Visiting Research Fellow Monograph Series This series aim at disseminating the results of research done by Visiting Research Fellows at the Institute of Developing Economies. However, no part of this paper may be quoted without the permission of the author, since some of the results may be preliminary. Further, the findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s). Paper does not imply endorsement by the Institute of Developing Economies of any of the facts, figures, and views expressed. The Institute of Developing Economies does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this paper and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. Dedication Within three weeks of my arrival at IDE, my father, who had undergone numerous hardships so that I could pursue my higher education at faraway Delhi and have, what he called, “a good future”, passed away. It is to his memory that I dedicate this work. －2－ Contents Page Contents i List of Tables iii Abstract vii Acknowledgements ix Preface xi Introduction 1 Methodology 3 Survey of Literature on education and economic development 6 Pathways of influence of education on economic development 9 Some relevant aspects of education in economic development 13 Returns to education 15 Survey of Literature on gender education and economic development 18 Gender issues and the UN Organizations 21 Loss to society if girls and women are not educated 23 Barriers to gender education 25 Economic effects of educating girls and women 26 Impact on the individual 26 Impact on the household 27 Impact on the economy 28 Returns to women’s education 30 On comparing countries at different levels of economic development 33 Country studies 35 South Asia 35 Bangladesh 35 India 44 Nepal 65 Pakistan 73 Sri Lanka 96 Discussion on South Asia 101 East Asia 106 People’s Republic of China 106 Japan 114 Republic of Korea 131 Discussion on East Asia 137 Southeast Asia 139 －i－ Indonesia 139 Malaysia 141 Philippines 145 Thailand 147 Vietnam 150 Discussion on Southeast Asia 155 Labor force participation of women 157 Overall discussion 167 Conclusion 186 References 189 －ii－ List of Tables Table Title Page no 1 Returns to Investment in Education by level, Regional 16 Averages, % 2 Returns to Investment in Education by Level, Averages by 17 per capita Income Group, % 3 Returns to education by level of education and gender 32 4 Returns to Education by Gender, % 33 5 Adult (15+Year) literacy rates in Bangladesh, 1980-1995, % 37 6 Literacy Rates in India, Selected Years, 1881-2001, % 46 7 Coefficient of Discrimination in education in India from 1950-1 48 to 2001 (as seen in literacy rates) 8 Coefficient of Discrimination in education as seen in literacy 49 rates in Kerala from 1961 to 1991 9 Female Literacy Rate and Social Indicators, 15 Major States 50 of India, 1991 10 Gender Gap in Literacy and Social Indicators, 15 Major 52 States of India, 1991 11 Literacy rates in Major States, 2001, % 53 12 Health and educational outcomes and basic service use 54 13 Access, quality, and demand for education and health 55 services 14 Selected Indicators for 16 Major Indian States 56 15 Rankings for the selected indicates for 16 major Indian States 57 16 Mean years of schooling of population (15+), 1995-96 and 58 Becker’s Coefficient of Discrimination 17 Attendance rates by household expenditure quintiles 1995-96 59 for the age group 5-24, % 18 Age-specific attendance rates in school education, 60 1995-96, % 19 Dropout rates for boys and girls, 1960-61 to 2003-04, % 62 20 Literacy Rates gender wise in Nepal, 1952/54 to 2001, % 67 21 Quality of Life Indicators by Level of Women’s Education 69 22 Correlation Coefficient of District Level Social Indicators with 70 the Overall Literacy Rate (OLR) of Districts 23 Gross Participation Rates in West Pakistan, 1949-50, % 74 －iii－ 24 Number of Educational Institutions by Kind, Level and 75 gender, 1947 to 1996 25 Enrolment in Educational Institutions by Kind, Level and 76 Gender, 1947 to 1996, ‘000 26 Share of population with various levels of schooling 78 27 Literacy levels by area and gender in Pakistan, 1961 to 79 2003-04 28 Becker’s Coefficient of Discrimination in education for 80 Pakistan, 1961 to 2003-04 (using literacy rates) 29 Becker’s Coefficient of Discrimination in education in 81 Pakistan, 1975 to 2004, (using Mean Years of Schooling) 30 Ratio of boys to girls and the percentage of female teachers 85 in Pakistan, 1975 to 2004 31 Labour Force Participation Rates in Pakistan, 1975 to 2004 86 32 School enrolment rates by Income groups in Pakistan 87 33 Literacy by sector and gender in Sri Lanka, 1946-1991, % 98 34 Proportion of Girls in Schools in China, 1952-92 111 35 Distribution of total Enrolment by level of Schooling and Sex 