Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

United States Department of Agriculture

Forest Service Red Knight Pacific Northwest Region Restoration Project

Environmental Assessment

Chemult Ranger District Fremont-Winema National Forest Klamath County, Oregon Responsible Official: Fred Way, Forest Supervisor Fremont-Winema National Forest 1301 South G Street Lakeview, OR 97630-9701 541 947-2151

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*Photo by Weaver: In T29S, R11E, Section 15 in the Red Knight area circa 1958. In stand #8921082 Red Knight.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

USDA Forest Service is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Table of Contents Chapter 1 Need for Proposal 5 1.1 Introduction 5 1.2 Historic Condition 6 1.3 Existing and Desired Future Condition 7 1.3.1 Existing Conditions 8 1.3.2 Desired Future Conditions 16 1.4 Need for Proposal 22 1.5 Proposed Actions 22 1.5 Decision Framework 24 1.7 The Collaborative Restoration Process 24 1.8 Project Record 27 Chapter 2 Alternatives 28 2.1 Formulation of Alternatives 28 2.2 Alternatives Considered in Detail 28 2.2.1 Alternative 1 No Action 28 2.2.2 Alternative 2 Proposed Action 29 2.3 Resource Protection and Mitigation Measures 40 2.3.1 Soil, Hydrology, and Riparian Areas 40 2.3.2 Wildlife 43 2.3.3 Invasive Plant Prevention Plan 47 2.3.4 Sensitive Plants 47 2.3.5 Air Quality 48 2.3.6 Disease Control 48 2.3.7 Roads and Recreation 48 2.3.8 Heritage Resources 49 2.4 Summaries and Comparison of Alternatives 50 Chapter 3 Affected Environment and Effects 52 3.1 Activities that May Contribute to Cumulative Effects 52 3.1.1 Past Management Activities 52 3.1.2 Current and Reasonably Foreseeable Activities 52 3.2 Affected Environment and Effects Related to Consultation and General Issues Received During Scoping 53 3.2.1 Treaty Resources and Other Concerns of the Klamath Tribes 53

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

3.2.2 Yamsay Mountain as a Cultural Landscape 55 3.2.3 Protection and Enhancement of Late Successional and 63 Old Growth Ecosystems 3.3.1 Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Terrestrial Wildlife Species 83 3.3.2 Terrestrial Management Indicator Species (Old Growth Ecosystems) 91 3.3.3 Birds of Conservation Concern 107 3.3.4 Klamath Tribes’ Wildlife Species of Interest 120 3.3.5 Small and Large Mammals 120 3.3.6 Special Wildlife Features 123 3.3.7 Big Game 127 3.3.8 Aquatic Species and Habitat 132 3.3.9 Threatened, Endangered, Sensitive, and MIS Aquatic Species 137 3.3.10 Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Plants 144 3.3.11 Invasive Plants 153 3.3.12 Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes 154 3.3.13 Cultural Resources 156 3.3.14 Soil and Hydrology 157 3.3.15 Smoke Management and Air Quality 168 3.3.16 Climate Change 169 3.3.17 Transportation System 171 3.3.18 Inventoried Roadless Areas, Undeveloped Areas, and 175 Potential Wilderness 3.3.19 Scenery and Visual Resources 182 3.3.20 Recreation 185 3.3.21 Irreversible and Irretrievable Effects 187 3.3.22 Farmland, Rangeland, and Forestland 188 3.3.23 Floodplains and Wetlands 188 3.3.24 Forest Plan Consistency 188 3.3.25 Civil Rights and Environmental Justice 191 Chapter 4 192 4.1 Agencies and Governments Consulted 192 4.2 Persons and Organizations Consulted 192 Chapter 5 193 5.1 Interdisciplinary Team 193 5.2 Support and Review 193

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Chapter 1 - Need for Proposal 1.1 - Introduction This document presents a summary of environmental analysis conducted within the Red Knight project area. The environmental analysis was conducted to evaluate management approaches for the Red Knight Restoration Project and aid the Forest Supervisor in determining the type of action that best meets the need for proposal. Restoration The proposed action was developed based on a need to move forest stands towards more resilience to wildfire, insects, and disease by reducing stand densities and ladder fuels, and increasing spatial heterogeneity. The main objective of the Red Knight project is to restore more characteristic historical structure and composition of fire-adapted dry forests. Restoration takes time and investment and an initial treatment may not meet restoration objectives. It is anticipated that the vegetation treatments would take place over the next 5-10 years and that the effects would last 10-15 years after treatment occurs. Restoration treatments would be planned to set the project area on the trajectory towards the range of desired conditions. Project Area The Red Knight Restoration Project area is 32,309 acres of predominantly ponderosa pine stands in the southeastern portion of the Chemult Ranger District, Fremont-Winema National Forest (see the map on the cover page 1). This project would use underburning, small tree thinning, commercial harvest, and other methods (see pages 22-24 for more detail) to restore the health, diversity, and productivity of the forest, streams and riparian areas in the Red Knight area, and to make them more resilient to a variety of stresses and pressures, including climate change, altered disturbance regimes, non-native invasive species and increasing pressures from an expanding human population that could lead to a large-scale loss of forested habitat. The project is bordered on the east by the Fremont National Forest and private lands, on the west by the Silver Lake Highway, on the north by private lands, and on the south by the Modoc Restoration Project area. The area is bordered on the southeast by the Yamsay Mountain Semi- primitive Recreation Area, and the Yamsay Mountain Inventoried Roadless Area. The southwestern boundary borders the Williamson River valley and numerous private cattle ranches. The entire area falls within the former Klamath Indian Reservation lands. There are no private lands within the Red Knight project area. There is an active sheep allotment within the project area. There are no threatened, endangered, sensitive, or native fish in any of the streams in the project area. The entire project area is mule deer summer range. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service federally threatened, endangered and proposed species list was reviewed for species that may be present on the Fremont-Winema National Forest. The listed species (Northern spotted owl) has no habitat in the project area. Most of the Red Knight project is within the Williamson River Watershed, while the northeast portion of the project is within the Summer Lake Watershed. There are few meadows in the area with the largest being Long Prairie. McCarty Flat is a large scab flat (322 acres) on the east boundary of the project. Elevation ranges from 6,500 feet in the southeast corner near Yamsay Mt. Semi-Primitive Recreation Area to 4,600 feet at the Jackson Creek diversion ditch near

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 private property in the southwest corner of the project area. There are three major plant association groups in the Red Knight area including dry lodgepole pine (approximately 4,342 acres), dry ponderosa pine (approximately 24,178 acres) and dry mixed conifer about 3,046 acres).

Direction This environmental assessment (EA) is tiered to the Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) for the Winema National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan, as amended (Winema LRMP). This action will incorporate the management direction of the Winema LRMP, as amended. Amended direction includes the Decision Notice for the Revised Continuation of Interim Management Direction Establishing Riparian, Ecosystem, and Wildlife Standards for Timber Sales (Eastside Screens, 1995), and the Decision Notice for Inland Native Fish Strategy (INFISH, 1995). This project is not located in the Northwest Forest Plan portion of the District, so direction for the Eastside Screens and INFISH applies. The Pacific Northwest Region Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Invasive Plant Program culminated in a Record of Decision (R6 2005 ROD) that amended the Winema LRMP by adding management direction relative to invasive plants. This project will be consistent with the amended management direction by incorporating prevention measures for invasive plants into the action. The Winema LRMP identified standards and guidelines that are applicable to specific management areas (MAs). The MAs in the Red Knight project area are displayed in Table 1 on page 18-20. The Red Knight project area MAs are illustrated in Map 1 on page 21. There is also a Plant Association Map on page 14.

