreal region. efforts by indigenous people today commitments of both the Quebec (e.g. the efforts of Kitchenuhmaykoosib and Ontario government to protect There are current proactive measures Inninuwug to oppose development of 50% of their Boreal regions. by governments to conserve the Boreal, mining in their traditional territory) to for example, the commitments of both protect the Boreal in their traditional the Quebec and Ontario government territories need to be acknowledged to protect 50% of their Boreal regions. and assisted. Respectful and innovative But these efforts must have the full and approaches should be sought in order meaningful participation of indigenous to conserve the tremendous beauty of communities and must respect their the Boreal and the invaluable knowledge Aboriginal and treaty rights. Programs systems that are tied to this region. or funding that support efforts to connect indigenous youth and elders to each other and to the land should be

Bearberries (Arctostaphylos alpina) Nancy Turner

18 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 19 List of Selected Food Plants Growth Scientific Name Common Name Family Uses NatureServe Listing type Tree Picea glauca,P. mariana White and black spruce Pinaceae Cambium eaten Secure Imperiled BC, critically imperiled Tree Pinus banksiana Jack pine Pinaceae Cambium eaten Labrador (NL) Tree Abies balsamea Balsam fir Pinaceae Cambium eaten Secure Tree Populus balsamifera Balsam poplar Salicaeae Cambium eaten Secure Shrub Corylus cornuta Beaked hazelnut Betulaceae Nuts Secure Leaves as Shrub Betula nana ssp. Dwarf birch Betulaceae Secure beverage Highbush cranberry, Shrub Viburnum edule Caprifoliaceae Fruits Secure squashberry Black crowberry, Shrub Empetrum nigrum Empetraceae Fruits Secure “blackberry” A. alpina secure; A. rubra vulnerable Arctostaphylos alpina, A. SK and QC, critically imperiled Shrub Bearberry Ericaceae Fruits rubra, A. uva-ursi Newfoundland (NL); urva ursi – imperiled NL Ledum palustre, L. Leaves as L. groenlandicum Secure; L palustre Shrub Marsh Labrador tea Ericaceae groenlandicum beverage vulnerable AB and QC, Imperiled SK Fruits eaten, Shrub Gaultheria procumbens Teaberry, wintergreen Ericaceae leaves used Vulnerable MB, critically imperiled NL for tea Lingonberry, low-bush Shrub Vaccinium vitis-idaea Ericaceae Fruits Secure cranberry, “redberry” Vaccinium caespitosum, V. V. myrtilloides - Secure; V. caespitosum Shrub Dwarf blueberry Ericaceae Fruits myrtilloides – Vulnerable YT, NL, imperiled MB Small cranberry, bog Shrub Vaccinium oxycoccus Ericaceae Fruits Secure cranberry Leaves and Shrub Ribes hudsonianum Northern black currant Grossulariaceae berries or stems Imperiled QC for beverage Shrub Ribes triste Red currant Grossulariaceae Fruits Secure Shrub Ribes lacustre Prickly current Grossulariaceae Fruits Imperiled NL Saskatoon or service Shrub Amelanchier alnifolia Rosaceae Fruits Vulnerable QC berry Leaves and Shrub Dasiphora floribunda Shrubby cinquefoil Rosaceae stems to make Secure beverage Shrub Prunus virginiana Chokecherry Rosaceae Fruits Secure Fruits, rosehips used for Prickly wild rose Shrub Rosa acicularis Rosaceae beverage, flower Secure (rosehips) petals eaten by children Alaska willow, sura Leaves and S. alaxensis – imperiled AB, MB, QC; S. Shrub Salix alaxensis, S. pulchra Salicaceae willow shoots pulchra – vulnerable BC Tubers (dried Sagittaria spp. (S. latifolia, S. S. latifolia – critically imperiled AB and Herb Arrowhead Alismataceae and boiled for cuneata) NL; S. cuneata – imperiled YT winter) Roots; similar Herb Sium suave Hemlock water-parsnip Apiaceae species are Imperiled YT toxic Root (sometimes Herb Asarum canadense Wild ginger Aristolochiaceae Vulnerable MB, QC as a season) Schoenoplectus Critically imperiled AB, MB imperiled Herb heterochaetus, syn. Scirpus Pale great bulrush Cyperaceae Rhizomes QC, vulnerable ON lacustris Herb Cornus canadensis Bunchberry Cornaceae Fruits Secure Herb Hedysarum alpinum Alpine sweetvetch Fabaceae Root Critically imperiled NL Leaves as Herb Mentha arvensis Wild mint Lamiaceae Secure beverage Leaves, flowers, Herb Allium schoenoprasum Wild chives Liliaceae Secure bulbs