112 in China, 1980-99, % 36 Net Enrolment Rates in Primary Schools in China, 1992-02 113 37 Enrolment and Dropout Ratio to Total School age population 118 of Japan, 1881 to 1940, % 38 Attendance Rate of School Age Children for Compulsory 119 Education in Japan, 1886-1925, % 39 Development of Education in Japan, 1873 to 1940 121 40 Coefficient of Discrimination in Enrolment ratios in Japan from 122 1881 to 1913 41 School Attendance Rates in Japan from 1873 to 1885 123 42 Attendance Rate of Children for compulsory education in 124 Japan from 1886 to 1915 43 Average Schooling in Japan for males and females, 1890 to 125 1990 44 Comparisons in Average Schooling between Japan and the 127 United States, 1890 to 1990 45 Population by Level of Education in Korea, 1944 to 1985 133 46 Purpose of educating children in Korea, % 134 47 Net Enrolment Rates, by Gender and Location in Indonesia, 140 2003 －iv－ 48 Mean of selected variables by sex in Vietnam, 1993 and 1998 153 49 Mean Years of Education by social group in Vietnam, 1998 154 50 Share of economically active population (15+) in Asian 157 countries, latest year, % 51 Gender inequality in economic activity in Asian countries 158 52 Labor force participation rates for both sexes in Asian 159 countries, ages 15 to 64, 2003, % 53 Value added per worker by sector in Asian countries in 160 constant US$ 54 Gender related development indices for Asian countries 161 55 Women in development in Asian countries 164 56 Primary enrollment ratios for Asian countries, 1870 to 1940 168 57 Youth literacy rates in Asian countries, 1990 and 2000, age 170 group 15 to 24 58 Size of the national economies in Asia, 2004 171 59 Performance on the education front in Asian countries and 172 other social indicators 60 Education at different levels and share of females for Asian 173 countries 61 Gender inequality in education in Asian countries 174 62 Public spending on education in Asian countries 175 63 Education inputs in Asian countries 176 64 Becker’s Coefficient of Discrimination for Asian countries 177 65 Indicators of maternal and child health by level of women’s 179 education in Asian countries 66 Probability of being in poorest 40% and wealthiest 20% by 180 level of education of head of household for three Asian countries －v－ －vi－ Abstract The countries of Asia are at different levels of economic development. In educational development too, they are not uniform. Historical legacies and other factors have impacted on the modernization course that each country embarked upon. These countries can (and are) benefiting by doing studies that compare their experience in development with that of the more advanced nations of the west. However, there is much that they can learn by studying about each other inside Asia; likewise they have much to offer to the outside world. In what follows, we look at the attempts of some of the Asian countries to eliminate gender discrimination in education and how these impacted on their course of modernization. We would also look at the impact of education on the female labor force participation. Finally we attempt an inter-regional comparison. The main focus will be on East Asia, the best performing region and South Asia, the worst performing region; Southeast Asia which falls between the two will also be covered, though not in similar detail. As the countries of Asia stand at different levels of development, this exercise is similar to the one that compares a developing country’s experience with that of a developed country’s historical experience and which tries to locate useful lessons. Further, countries at nearly the same level of economic development too have much to learn from each other as the educational developments and the degree to which the elimination of gender discrimination in education has proceeded, are not the same. The benefits that a country gains by eliminating gender discrimination in education are enormous, as we will try to document. Likewise the losses a country undergoes by neglecting to educate its girls and women are substantial. Thus any insight we gain by a cross country comparison, and which might hint at some policy prescription, if not a corrective, should be welcome. －vii－ －viii－ Acknowledgements I was interested in agricultural development in prewar Japan and was fortunate to be guided by Prof. Nishida Yoshiaki. While pursuing prewar issues in Japan, I became tangentially interested in prewar education and its impact on economic development in Japan. On the issues of the role of gender education and how it impacted on Japanese modernization, I benefited from long interactions with Prof. Okado Masakatsu; his continuous involvement with gender issues in prewar Japan and his insights have stimulated me.