The Fremont-Winema Forest Supervisor has directed that landscape restoration efforts on former reservation lands be consistent with the 1999 Memorandum of Agreement between the Klamath Tribes and the Forest Service (amended 2005), the management goals of the Tribal Forest Plan, the Forest Service multiple use mission including commitments to local communities, and accelerated landscape restoration objectives (Way, 2013). The Chief of the Forest Service has asked the Forest Service to increase restoration and to sustain the goods and services forests provide with emphasis on the economic feasibility of our timber sale and stewardship offerings. Both of these objectives were considered in the design of the Red Knight project, and ‘they may overlap but are not the same” (Accelerated Restoration, 2013). The “Forest Service is primarily dependent on timber industry to accomplish our land management objectives” (K. Connaughton, 2012). Implementing the “Increasing the Pace of Restoration” strategy (USFS, 2012) will support and maintain timber industry and the milling infrastructure necessary to accomplish restoration goals and objectives (K. Connaughton, 2012). The direction is to increase our emphasis on the economic feasibility of our timber sale and stewardship offerings while restoring ecological processes and functions across the landscape.

1.2 - Historical Condition Historically, much of the Red Knight area burned annually, primarily in the frequent-fire adapted ponderosa pine forest. These fires were predominantly low severity fires that maintained the structural stages and spatial heterogeneity within the historic range of variability (HRV). Ponderosa pine dominated the project area, from the low elevations in the western portions, into the higher elevations of the mixed conifer area near Yamsay Mountain. In the higher elevations,

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 lodgepole pine and white fire typically moved in to the understory between fire cycles. However, in only a few locations where more moisture was available would old white fir or lodgepole pine develop; such as riparian stringers or north aspects of buttes. The research of Hagmann et al (2013) documents the historical forest structure, and how it deviates from the current stand structure on former. Fire suppression has caused an increase in stand densities across all plant association types. Larson and Churchill (2013) and Churchill et al (2013) describe historical forest stands as being heterogeneous in nature, with individuals, clumps, and openings (ICO) dominating the landscape. For a more in depth discussion on forests and fuels, and this current research, please see pages 71-78. Past management activities have shifted the structure and composition of forest stands and have created a dramatic increase in numbers of small diameter trees across the landscape. In order to move the Red Knight area towards the spatial patterns, forest composition and structure more typical of the historic fire-adapted, resilient forest, a proposed action was developed that is consistent with the principles in the Klamath Tribes’ management plan for the former Klamath Reservation (Johnson et al., 2008). The Red Knight planning area contains three historical disturbance regimes based on the dominant vegetation; these vegetation types are Ponderosa Pine, Lodgepole Pine, and Mixed Conifer. Stand development within the ponderosa pine types was associated with frequent, light surface fire (5-15 year fire-free intervals). This scenario is referred to as the Low Severity Fire Regime. These frequent fires maintained structural stages and species composition within their historic range of variability, as well as lower levels of dead woody material and shrubs. Regular fire occurrence also resulted in the understory vegetation being dominated by grasses and forbs. Climax lodgepole pine forests have a mixed severity fire regime. A combination of low, moderate, and high severity fire occurs in space and time. The average fire return interval was 60-80 years. Stand development within the mixed conifer plant groups were associated with both crown fire and mixed severity surface fires with an average return (10-40 year fire-free intervals with low intensity burns). This scenario is similar to the Moderate Severity Fire Regime described by Agee (1993). Fire suppression has been on-going since the early 1900s. Recent past harvests (since the 1970s) have covered approximately 7,118 acres (22%) of the Red Knight area. Much of the area had the large diameter ponderosa pine selectively harvested after 1945 when it was part of the Klamath Indian Reservation. From 1970-1993 approximately 7,000 acres were selectively harvested in the ponderosa pine stands with some overstory removals. Some stands had the large overstory ponderosa pine harvested to release the vigorous white fir understory. The faster-growing white fir and lodgepole pine were released and became established in the higher elevations and areas of relatively low precipitation due to the lack of fire. Much of the lower elevations of Red Knight in the areas near Long Prairie were part of a mountain pine beetle epidemic in the late 1980s and many of the 7-9 inch diameter lodgepole pine died. The lodgepole pine was salvaged through end result contracts and large scale firewood units. Shelterwood and seed tree harvests as well as planting of lodgepole pine also occurred in the Red Knight project area. There has not been any vegetation management activity in the Red Knight area since the harvest of Cinder Timber Sale unit #3 in 1993 and its associated 352 acre underburn in 1997.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

1.3 - Existing and Desired Future Conditions Existing and desired future conditions were compared to determine the need for action and develop the proposed action. The Red Knight Restoration Project was initiated to move current conditions closer to desired future conditions. The process of identifying the existing and desired conditions of the Red Knight Project area included review of analyses and assessments at several scales. Regional scale analysis, such as the Interior Columbia Basin Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Statement (ICBEMP), shows vegetation landscape trends and changes. The Williamson River Basin Watershed Analysis (USDA, 1998), Upper Williamson River Watershed Assessment (DEA, 2005), Upper Williamson River Watershed Action Plan (KBEF, March 2006), and Upper Williamson River Watershed Analysis (USDA Forest Service, 1996) summarize localized trends and types of actions, and also give recommendations. Resource specialists’ reports, stand exams, field observations, professional judgment, and remote sensing provided specific information about the existing condition for various resources in the planning area, further supported the observed watershed trends, and helped to focus where actions would take place. All of these sources were used to describe the need for proposal (see page 5). 1.3.1 – Existing Conditions The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem The composition, structure, and disturbance patterns in dry forests have changed considerably. The large scale analysis of the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project (ICBEMP) observed that stand composition, structure, and disturbance patterns in dry forest have undergone major changes. The ICBEMP noted the following trends in forest vegetation: . The old single story stage of ponderosa pine is at 25 percent or less than its historical amount. . Overall, stand structures have changed from open, park-like stands of large trees with clumps of small trees to dense overstocked young stands with several canopy layers. . In the Upper Klamath Ecological Reporting Unit (ERU), ponderosa pine old forest multi- story structure increased by 88 percent. 1 . The dense mid-seral structures of the dry forest have high risks for crown and intense fire events. Total available fuel has generally increased everywhere in dry forests. The Williamson River Basin Watershed Analysis The Williamson River Basin Watershed Analysis done in 1998 found many conditions and trends for the prevalent plant communities and seral stages in the Williamson River watershed. Changes that have occurred within this analysis area are a combination of natural events over time combined with human activities and their intervention and interruption of natural processes. The Williamson River Basin Watershed Analysis noted the following trends: . A reduction in large-tree dominated stands, with corresponding increase in poles and seedling/sapling dominated stands.

1 ERU- A geographical mapping unit developed to report information on the description of biophysical environments, the characterization of ecological processes, the discussion of past management practices and their effects, and the identification of landscape management opportunities.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

. The large ponderosa pine tree component within the watershed has been reduced due to harvest and competition. Seral composition is shifting to favor white fir. . Many stands are crowded with small trees competing with large trees for nutrients, water, and growing space. . Most stands that have not received some sort of vegetation management in the past 15-20 years are showing signs of decline, low vigor, recent tree mortality, and are at moderate to high risk of beetle attack. . Riparian systems appear to be drying out and willows are being heavily browsed. Lodgepole pines are overtopping the willows in many areas. Quaking aspen is disappearing from the system. . The ability to maintain current old growth structure in overstocked condition in the short term and grow old growth structure in the long term is compromised with overstocked conditions.2 . An interruption of natural fire regimes. The Red Knight Project Area Suppression of the natural fire cycle, a selective logging history, and climate change have led to above normal fuel loads, disrupted natural nutrient cycling, and increased risk of widespread disturbances (insects such as mountain pine beetle, disease such as dwarf mistletoe, and fire mortality). There has been a change in tree species to more fire-intolerant mixed conifer, conifer encroaching into and suppressing the hardwood communities within riparian ecosystems where historically fire would have controlled conifer encroachment. Conifers are encroaching into and suppressing the number of native plant species (diversity) and changing the composition in riparian areas, and change in stand structures to a multi-canopied, dense forest with more small trees and fewer large trees across the landscape. The project area has mostly gently rolling terrain dotted with numerous cinder cones and meandering drainages running mostly east to west from the northwest flanks of Yamsay Mountain to the broad Williamson River valley. McCarty Flat is a large 322 acre scab flat on the east boundary of the project area. Elevation ranges from 6,500 feet in the southeast corner near Yamsay Mountain Semi-primitive Recreation Area to 4,600 feet at the Jackson Creek diversion ditch near private property. The vegetation in the Red Knight project area is influenced by an east west precipitation (from 20”-30”) and elevation gradient (from 4,600’ to 6,500’). The existing total road density within the project area is 5.43 miles per square mile. The vegetation of the area consists of three major plant groups including 24,178 acres of dry ponderosa pine, 4,342 acres of dry lodgepole pine, and 3,046 acres of dry mixed conifer. There are approximately 702 acres of riparian areas that have hardwoods, forbs and other native plants. The majority of the project area’s existing disturbance regime is highly departed from the historic regime, giving most of the Red Knight area a condition class of 3 (high departure from historic conditions) and putting much of the project area at risk of stand-replacing wildfires.