20 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Growth Scientific Name Common Name Family Uses NatureServe Listing type Kamchatka Herb Fritillaria camschatcensis fritillary(riceroot, Liliaceae Bulbs Critically imperiled YT chocolate lily) Young shoots, Chamerion angustifolium; syn. Herb Fireweed Onagraceae stems, flowering Secure Epilobium angustifolium tops Herb Zizania aquatic Wild rice Poaceae Rice eaten Secure Herb Oxyria digyna Alpine mountain sorrel Polygonaceae Leaves Imperiled NL Herb Polygonum viviparum Alpine bistort Polygonaceae Rhizomes Critically imperiled SK Leaves and Herb Rumex arcticus Arctic dock Polygonaceae Vulnerable BC, critically Imperiled MB stems Herb Claytonia tuberosa Tuberous spring beauty Portulaceae Corms Imperiled BC Herb Fragaria virginiana Wild strawberry Rosaceae Fruits Secure Herb Rubus chamaemorus Cloudberry, bakeapple Rosaceae Fruits Secure Herb Rubus idaeus American red raspberry Rosaceae Fruits Secure Dwarf raspberry, Arctic Herb Not yet assessed ssp. acaulis Rosaceae Fruits ------blackberry Saxifraga nelsoniana ssp. Herb Heart leaf saxifrage Saxifragaceae Leaves Secure nelsoniana Herb Pedicularis langsdorfii Langdorf’s lousewort Scrophulariaceae Root Imperiled AB Rhizomes, stem Herb Typha latifolia Broadleaf cattail Typhaceae Imperiled YT base Plant eaten as Herb Urtica dioica Stinging nettle Urticaceae Vulnerable YT green Fern ally Equisetum arvense Common horsetail Equisetaceae Shoots Secure Eaten as a Lichen Umbilicaria spp. Rock tripe lichen Umbilicariaceae Unknown vegetable Eaten partially Lichen Cladonia spp Reindeer lichen Cladoniaceae digested in Unknown caribou rumen Boiled to make Fungus Inonotus obliquus Cinder conk fungus Hymenochaetaceae Unknown a beverage

SOURCES: Andre and Fehr 2001; Arnason, Hebda and Johns, 1981; Berkes and Farkas 1978; Eidlitz 1969; Jones 1983; Griffin 2001; Hebda et al. 1996; Kuhnlein and urnerT 1991; Marles et al. 2000; Parlee 2004; Porsild 1953; Russell 1991, 1994; Thornton 1999; Wennekens 1985. Go to www.natureserve.org/explorer/methods.htm for information on the NatureServe listing status.

20 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 21 List of Selected Medicinal Plants NatureServe Growth Scientific Name Common Name Family Uses Explorer Type Listing Tea from leaves to treat headache; steambath with twigs to treat Tree Thuja occidentalis White cedar Cupressaceae colds, fever, after childbirth, cough; twigs steeped to sweat, Secure poultice of twigs to treat heart pain and rheumatism, Bark used to make cast for broken limbs; roots, buds to treat Tree Betula papyrifera Paper birch Betulaceae snow blindness; bark given to teething babies; bark used to treat Secure chapped skin, diaper/skin rash Inner bark, ashes, leaves, buds, wood for burns, bites, boils, Tree Betula spp. Birch Betulaceae wounds, inner bark, sap for coughs, colds, asthma, inner bark for ------menstrual cramps Gum and tea from gum chewed and drunk to maintain good Picea spp. (P. glauca, health; gum/pitch applied to wounds or slivers as salve; tea from Tree Spruce Pinaceae ------P. mariana) inner bark applied to irritated skin, tips boiled in the house and branches used on floor to keep sickness away, as a disinfectant Imperiled BC, Tea from bark drunk for shortness of breath, tea from bough Tree Pinus banksiana Jackpine Pinaceae critically imperiled drunk for to ease aches, pains; also used as wash NL Inner bark boiled for sores and swelling, young branches made Tree Larix laricina Larch Pinaceae into a tea as a laxative, inner bark and gum to treat burns, Secure leaves, inner bark to treat sore throat Bud resin for cuts, sores, baby teething, toothache; leaves to Balsam poplar, or Tree Populus balsamifera Salicaceae draw out infection, extract from buds boiled with aspen branch Secure cottonwood bark drunk for diabetes Roots used rheumatism, steep bark to treat worms, inner bark Tree Populus tremuloides Quaking aspen Salicaceae used as heart medicine, inner bark used as splint, bark poultice Imperiled NL for cuts and wounds Berrylike cone eaten as “cure-all” medicine, tea from branches, Shrub Juniperus communis Common juniper Cupressaceae roots drunk as laxative; tea from berry-like cones drunk to ease Secure back pain; bark poultice for wound Shrub Alnus spp. Alders Betulaceae Leaves, bark, buds ------Bark boiled to treat liver, anemia; root extract to treat difficult Shrub Alnus rugosa Speckled alder Betulaceae Secure labour, sore eyes, toothache Alnus viridis ssp. Shrub Mountain alder Betulaceae Bark boiled as tea for urinary and stomach problems Secure crispa Tea from berries for constipation; tea used as gargle for sore Shrub Viburnum edule Highbush cranberry Caprifoliaceae Secure throat; berries boiled for cough Tea from stems, roots drunk for stomach ache and diarrhea; also Shepherdia Russet buffaloberry, to relieve constipation, tea from leaves, stems used as a wash to Shrub canadensis Elaeagnaceae Secure soapberry treat aching limbs or joints; bark used in plaster casts