2 Overstocking is defined as a point at which a given plant series (i.e. ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine) has exceeded carrying capacity for the site and tree mortality has begun due to competition for the site's resources (i.e. water and nutrients).

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Ponderosa Pine Shifts away from historic conditions are evident in the plant associations that support ponderosa pine. The 24,178 acres of ponderosa pine stands in the Red Knight area are predominantly multi-storied with dense mid and understories of ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and in the higher elevations white fir. There are many stands with overstory large diameter (>21” diameter breast height (DBH)) ponderosa pine that are competing for water and nutrients with the mid and understory smaller diameter trees. Many of the large trees have died over the past 20 years due to competition, drought and other stresses (including insects and disease). The frequent fire- adapted ponderosa pine forests in the project area are highly departed from the historic conditions. The stands are dense, multi-storied and contain species that are not adapted to frequent fires such as lodgepole pine and white fir. The stands are overstocked and have pockets of trees being attacked by insects and diseases including mountain pine beetle, dwarf mistletoe, and annosus root rots. Bitterbrush is much more abundant in the shrub layer and grasses are less abundant than historically. Greenleaf manzanita and snowbrush are abundant in the shrub layer at higher elevations and increase with ground disturbance. Please see the Plant Association Map on page 14. Mixed Conifer At the higher elevations of the Red Knight project area (5,500 feet to 6,500 feet, and on north aspects of Little Yamsay) are 3,046 acres of pine-associated or dry mixed conifer plant groups. Conifers include ponderosa pine, which dominates on south slopes, white fir, sugar pine, and lodgepole pine. Most of the stands have very dense multi-story structure. Below about 30 inches of precipitation white fir has an increased risk of mortality due to drought (Cochran, 1998) .). Above 30 inches of precipitation white fir can be maintained as a component of the stand and contribute to the large tree character and habitat associated with large decadent white fir. In the absence of fire over the past century, shade-tolerant and fire-intolerant white fir has extended its range down slope and into the ponderosa pine forest type. The white fir are attacked by fir engraver insects, fir mistletoe, armillaria, (Armillaria ostoyae), annosus (Heterobasidion anosum) root rots, and Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium). Lodgepole Pine In the Red Knight area, lodgepole pine stand conditions are a result of the history of disturbance agents such as mountain pine beetles and fire. Where mountain pine beetle attacks were successful without a fire event, multi-aged structure occurred as gaps. Due to the absence of fire, lodgepole pine is well established near meadows and wet stringers throughout the Red Knight area and interspersed throughout the ponderosa pine plant groups. The 4,342 acres of stands dominated by lodgepole pine are mostly in the lower elevations of the project area near Long Prairie. With its characteristic prolific seeding and high seed viability, lodgepole pine has established itself as a component of most of the plant associations (dry to wet) and with the lack of fire, it has greatly increased the stand densities in the project area. A recent mountain pine beetle outbreak has affected most of the project area including clumps of lodgepole pine near the base of Yamsay Mountain. Dwarf mistletoe, mountain pine beetle, comandra blister rust, western gall rust, and root rots are the most common diseases and insects that are influencing the growth and health of the lodgepole pine stands in the area.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Riparian Areas Riparian systems include Bear Creek fed by Boundary Springs, Trapper Spring and Still Spring on the east side of the project area, Doeskin Creek, Dillon Creek that drains into Jack Creek (northwest of the Red Knight area), Doe Creek, Knight Creek, Deely Creek, and Rock Creek that drains into the Long Prairie system on the western side of the project area. Jackson Creek headwaters begin in the crater of Yamsay Mountain and there are numerous springs on the north flank of the mountain. Meadows Management area (MA) 8 - riparian areas include an approximate 702 acres of meadows scattered throughout the project area with the largest (over 300 acres) being Long Prairie on Rock Creek. Forest Roads (FR) 7600785 and 7600786 are causing hydrological resource concerns in Long Prairie. There are several small meadows (under 50 acres in size) on each of the other creeks. Lodgepole is encroaching into meadows and shading out grasses, forbs and riparian hardwoods in the project area. Riparian Stringers/Aspen Management area (MA) 8 - riparian areas includes Bear Creek, Dillon Creek, Doeskin Creek, Doe Creek, Deely Creek, Rock Creek, Knight Creek and several unnamed creeks. All of these are intermittent, non-fish bearing (MA8B) streams. Jackson Creek is a perennial, fish bearing (MA8A) stream. There are several roads that cross through or run along these creeks that are altering drainage patterns, may be contributing fine sediment into the creek, and/or are impacting hydrologic function. Forest road (FR) 7650420 is 1.88 miles of a Maintenance Level (ML) 2 road that crosses Doeskin Creek. FR 4973130 crosses Jackson Creek and is eroding sediment into the creek annually. The last 0.80 miles of FR 4975000 from rock creek to FR 7645000 has poor drainage. (see map on page 38) Much of the Jackson Creek Campground is located within the Jackson Creek riparian corridor. The campground and adjacent former guard station have pit toilets that are not consistent with riparian management objectives. The former guard station is located near the creek and attracts regular vehicle and foot traffic, resulting in soil compaction, prevention of establishment of ground covering vegetation, and increased surface and fine sediment runoff directly into the creek. The eastern 0.88 miles of FR 4900740, east of Jackson Creek Campground, is located within the riparian habitat conservation area (RHCA) of Jackson Creek. The presence of this road is causing erosion of fine pumice sediments from the road surface. The riparian stringer near Boundary Springs has lodgepole encroaching into the riparian zone around the spring, shading out hardwoods and other desirable riparian vegetation. FR 7645460 comes down the hill to the edge of the spring head and travels along the creek below the spring head for a short distance. This road is directing sediment into the creek. Some of the riparian areas have populations of aspen, other hardwoods and forbs that are competing with conifers that have encroached into these areas. The plant diversity and condition is declining so it is a high priority to restore these areas. Springs There are several springs in the project area, none of which have any private water right ownership. The area surrounding Boundary Springs has a special-use permit for traditional use

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 camping, and there is a livestock water development in close proximity to the spring head. There are many standing dead hazard trees within the traditional use campsite. The water development consists of a spring box that is piped over to a round wood tank in the campsite. Infrastructure is in various stages of disrepair. Trapper spring and Still spring are on the east side of the project area and have evidence of cattle trespass documented (Watershed Improvement Needs inventory 1993-1996).

Fire Regime Condition Class Based on the historic fire regimes, there has been a shift in fuel and stand structure from that characterized by low, moderate, and mixed severity fire potential to stand-replacing fire potential. Increased understory growth has created much higher fuel loadings both in a vertical and horizontal arrangement. Ground fuels such as litter, dead branches, brush, and large down wood that once were consumed by light surface fires have now accumulated to amounts seldom seen historically. Condition class relates to the degree of departure from the historic fire regime intervals and the resulting alternations of key ecosystem components such as species composition, structural stage, stand age, and canopy closure. Approximately 65 percent of the project area is characterized as condition class 3, a high departure from historical conditions (see Figure 1 on page 13). Given the current stand structures and fuel loadings, the size and intensity of wildfire has been and will continue to increase from its historical function. Due to the prevailing wind and weather patterns, the current Red Knight area forested stands pose a risk of wildfire moving into Yamsay semi-primitive recreation area, which would be detrimental because it is an area of high cultural significance to the Klamath Tribes.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Figure 1. Fire Regime Condition Class (FRCC) and departure from historic conditions for the Red Knight project area, using local data.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Plants and Wildlife There are numerous plant, fungi and lichen species present in the project area that are of interest to the Klamath Tribes. Most species of interest to the Klamath Tribes are under-represented in their current distribution relative to the historic occurrence of these species within the project boundary. The majority of the species of interest are early to mid-successional species. Some of these species may occur in lesser numbers than historically because of the dominance of dense conifer stands in parts of the project area and the lack of fire as a disturbance. Shrub and forb densities in the understory are in decline and will continue to decrease as the canopies increase (Peek et al., 2000; Busse, 2009). These understory species provide an important contribution to the biological diversity of the area. They also provide a forage base for a variety of other species including big game, rare insects, small mammals, and birds. The increase in tree density has increased deer and elk hiding cover. In 1992, deer cover analysis showed that 32 percent of the area provided hiding cover for big game. The past harvest units and about a fifth of the big tree ponderosa habitat had open sight distances well across the stands. Today more than 90 percent of the area will obscure the view of a deer within 200 feet. Marten, goshawk, and pileated woodpeckers have habitat within the project area and are management indicator species for management area 7 - old growth ecosystems on the Winema National Forest (Winema Land Resource Management Plan (LRMP), 1990). The marten, goshawk, and pileated woodpecker habitats are currently in fire regime condition class of 3. Marten are a Winema LRMP management indicator species for mature and old growth mountain hemlock and high elevation lodgepole pine (Winema LRMP, 1990). The Yamsay Mountain Semi-primitive Roadless Area contains the nearest habitat of this type. However, marten are known to use the mature lodgepole and mixed conifer habitats in the Red Knight project area. Currently, the expansion of lodgepole and fir into ponderosa habitat, increase in multi-story structure, and increase in dead wood fuel loads contribute to forage habitat expansion into ponderosa habitat in the Red Knight project area for martens. There is one known goshawk nest site in the Red Knight project area. There are 12 designated goshawk management areas in the Red Knight project area, each ranging in size from about 75 to 300 acres. Pileated woodpeckers are a Winema LRMP management indicator species for mature and old- growth ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and areas of large cottonwood or aspen trees. They are associated with late-seral stages of the subalpine, montane, and lower montane forests. Special habitat features are snags, down logs, and large hollow trees (Wisdom et al. 2000). Numerous sightings of pileated woodpeckers have been made in the mixed conifer habitat within the Red Knight project area, but surveys have not detected any nesting pairs. There are three designated pileated woodpecker management areas in the Red Knight project area, each around 300 acres in size. These coincide with the designated goshawk management areas.

Transportation System Forest Service roads database indicated that approximately 260 miles of Forest system roads occur within the Red Knight Restoration Project boundary. Existing road surface types include

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

69 miles of aggregate and 192 miles of native material. Of the approximate 260 miles of National Forest System roads in the project area; 146 miles are Maintenance Level 1 roads and 116 miles are Maintenance Level 2. There are no Maintenance Level 3 roads within the project area. The current road density is 5.2 miles of road for every square mile of land base within the project.

1.3.2 - Desired Future Conditions The desired future condition for all the forest stands in the Red Knight project area is more resilient historic condition (HRV). Resilience to fire, insects, and disease is important so that disturbance events will not lead to uncharacteristic large-scale loss of forest habitat. Creating a resilient forest allows for the development and maintenance of diverse wildlife habitats closer to what occurred historically and decreases the risk of loss to disturbances. Ecosystems functioning within their HRV are assumed to be more resilient to future changes and be sustainable over time. See table 1 on pages 19-20 for the desired future conditions for all management areas within the project area. Ponderosa Pine The desired future condition is a resilient forest with a substantial amount of late and old structured stands and associated habitats. It is desired for ponderosa pine stands to have few fire- intolerant species like lodgepole pine and white fir, reduced densities overall with a more open landscape, and less incidence of diseases and insects. Desired conditions for the large ponderosa pine in the area are to be more vigorous with less competition from smaller diameter trees. Creating conditions for low-intensity fire to be effectively reintroduced into the ecosystem would allow for the development and maintenance of open stands of large ponderosa pine. It is also desirable to return the stands to a more historical structure, utilizing the individuals, clumps, and openings approach (ICO)(Churchill, et al., 2013). This would also be applicable in the Mixed Conifer plant association. For more information about ICO, please see pages 71-78. Mixed Conifer The desired future condition in the mixed conifer is a resilient forest with a substantial amount of late and old structured stands and associated habitats. Most of the mixed conifer stands have extended their range down slope with the suppression of fires over the last century. The higher elevations in the Red Knight project area have enough precipitation to sustain large diameter white fir into the near future (greater than 30 inch DBH). The white fir snags in these high elevation areas provide the best opportunities in the planning area for pileated woodpecker habitat. The lower elevations have relatively low precipitation and cannot sustain the current stocking or structure of white fir. Ponderosa pine is the most desired species to maintain in the mixed conifer stands. Clumps of white fir untreated across the landscape are desirable for diversity of density and structure. Lodgepole Pine Desired conditions for lodgepole pine are a mosaic of healthy, vigorous stands with reduced risk to mountain pine beetle attacks. This includes the late and old structural staged stands that provide habitat for wildlife species in the area.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Riparian Areas The desired future conditions for management area 8 are riparian areas that include a diversity of vegetative types ranging from open meadowlands to forested land to provide instream cover for fish, bank, and floodplain stability, and habitat for big game and nongame wildlife. It should also provide for high standards of water quality in terms of temperature, turbidity, and bank stability for fisheries and recreational uses, and to meet state water quality standards. In addition, the desired future condition includes a diverse variety of native riparian vegetation including vigorous, regenerating hardwoods with minimal competition with conifers and a lowered fire regime condition class with less fuel loading. It is required to have riparian areas that are consistent with the Inland Native Fish Strategy (INFISH) direction, including minimalized erosion, sedimentation, soil displacement, and headcutting. The desired future condition includes having roads that drain and function properly and a reduced number of open roads with resource concerns. Meadows The desired condition of moist and wet meadows is maintenance of quality and diverse meadow condition with less stocking of conifers, especially lodgepole pine. It is desirable to provide adequate forage for big game and livestock. Also desired is a lack of gullying or lowered water tables, which drain the meadows. Springs The desired future conditions are healthy and restored areas where precipitation infiltrates into the ground, where water exits the ground (i.e. springs) and other discharge zones and where water is stored along the hydrological network. The desired future conditions of developed springs is maintained and restored springs or springs in natural conditions, with high water quality and quantity. Jackson Creek Campground The desired future condition for management area 2A is a minimally developed recreation site at Jackson Creek with facilities, historic sites, and roads that are consistent with the Inland Native Fish Strategy (INFISH) direction and State water quality guidelines in a natural appearing forest environment. Fire Regime Condition Class A fire regime condition class of 1, a low departure from historic conditions, is desireable, as are more frequent low-intensity fires that maintain understory growth and reduce fuel loadings both in a vertical and horizontal arrangement. The desired condition for fuels is to have a ponderosa overstory with limited understory, and a mosaic of bitterbrush for forage and native grasses. Prescribed fire is desirable within the project area where residual fuels are greater than the Winema LRMP standards and guidelines and fuels have not been removed by other methods. Transportation System The desired future condition for the transportation system is to provide the minimum number of roads needed for management activities and for public access. Roads that are not needed will be returned to vegetative production. Manage open road densities to the levels needed to meet

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 management direction and objectives, and close roads when they are not needed for access (Wimena LRMP, 1990). Each management area also has a desired future condition for roads. (Red Knight Transportation Report, page 2)