Tea from berries, stems, roots, drunk for stomach ache, diarrhea, Shrub Empetrum nigrum Black crowberry Empetraceae Secure and bad colds Tea from leaves and stems drunk daily for good health, tea from Vulnerable AB and Shrub Ledum palustre Marsh Labrador tea Ericaceae leaves and stems drunk, gargled, or used as inhalant QC, Imperiled SK Tea with leaves and twigs as a general tonic, taken for chills, to Ledum Shrub Labrador tea Ericaceae purify blood, asthma, cold, headaches, kidney trouble; chewed Secure groenlandicum leaves applied to wounds, burns Berries eaten to “clean out your stomach,” to relieve a spring Lingonberry, low- Shrub Vaccinium vitis-idaea Ericaceae fever; whole plant for urinary tract problems; juice drunk for Secure bush cranberry kidney problems Tea from berries or whole plant to treat diabetes; root boiled to Shrub Vaccinium uliginosum Bog blueberry Ericaceae Vulnerable AB make extract taken for headaches Ribes Infusion from stems drunk by mothers after childbirth to stop Canadian Critically imperiled Shrub oxyacanthoides Grossulariaceae excessive bleeding; root infusion drunk for delayed menstrual gooseberry QC period Shrub Ribes triste Red currant Grossulariaceae Tea from whole plant used for stomach ailments); eye problems Secure Northern black Shrub Ribes hudsonianum Grossulariaceae Tea from leaves drunk in winter for general good health Imperiled QC currant Tea from bark drunk as pain reliever and for headaches; inner Shrub Salix spp. Willows Salicaceae bark as pain-killing poultice ------

22 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective NatureServe Growth Scientific Name Common Name Family Uses Explorer Type Listing A. americanas Imperiled BC, Acorus americanas; Root chewed or taken as tea for colds, coughs, bronchitis, sore Herb Sweet flag Araceae Vulnerable AB, A. calamus throat, heart disease critically imperiled NL Tea from root as general tonic, to treat weakness, root poultice Herb Aralia nudicaulis Wild sarsaparilla Araliaceae Imperiled YT applied for earache Tilesius’s Imperiled AB, Tea from plant drunk for colds, sore throats; used as inhalant for Herb Artemisia tilesii wormwood, Asteraceae MB, ON; Critically congestion caribouweed imperiled QC Fringed wormwood, Herb Artemisia frigida Asteraceae General tonic, root extract for convulsions or wounds Imperiled ON sagebrush Leaf poultice applied to burns, blisters, spider bites, headaches, Herb Achillea millefolium Yarrow Asteraceae Secure tea from leaves to treat fever, headache Herb Cornus canadensis Bunchberry Cornaceae Plant steeped to treat paralysis, colds; root tea for colic Secure Poultice of plant used to treat inflammation in the limbs, plant Herb Linnaea borealis Twinflower Caprifoliaceae Secure tied around head to relieve headache Chimaphila Prince’s pine, Tea made for stomach troubles, root extract for sore eyes, boiled Herb Ericaceae Vulnerable SK umbellata pipsissiwa plant to induce sweating, Plant boiled for stiff limbs, steeped leaves taken for colds, Herb Kalmia angustifolia Sheep laurel Ericaceae backache, headache; crushed leaves applied as poultice to treat Secure headache, leaf extract taken for stomach trouble Root boiled as an emetic, root poultice applied to swelling, Blue flag, muskrat Critically imperiled Herb Iris versicolor Iridaceae burns, wounds; plant poultice applied for pain; infusion gargled root SK; imperiled NL for sore throat Infusion to treat fever, tea from plant as blood remedy, for fevers, Herb Mentha arvense Wild mint Lamiaceae Secure stomach trouble Infusion of plant applied as mosquito repellent; leaves boiled Herb Clintonia borealis Northern clintonia Liliaceae for sores, burns, ulcers; root extract for gravel, leaf poultice for Secure infections, wounds Tea from rhizomes drunk for cold symptoms, rhizome slices Herb Nuphar spp. Pond lily Nymphaeaceae chewed, grated or made into a tea drunk to treat arthritic pain or ------used to bathe affected joints; applied directly on sore joints Roots pounded, soaked in hot water for inflammation; infusion/ Herb Myrica gale Sweet gale Myricaceae Vulnerable AB extract as a wash for skin troubles and as a tea for tuberculosis Tea from leaves drunk for good health and blood tonic; outer rind Willowherb, Herb Epilobium spp. Onagraceae of root used as poultice to draw inflammation from boil, boiled ------riverbeauty roots applied to skin problems, leaf poultice applied to bruises Root used for menstrual disorders, an infusion of the roots used Herb Cypripedium acaula Lady’s slipper Orchidaceae Vulnerable AB to treat stomachache Vulnerable AB, Root powder steeped for heart; root extract for colds, coughs; SK; imperiled QC; Herb Polygala seneca Seneca snakeroot Polygalaceae leaf infusion for sore throat; roots in concoction for muscular critically imperiled aches, pains, headaches, stomachaches BC Critically imperiled Herb Caltha palustris Marsh marigold Ranunculaceae Roots applied as poultice for sores, root tea made for colds NL Coptis trifolia/ Roots extract or infusion as to aid digestion and treat mouth Herb Goldthread Ranunculaceae Vulnerable AB groenlandicum sores, sore gums, sore eyes and eyes. Tea from leaves drunk by women giving birth for strength, tea American red Herb Rubus idaeus Rosaceae from stems drunk for fever; extract of roots used as eye drops for Secure raspberry snow blindness Crushed leaves for burns; berries placed on wounds, sores, Herb Rubus chamaemorus Cloudberry Rosaceae extract of roots, stem drunk for barrenness or hard labor, tea Secure from boiling flowers applied to sore eyes Leaf tea to assist with childboirth,leaves steeped for smallpox, Herb Sarracenia purpurea Pitcher plant Sarraceniaceae Imperiled AB chickenpox, wounds, sores, rashes; root tea for urinary problems Fern/ Root tea for teething infants, whole plant tea for dropsy, stem Equisetum arvense Horsetail Equisetaceae Secure fern ally extract for dysuria Fungus Fomes fomentarius Tinder fungus Coriolaceae Conk for smudging, pieces burned to treat arthritis Unknown

SOURCES: Andre et al. 2006, Andre and Fehr 2002; Arnason, Hedba and Johns 1981; Garibaldi 1999; Hebda et al. 1996; Marles et al. 2000; Ryan et al. 1994.