Plants and Wildlife The desired future condition for wildlife and plant species of interest to the Klamath Tribes, shrubs, forbs, other understory species, and native riparian plants is to be vigorous, regenerating, diverse in composition and structure, and more represented in their distribution relative to the historic occurrence of these species within the project boundary. It is desired to have a greater amount of forage for deer and elk. To provide adequate diversity of forage structure for deer, activities shall be planned to achieve multiple age classes in the brush vegetation component. (Winema LRMP). The Forest will provide a minimum of 30 percent of its areas cover for deer (Winema LRMP). The desired future condition for white headed woodpecker habit is large mature tracts of relatively open canopy ponderosa pine forests with large snags for foraging and nesting. It is desirable to have adequate forage for white headed woodpeckers, which includes seeds from both ponderosa pine and sugar pine. The desired future condition for marten is mature and old-growth mountain hemlock or high- elevation lodgepole pine ecosystems. These communities would consist of multi-canopied stands containing a high diversity of understory plant species. Special and unique habitat components include talus slopes, rock piles and crevices, cliffs and rims, snags, stumps, and dead and down woody material. Nesting northern goshawks and three-toed woodpeckers may be present (Winema LRMP, 1990). The desirable goshawk habitat characteristics of management area 7 old growth ecosystems include multi-storied canopies comprised of mature tree crowns with sub-canopies of shade- tolerant conifer species of various ages and heights. Included within the nesting and forging areas would be north-facing talus slopes or cliffs, water sources, and all downed logs potentially used as goshawk plucking and/or feeding sites (Winema LRMP, 1990). The desired future condition for pileated woodpeckers is multi-storied mature and old-growth stands of mixed confer, ponderosa pine, and ponderosa pine associated species, as well as riparian areas of large cottonwood or aspen trees, that provide the preferred nesting and feeding habitats for pileated woodpeckers. Snags of appropriate species, size, and density are desired to be available, as well as dead and down woody material and heart rot. Snags for nesting and foraging would be surrounded by mature or old-growth timber and would be clumped in small patches throughout the nesting habitat. Nesting northern goshawks may be present (Winema LRMP, 1990).

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Table 1 – Winema Land Resource Management Plan management areas goals, desired conditions, approximate acres within the Red Knight project area, and approximate percent of the project area. Management Winema Land Resource Management Plan Goals and Desired Acres % of Area (MA) Conditions Area Goal- Provide variety of recreation opportunities & development levels at 58 <1 developed recreation sites. Emphasis is to meet demand for developed MA-2 camping, except on holiday weekends. Desired Condition- developed Developed recreation occurring in a natural-appearing forest environment. A variety Recreation of recreation activities are supported by the appropriate facilities. These (Winema include picnicking, camping, boating, swimming, hiking, riding, cross- LRMP 4-94) country skiing, and snowmobiling. Developed recreation areas are generally accessible by passenger car. Goal- Provide attractive scenery that is slightly altered from a natural 1,358 4 condition as viewed in the foreground. Activities may repeat or introduce form, line, color, or texture common or uncommon to characteristic landscape, but changes in their qualities of size, amount, intensity, MA-3B direction, and pattern must be visually subordinate to the visual strength Scenic of the characteristic landscape. Desired Condition- the same as the Management, areawide condition with large tree character emphasized and maintained Foreground perpetually in the foreground in all species, except lodgepole pine, Partial through retaining large-diameter trees in groupings and by having large Retention trees sometimes scattered individually among other tree size classes. To (Winema achieve diversity, small openings with natural-appearing edges may be LRMP 4-107) created. Overall, trees with distinctive bark and tree form characteristics, including occasional character snags, are very evident. Management activities may be noticeable, but they remain subordinate to the natural landscape character. An interdisciplinary team desired condition is to not have landings or slash piles located within sight of main travelways. Goal- Provide, maintain, and enhance existing mature and old-growth 6,313 20 communities that are needed to meet the management requirements for associated wildlife species, for mature successional stage diversity, MA-7 preservation of natural gene pools, aesthetic qualities, and to maintain the Old Growth inherent values of these ecosystems. Desired Condition- old-growth Ecosystems environments of mature and overmature communities of lodgepole pine, (Winema ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, ponderosa pine and associated species, LRMP 4-128) and mountain hemlock/subalpine fir, as well as stands of cottonwood or aspen. Timber management techniques may be used to enhance low quality stands to greater potential.

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Management Winema Land Resource Management Plan Goals and Desired Acres % of Area (MA) Conditions Area Goal- to protect soil, water, wetland, floodplain, wildlife, and fish 1,656 5 resource values associated with riparian vegetative communities and adjacent drier ecosystems. Management emphasis is on water quality, deer fawning, wildlife habitat, and aquatic ecosystems. Existing MA-8 conditions will be maintained or enhanced. Desired Condition- riparian Riparian vegetative communities containing openings and meadows interspersed Areas with stands in various successional stages. These stands differ in age, (Winema species composition, density, and size. Riparian vegetation provides LRMP 4-136) wildlife habitat and adequately protects floodplains, bank stability, and water quality. Few roads and other facilities are present within the riparian area. Timber harvest shall be programmed outside of 100 foot buffers of class 1 streams MA-12 This Management Area has been Amended by the Eastside Screens. 22,648 70 Timber For detailed discussion of the Eastside Screens, please see section Production 3.3.24 on page 186. (Winema LRMP 4-153) Goal- Provide a natural-appearing forest setting for dispersed recreation 272 <1 MA-15 activities and special wildlife habitats. Desired Condition- a slightly Upper altered forest environment, including a mix of native coniferous and Williamson deciduous trees and shrubs There is a generally uniform appearing (Winema forested environment with a variety of age classes throughout the LRMP 4-160) ponderosa pine working group. Cutting units will dominate in the lodgepole pine working group. Timber harvest shall be programmed. Total 32,305 100

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1.4 - Need for Proposal Contrasting the existing condition and the desired future condition expresses the following underlying needs within the Red Knight project area. 1. There is a need to restore, enhance, and maintain a healthy forest habitat by developing spatial patterns, forest composition, structure, and ecological processes more typical of a sustainable, resilient, and fire-adapted forest. 2. In riparian areas, there is a need to improve vegetation diversity, address adverse soil and water conditions, provide wildlife habitat, release native riparian plant species from competition with conifers, and increase hardwood vigor and ability to regenerate. 3. There is a need to reduce road density and reduce adverse resource impacts of roads. 4. There is a need for healthy stands capable of sustaining timber products (including commercial timber, post and poles, firewood and other products) to the local and regional economies.

5. Historic range of variability analysis (see silviculture report pg 12-16) indicates that the ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and lodgepole biophysical (temperature and moisture regime) types are below the historic range of variability for single canopy late and old structural stages. Winema LRMP standards and guidelines for the eastside screens (Revised Continuation of Interim Management Direction Establishing Riparian, Ecosystem, and Wildlife Standards for Timber Sales, 1995) would not allow the cutting of green white fir trees larger than 21 inches. To accomplish the desired stand composition in restoring the ponderosa pine single canopy late and old structural stages to the landscape, there is a need to cut and remove white fir larger than 21 inches. The Winema LRMP would need to be amended in order to be consistent with this action. 6. There is a need for visually appealing scenery that represents the landscape character of the forest along the Silver Lake Highway. However, in order to accomplish desired stand composition along the Silver Lake Highway, there is a need to follow up vegetative treatments with a combination of underburning, pile burning, and jackpot burning to treat slash left after vegetation treatments in management area 3B, scenic management, foreground partial retention along the Silver Lake Highway. Doing so would scorch and leave charred bark on a portion of trees and would remain evident for longer than three years. There is a need to exempt this action from Scenic standard 1 for Management Area 3B, Winema LRMP page 4-107. The Winema LRMP would need to be amended in order to be consistent with this action. 1.5 - Proposed Actions

In order to respond to and meet the needs of the project, the Chemult Ranger District is proposing the following restoration activities (see page 36 for the vegetative actions displayed on a map).

The proposed action would leave large areas untreated to provide cover for big game and nesting habitat for goshawks and great grey owls. Areas around Little Yamsay Mountain, part of the

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Jackson Creek corridor and goshawk minimum requirement areas from the Winema LRMP would not be treated. (approximately (2,590 acres) Limited treatment areas would enhance old growth ponderosa pine by commercial and non-commercial tree density reduction near old trees in past harvest units (7,300 acres). Forest restoration in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine would be done using ground-based harvesting systems, maintain old trees and reduce competitive stresses on them, increase heterogeneity, and reduce stand density to maintain large tree overstory structure. The intent is to retain trees over 150 years of age. However, some small (<21” DBH) trees that may be over 150 years old would be harvested to support the economics of restoration activities including small tree thinning. The numbers of small, old trees harvested would be negligible across the landscape. Harvest of white fir greater than 21” DBH and younger than 150 years old would be allowed (please see Forest Plan Amendment below). Thinning densities would vary by plant association and objectives for the management area, and would follow a prescription that retains the natural clusters of ponderosa pine (16,900 acres). In areas identified as potential habitat for the pileated woodpecker, similar restoration actions are proposed, except no underburning would take place in order to maintain down woody material and protect residual white fir (1,630 acres). Small tree thinning and pile burning would be conducted to improve vigor, reduce competition, and increase heterogeneity in ponderosa pine plantations (2,100 acres).

Under burning would be conducted on approximately 26,000 acres of ponderosa pine to restore habitat and reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfire. Removal of lodgepole pine in areas where it is encroaching on native plants to reduce competition, provide wildlife habitat, and increase hardwood vigor and ability to regenerate (950 acres). Aspen habitat within the project area would be restored by removing conifer encroachment through commercial harvest, small tree thinning, and pile burning (100 aces).

Boundary Springs would be restored to its natural condition by removing the water development infrastructure (concrete spring head, pipe, and trough). The Jackson Creek Guard Station would be moved from the riparian area. The toilets in the Jackson Creek Campground would be removed and replaced with one vault toilet that meets current health, and safety requirements.

Road density and resource damage would be reduced by closing and decommissioning roads as recommended through project-level travel analysis. Total miles of open maintenance level 2 roads proposed for decommissioning: 55.1. Total miles of proposed closures: 4.3.

Winema LRMP Large White Fir Amendment – Goal: move multiple-layered ponderosa pine stands towards late and old stages of a single layer where the white fir are competing with ponderosa pine in ponderosa pine plant associations (Appendix B Revised Interim Direction, pages 9-14). The Winema LRMP would be amended in order to harvest white fir greater than 21” DBH and younger than 150 years old within the Red Knight planning area where it would support ecological restoration goals. This amendment would apply to the following prescriptions: limited treatment, forest restoration in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine, forest restoration with consideration of pileated habitat, lodgepole pine encroachment removal, and aspen restoration. Up to 26,880 acres.

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Winema LRMP Scenic Standard Amendment – Goal: a combination of underburning and pile burning to treat slash left after vegetation treatments in management area 3B - scenic management along the Silver Lake Highway. The Winema LRMP would be amended in order to exempt the above actions from scenic standard and guideline one for management area 3B (4-107). This amendment would apply to the limited treatment and forest restoration in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine prescriptions. Underburning and pile burning slash would scorch and create charred bark on a portion of trees and would remain evident for more than three years over approximately 1,126 acres.

1.6 - Decision Framework The deciding official for this proposal is the Forest Supervisor of the Fremont-Winema National Forest. Based on the EA and information contained in the Project Record, the Forest Supervisor will decide whether to implement the action as proposed, or as modified in an alternative, including any project design features. The Forest Supervisor will determine if an EIS should be prepared by determining if any effects are significant. If the effects are not significant, the finding will be documented in a Finding of No Significant Impact. Implementation would begin after the summer of 2013. 1.7 - The Collaborative Restoration Process Restoration “Restoration” is a way of describing much of the Forest Service’s work aimed at addressing altered disturbance regimes, non-native invasive species, and increasing pressures and impacts from an expanding human population on National Forest System lands. The Forest Service has conducted restoration-related activities across many programs for decades. The concept of restoration is threaded throughout existing program directives and collaborative efforts. However, an internal Forest Service study, Ecosystem Restoration: A Framework for Restoring and Maintaining the National Forests and Grasslands, also known as the Restoration Framework, found that the concept of ecological restoration has not been well understood nor consistently implemented within the agency (Ecological Restoration and Resilience, FSM 2000, CH2020). Ecological Restoration is defined in Forest Service Manual 2000, Chapter 2020 as “the process of assisting the recovery of resilience and adaptive capacity of ecosystems that have been degraded, damaged, or destroyed. Restoration focuses on establishing the composition, structure, pattern, and ecological processes necessary to make terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems sustainable, resilient, and healthy under current and future conditions”. This broadens the definition of ecological restoration beyond the traditional approach of reestablishing specific past resource conditions, such as those defined by historical range of variation. Because restoration objectives reflect diverse public values, ecological restoration is based upon collaboration. The Red Knight interdisciplinary team is engaging in a collaborative process to reestablish the historic range of variability, while also using additional actions to restore the Red Knight project area in an economically feasible way.

The Red Knight interdisciplinary team (IDT), including the Klamath Tribes’ forester, collected field data and worked together in order to determine the existing condition and the desired future

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 condition of the Red Knight planning area. Contrasting these lead to the development of the purpose and need for action that drives the proposed action (see page 22). The proposed action for the Red Knight area was developed with participation of the Klamath Tribes’ forester, the Red Knight IDT and the public through the scoping process. Later, modification to the proposal for treatments in the Red Knight area was developed using a collaborative process involving the Klamath Tribes and their representatives Dr. Norm Johnson, Debbie Johnson, Dr. Jerry Franklin, Keala Hagmann, and Dr. Derek Churchill. Over several months, field trips, e-mails, phone conversations, and meetings were held with these and other collaborators to discuss the existing conditions of the project area, scientific principles, and new scientific concepts for managing the area. Many topics were discussed and the proposed action was modified utilizing the ideas from the collaboration. The Klamath Tribes As an agency of the executive branch of the United States government, the USDA Forest Service has a trust responsibility to consult with federally recognized tribes regarding any policy, initiative or decision that has the potential to affect tribal interests including treaty resources, cultural values or the exercise of treaty rights by tribal members. The Treaty of Klamath Lake, Oregon with the Klamath, Modoc and Yahooskin Band of Snake October 14, 1864 reserves the Tribes’ inherent right to hunt, fish, gather and trap, on Forest lands that now contain the former reservation. In keeping with the 1992 amendments to the National Historic Preservation Act, Executive Order 13175 (2000), the 1999 Memorandum of Agreement (amended 2005) between Region 6 Forest Service and the Klamath Tribes and the Consent Decree (1981), the Forest has and will continue to consult with the Klamath Tribes’, staff and members, regarding the protection and management of treaty and cultural resources. These resources include values associated with hunting, plant gathering, religious or spiritual places, and other traditional uses. The entire Red Knight project area lies within the boundaries of the 1954 Klamath Indian Reservation. The proposed action will not affect the exercise of treaty rights, and implementation of the proposed action may help protect treaty resources and cultural values from stand replacing fire and disease. The Forest has consulted with the Klamath Tribes Natural Resources Director, Cultural Resource Protection Specialist, and Culture and Heritage Director about the Red Knight Restoration Project during Tribal pre-SOPA (Schedule of Proposed Actions) meeting prior to publishing of the January-March 2012 SOPA and also at the Klamath Tribal Member Listening Session in Chiloquin, OR on October 25, 2011. The Klamath Tribes helped to develop the proposed action (pages 29-35). The Tribal Natural Resources Director as well as the Cultural Resource Protection Specialist and Cultural Protection Officer participated with the Forest Service interdisciplinary team through meetings, work sessions, phone and e-mail discussions, and field trips. Representatives of The Klamath Tribes toured the project area with the Forest Service several times between 2007 and 2012. Areas representing proposed treatments were visited and implementation methodology, and desired end results for the planning were discussed. The Klamath Tribes, Culture and Heritage Director, and individual tribal members, shared concerns and proposals for management of the former reservation land as a whole. These concerns are mainly centered on cultural use areas, subsistence, health of springs and meadows,

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 and treaty resources (for a complete list, see Klamath Tribes Cultural Values List, 12/13/2012, in the Red Knight project record). Other concerns include: . a variety of wildlife species, particularly mule deer; . traditional use plants; . cultural site protection; . appearance of the landscape. Living culture values health, access, and aesthetic and visual quality, i.e. “sense of place”, of the land and water, plants and animals; . access to, and setting from the top of Yamsay Mountain as well as along corridors between camping areas; . cultural use areas, such as springs, meadows, and camping sites; . grazing impacts; . forest health; . water quality and; quantity, and; . Yamsay Mountain as a cultural landscape and NHPA National Register eligible Traditional Cultural Property.