22 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective 23 List of selected plants used for purposes other than food or medicine Growth Common Scientific Name Family Uses Listing Type Name Baskets, wrapping food for storage, wrapping deceased, wood for snowshoe frames, tent poles, toboggans, paddles, canoe carrying boards, bows, arrows, drum frames, ax Betula papyrifera and Tree Paper birch Betulaceae handles, hide scrapers, berry mashers, hide stretching Secure related species frames and sweatlodge frames, bark as tinder, bark sheets for canoes, containers, sleds, tepee covers, moose callers, writing or drawing materials Abies lasiocarpa Abies Tree Balsam fir Pinaceae Wood for canoe frames, paddles, shelters Secure balsamea Wood for canoe frames and paddles, arrows, basket frames, snowshoe frames, shelters, tent frames, racks, hide Tree Picea glauca White spruce Pinaceae stretchers, roots for stitching birchbark canoes, baskets, for Secure coiled baskets; bark sheets for canoes, flooring, shingles, pitch for sealing canoes and baskets Logs for deadfall traps, canoe frames, drying racks, snowshoe Tree Picea mariana Black spruce Pinaceae frames, firewood, roots for baskets, fishnets, boughs for Secure bedding, carpets, girls’ dolls Logs for cabins, planks for toboggans, boats; knots for Imperiled BC, Pinus banksiana, P. Tree Jack pine Pinaceae fishhooks, dry cones used to tan hides; logs for firewood, critically imperiled contorta roots for baskets, arrow shafts, boughs to line houses NL Wood for bows, arrows, tongs, clubs, implement handles, ladders, drying racks, hollowed-out containers, fish traps, Tree Picea sitchensis Sitka spruce Pinaceae deadfalls, shelters, roots for fishing lines, snares, binding Secure and tying; bark sheets for roofing, pitch for caulking canoes, adhesive Wood for toboggans, snowshoe frames, paddles, rotted wood Tree Larix laricina Tamarack Pinaceae and bark for smoking hides, roots for stitching birchbark Secure canoes; twigs and roots for basketry Wood for plates, bowls, and dugout canoes, bark carved into Tree Populus balsamifera Balsam poplar Salicaceae Secure toy boats; used for roofing, bowls; buds used in trap lures Wood for canoe paddles, tepee poles, deadfalls, temporary snowshoe frames, bowls, stems for whistles, cooking sticks; Tree Populus tremuloides Trembling aspen Salicaceae Imperiled NL ashes used in soap making, with caribou grease, and used to tan hides Shrub Juniperus communis Common juniper Cupressaceae Berry like cones for brown dye Secure Wood for carving pipes, bows, canes, ladles, wood for Mountain alder; Shrub Alnus viridis ssp. crispa Betulaceae smoking meat, hides, and as mosquito smudge, bark used for Secure green alder red-brown dye Dwarf birch, bog Shrub Betula nana B. pumila Betulaceae Twigs used in bundles for broom Secure birch Red-osier Stems as ribs for spruce bark canoes; bark to trim birch bark Shrub Cornus sericea Cornaceae Secure dogwood baskets, and for brown dye for hides Kinnikinnick or Shrub Arctostaphylos urva-ursi Ericaceae Dense heartwood of root for pipe bowls; leaves smoked Imperiled NL bearberry Saskatoon or Digging sticks, wood for arrows, bows, canes, sweatlodge Shrub Amelanchier alnifolia Rosaceae Vulnerable QC serviceberry frames, birchbark basket rims Hollowed rose hip used as a toy pipe; Hips used as bead for Shrub Rosa acicularis Prickly rose Rosaceae Secure toy necklace Wood for bows, canoe ribs, emergency snowshoes, Salix bebbiana and other Shrub Bebb willow Salicaceae pipestems, nails, basket rims, sweatlodge frames, twisted Secure spp. bark for rope, twine, fishnets, protecting rawhide nooses Heracleum maximum, Hollow stalks used as snorkels; root used in bear trap bait Herb Cow parsnip Apiaceae Secure syn. H. lanatum mixture Herb Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Asteraceae Grubs in stem galls used as fish bait Secure

24 Conservation Value of the North American Boreal FOREST from an Ethnobotanical Perspective Growth Common Scientific Name Family Uses Listing Type Name Herb Achillea millefolium Common yarrow Asteraceae Leaves used in lynx trap bait Secure Arctic sweet Herb Petasites frigidis Asteraceae Leaves to cover barrels of berries Secure coltsfoot Roundstem Herb Schoenoplectus acutus Cyperaceae Stems for weaving mats, mattresses, bags Vulnerable YT bulrush, tule Chamerion Herb angustifolium, syn. Fireweed Onagraceae Fibre for thread, layered as surface for cleaning fish Secure Epilobium angustifolium Herb Galium boreale Northern bedstraw Rubiaceae Roots are a red dye for porcupine quills Secure Stem fibre for cordage, nets Herb Urtica dioica Stinging nettle Urticaceae Vulnerable YT

Fern ally Equisetum spp. Horsetails Equisetaceae Stems as pot-scrubbers Secure Fern ally Lycopodium annotinum Stiff club moss Lycopodiaceae To strain raw fish eggs from membranes Secure Greenland Moss Dicranum groenlandicum dicranum moss, Dicranaceae Soaked in melted caribou fat to make candles Unknown cushion moss Schreber’s big Hyclocomiaceae, Used with other moss to chink log cabins, camouflage caribou Moss Pleurozium schreberi red stem moss, Hypnaceae, Unknown fences, line storage pits, and as dish scrubbers feather moss Brachytheciaceae Sphagnum fuscum and Fuel for smoking hides, meat, for diapers, wiping fish, stuffing Moss Peat moss Sphagnaceae Unknown other spp. mattresses Conk for tinder; children’s ball, carved for jewellery and grave Fungus Fomes fomentarius Tinder fungus Coriolaceae Unknown figures Hymenochae- Fungus Inonotus obliquus Cinder conk fungus Tinder for transporting fire Unknown taceae

SOURCES: Garibaldi, 1999; Marles et al. 2000; Russell 1991; Turner 1998

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