Scoping and Public Involvement The public notification process for this project began with the listing of the proposed project on the Forest Schedule of Proposed Actions for January-March 2012. This project was scoped to the public on March 28, 2012. Ten comments were received, two of which were supportive, four of which were neutral, and four of which were not supportive. A public field trip and discussion occurred on July 3, 2012, and two collaborative proposed action update discussions occurred on January 23 and February 7, 2013. Issues Issues highlight effects or unintended consequences that may occur from the proposed action and alternatives, giving opportunities during the analysis to reduce adverse effects and compare trade-offs for the decision-maker and public to understand. An issue should be phrased as a cause-effect statement relating proposed actions to effects. “An issue statement should describe a specific action and the environmental effect(s) expected to result from that action (FSH 1909.15, 12.4).” The regulation at 40 CFR 1500.4(g) sets forth direction to use the scoping process to identify issues deserving of study, and also to deemphasize insignificant issues, thus narrowing the scope of the environmental assessment accordingly. Issues afforded detailed study are described as “key issues.” Comments received from the public during scoping were considered by the Forest Service to see if any key issues were raised. One reiterated issue involved a request to not construct any temporary roads as was proposed during scoping. A GIS analysis by the GIS specialist and the Inter-disciplinary team leader was done to determine if this issue was a key issue, and if it should be developed into a third alternative. The GIS analysis found that many units would not be reachable without constructing temporary

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 roads, because the maximum recommended skid distance (800 feet) for equipment would be exceeded. The responsible official determined that this issue could not become an alternative because the construction of no temporary roads would limit access to many thinning activities and would therefore not meet the need for action. Other concerns that were brought up were: Protect trees with Old-Growth Morphology regardless of size Generally, we will protect trees with Old Growth Characteristics. However, to support restoration objectives some old trees that are less than 21 inch DBH will need to be cut. Please see page 73 for more information. …Strive to find the most optimal mix of treated and untreated areas Through the collaborative process with the Klamath Tribes and comments received during scoping, we have added no treatment and limited treatment areas to protect cultural resources, sensitive wildlife, and in the case of the limited treatment areas; thin around large ponderosa pine to reduce competition in past harvest units. Natural systems are dynamic and changing, and finding the most optimal mix of treated and untreated areas is very complex. Analyze an alternative that would not amend the Forest Plan (Eastside Screens) While this issue was considered, it was not analyzed in detail. This is because the encroachment of large, young white is competing with old ponderosa pine. It is important to remove some of the large white fir where ecologically necessary. If a site specific Forest Plan amendment to cut white fir greater than 21 inches was not implemented, these areas would not be restored towards more sustainable historic conditions.. In areas such as the pileated units, more white fir would be left to contribute to woodpecker habitat.

Protect soils by minimizing ground-based logging In our area, ground-based logging is the only feasible method to harvest trees over 7 inch DBH. Only thinning smaller trees would not meet the need for action due to the size and stocking density of the trees in the project. The desired conditions of less than 20 percent of soils in detrimental conditions have generally been met on sales on the Chemult District by keeping skid trails 100 feet apart, and keeping equipment off of slopes greater than 35 percent except for short pitches. (please see pages 162-163 for further discussion on soils)

1.8 - Project Record This analysis incorporates by reference its project record, containing specialist reports and other technical documentation used in disclosing the effects discussed in the analysis. Regulations require that EAs shall be analytical rather than encyclopedic and that EAs shall provide enough supporting information to demonstrate a reasoned consideration of the environmental impacts of the alternatives, without repeating detailed analysis and information available elsewhere (40 CFR 1500.4).

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Chapter 2 - Alternatives 2.1 - Formulation of Alternatives This chapter displays and compares detailed information about the proposed action. The proposed action is designed to meet the needs described in chapter 1 and to address issues. The Forest Plan provides direction for activities. The proposed action is designed to be consistent with Forest Plan direction, with the exception of the two proposed project specific amendments (see page 30). The interdisciplinary team used tribal consultation, public scoping, field-related resource information, and consultation with Forest Service resource specialists to formulate the proposed action. 36 CFR 220.7(b)(2)(i) states that “when there are no unresolved conflicts concerning alternative uses of available resources, the EA need only analyze the proposed action and proceed without consideration of additional alternatives.” There were no unresolved conflicts brought up during scoping, so this EA only analyzes in detail the proposed action, and the no action alternatives. Alternatives Considered, but Not Analyzed in Detail During the development of this project, one alternative to the proposed action that was not developed for detailed analysis was the possibility of building no temporary roads during implementation of this project. A GIS analysis by the GIS specialist the Inter-disciplinary team leader was done to determine if this issue was a key issue, and if it should be developed into a third alternative. The GIS analysis found that many units would not be accessible without constructing temporary roads, because the maximum recommended skid distance (800 feet) for equipment would be exceeded. This issue could not become an alternative because the construction of no temporary roads would limit access to many thinning activities and would therefore not meet the need for action. Other general issues led to alternatives being considered, but not in detail.

2.2 - Alternatives Considered in Detail This EA will analyze alternative 1 – no action, and alternative 2 – the proposed actions. Alternative comparison tables are located at the end of this chapter. Effects are described in chapter 3. Acreages were calculated by geographic information systems. 2.2.1 - Alternative 1: No Action The no action alternative assumes that commercial harvest, small tree thinning, fuel treatments, and all other activities associated with the Red Knight project would not occur. Wildfire suppression, road maintenance, and other routine protection and maintenance activities would continue. Natural processes would continue. By having an alternative that does not move the area toward desired future conditions, comparisons with the action alternative can be made. In the analysis of effects in chapter 3, the no action alternative discussion provides expected trends given that no activities from this analysis would take place.

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2.2.2 - Alternative 2: Proposed Action Following the Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the Klamath Tribes (as amended 2005) and the U.S. Forest Service, the interdisciplinary team (IDT) collaborated with the Tribal natural resource department in the development of the Red Knight restoration project. A proposed action for the Red Knight area was developed with participation of the Klamath Tribes’ forester, the Red Knight IDT and the public through scoping. Later, modification to the proposal for treatments in the Red Knight area was developed using a collaborative process involving the Klamath Tribes and their representatives Debbie and Dr. Norm Johnson, Dr. Jerry Franklin, Keala Hagmann and Dr. Derek Churchill. No treatment areas (approximately 2,590 acres) and limited treatment areas (approximately 7,300 acres) were added in areas that were previously proposed for small tree thinning and/or thin from below. No treatment areas were added in response to comments from the public and the Klamath Tribes in order to protect old trees, sensitive species, and cultural resource concerns. Limited treatment areas were added to enhance and retain old trees in past harvest areas. The proposed Winema LRMP amendment has changed from the original public scoping of the harvest of white fir 21”-30”DBH, to the harvest white fir greater than 21” DBH and younger than 150 years old, as recommended by The Klamath Tribes. The acreage where this may occur has increased from 400 acres to 26,880 acres due to a desire to enhance and restore old growth ponderosa pine in areas that are threatened by large, young white fir encroachment. Modification to the proposed action included emphasis on retaining trees generally older than 150 years. Over several months, field trips, e-mails, phone conversations and meetings were held with collaborators (including Oregon Wild, and American Forest Resources Council and concerned publics) to discuss the existing conditions of the project area, scientific principles and new concepts for managing the area. Many topics were discussed and the proposed action was developed utilizing the recommendations from the collaboration. The main purpose for entering the Red Knight project area is to restore the forest landscape to more resilient historic conditions. Key principles for restoration management in the Red Knight area are consistent with “A Plan for the Klamath Tribes’ Management of the Klamath Reservation Forest” (Johnson, et al, 2008); The Case for Active Management of Dry Forest Types in Eastern Washington: Perpetuating and Creating Old Forest Structures and Functions (Franklin, et al, 2008); Dry Forest Restoration Principles and Prescriptions (Franklin and Johnson, 2011); A Restoration Framework for Federal Forests in the Pacific Northwest (Franklin and Johnson, J of F, 12/2012). A field trip with interested publics was conducted on July 3, 2012 to the Red Knight project area where many of the scientific principles and concepts for managing the area were discussed. A main topic of discussion was the possibility that the revenue generated by timber harvesting while retaining trees over 150 years old might not be enough to conduct the whole suite of proposed restoration activities. Ponderosa Pine and Mixed Conifer: Dry Forest Sites Our goal is to restore resilience of forest stands and landscapes to wildfire, insects and disease by reducing stand densities and ladder fuels, and increasing spatial heterogeneity. In order to restore more characteristic historic structure and composition of fire-adapted dry forests, implementation would include maintaining old (generally older than 150 years) and large trees in clumps and as individuals. The publication Identifying Old Trees and Forests in Eastern

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Washington (Van Pelt, 2008) would be used to help in identifying old trees that may be less than 21 inches DBH and are appropriate to retain within the context of restoration prescriptions. Treatments would favor fire resistant species such as ponderosa pine over white fir and lodgepole pine. All ponderosa pine and other tree species except white fir over 21 inch DBH would be retained. Ponderosa Pine, Mixed Conifer, and Lodgepole Pine Retention Patches Restore the fine-scale and landscape-scale heterogeneity by maintaining untreated patches (skips) within treated units and larger untreated areas across the landscape. Openings (gaps) ranging from approximately ½ acre to two and ½ acres would also be created as part of the spatial heterogeneity within the units. Retention areas would be chosen at two different scales: 1. Small scale/stand retention patches would be included in the 16,900 acres of forest restoration thinning with small tree thinning. These patches would promote habitat diversity within the stand, especially retain snag and log patches, protect spiritual, cultural, and places of worship areas, promote visual quality and aesthetic values, and would implement the Klamath Tribes Retention Patch Strategy for providing adequate hiding cover for big game. Small scale retention patches would cover approximately 10- 15 percent of treated units and range in size from less than 1 acre to 5 acres. The retention patches would be laid out after consultation with the district wildlife biologist and Tribal wildlife representative. Skidding and underburning would be permitted in the retention patches, if necessary, in a manner that would not adversely affect the integrity of the retention patch. Approximately 1,690 – 2,535 acres would be maintained in small scale/stand retention patches within the treatment units where appropriate conditions exist (10-15 percent of 16,900 acres; 10-15% of “Restoration” on map). 2. Large scale/landscape retention patches would be chosen to contribute to the required big game cover to forage (30:70) ratio from the Winema LRMP and to provide habitat for wildlife species that prefer higher tree densities and canopy closure. Large scale/landscape retention patches consist of approximately 2,590 acres of untreated areas well-distributed across the Red Knight area including around Little Yamsay Mountain and within management areas for goshawk and great grey owl. Limited treatment, including small and larger tree density reduction for two drip lines (20-30 feet approximately) near old trees to reduce competition and increase heterogeneity, would be done over approximately 7,300 acres. Young white fir trees greater than 21” DBH may be removed if they are within two drip lines of old ponderosa pines. Approximately 9,890 acres would be maintained in large scale/landscape retention patches well distributed across the Red Knight area that vary in size from 10 to 250 acres (about 31% of the Red Knight area; “No Treatment ” - 2,590 acres and “Limited Treatment” - 7,300 acres on map).

Alternative 2 - Modified Proposed Action – by treatment type No Treatment – Goal: is to leave undisturbed to provide cover for big game and nesting habitat for goshawks and great grey owls. As discussed above, large scale retention patches in areas around Little Yamsay Mountain, part of the Jackson Creek corridor and goshawk minimum requirement areas from the Winema LRMP would not be treated.

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These areas are culturally very important to the Klamath Tribes and/or would contribute toward cover for big game and habitat for goshawk and great grey owl. Approximately 2,590 acres – “No Treatment” on map. Winema LRMP Large White Fir Amendment – Goal: move multiple-layered ponderosa pine stands towards late and old stages of a single layer where the white fir are competing with ponderosa pine in ponderosa pine plant associations (Appendix B Revised Interim Direction, pages 9-14). The Winema LRMP would be amended in order to allow harvest of some white fir greater than 21” DBH and younger than 150 years old within the Red Knight planning area. This amendment would apply to the following prescriptions: limited treatment, forest restoration in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine, forest restoration with consideration of pileated habitat, lodgepole pine encroachment removal, and aspen restoration. Up to approximately 26,880 acres. Winema LRMP Scenic Standard Amendment – Goal: a combination of underburning and pile burning to treat slash left after vegetation treatments in management area 3B - scenic management along the Silver Lake Highway. The Winema LRMP would be amended in order to exempt the above actions from scenic standard and guideline one for management area 3B (4-107). This amendment would apply to the limited treatment and forest restoration in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine prescriptions. Underburning and pile burning slash would scorch and create charred bark on a portion of trees and would remain evident after three years over approximately 1,126 acres. Limited Treatment – Goal: maintain and protect large old pine trees, reduce competition, increase heterogeneity, and provide cover for big game. Limited treatment would include commercial tree density reduction near old trees in past harvest units. Removing competing trees from around old trees would occur for an approximate two drip lines or 20-30 foot radius. Harvest may include young white fir trees over 21” DBH. Underburning to reduce accumulated ground fuels would be done in the spring or the fall and would incorporate specific management objectives including limited mortality of old and large trees. Pile burning may be considered in areas where underburning would not achieve the desired objectives. In management area three, landings, decks, major skid roads, temporary roads, and slash piles would be located to the rear of the stands to use vegetative or landform screening opportunities. These would be located away from critical line-of-sight viewing areas (Winema LRMP, 4-108). In all other areas, slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years after the close of the timber sale where feasible.. Approximately 7,300 acres - “Limited Treatment (Large, Old Tree Release)” on map. Jackson Creek Corridor and Boundary Springs – Goal: reduce conifer densities (<7” DBH) to lessen competition near large trees and hardwoods. The Jackson Creek Guard Station would be moved from the riparian area. The toilets in the Jackson Creek Campground would be removed and replaced with one vault toilet that meets current health, safety and ADA requirements. Boundary Springs would be restored to its natural condition by removing the water development infrastructure (concrete spring head, pipe, and trough). Lopping and scattering of small tree thinning slash or hand piling and pile burning would be the fuel reduction methods. Slash would not be piled within sight of Jackson Creek. Piles within sight of roads or camping areas would be burned, chipped,

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or removed within two to four years where feasible.. Approximately 710 acres – “Jackson Creek Corridor and Boundary Springs” on map. Small Tree Thinning – Goal: improve vigor, reduce competition, and increase heterogeneity. Small trees (<7” DBH) would be thinned with chainsaws using variable spacing in previously harvested stands and plantations in management area (MA) 12. Removing competing trees from around existing old trees for two drip lines would be done to reduce competition. Lopping and scattering of slash, hand piling, and pile burning would be the fuel reduction methods. Slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years where feasilble.. Approximately 2,100 acres - “Understory Thinning” on map. Forest Restoration in Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine – Goal: maintain old trees and reduce competitive stresses on them, increase heterogeneity, reduce stand density to maintain large tree overstory structure. The general intent is to retain trees over 150 years of age. The approach would include utilizing variable spacing with ground-based harvest systems in ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine plant associations. Thinning densities would vary by plant association and objectives for the management area, and would follow a prescription that retains the natural clusters of ponderosa pine. Harvest of trees would generally be limited to trees under 150 years of age. Harvest of white fir greater than 21” DBH and younger than 150 years old would be allowed. Commercial thinning would be followed by variable density small tree thinning of less than 1 foot tall and up to 6.9” DBH. Restoration treatments in the lodgepole pine plant associations would include variable density thinning, creation of small openings (gaps) to facilitate natural regeneration, salvage of dead where it exceeds snag and down woody requirements, and an increase in structural diversity by leaving untreated clumps. Lodgepole pine would be harvested where it is competing with ponderosa pine. Slash from small tree thinning would be lopped and scattered. Hand piling, grapple piling and pile burning would occur in areas of high fuels accumulations. In management area 3 and 15, landings, decks, major skid roads, temporary roads, and slash piles would be located to the rear of the stands to use vegetative or landform screening opportunities. These would be located away from critical line-of-sight viewing areas (Winema LRMP, 4-108). In all other areas, slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years after the close of the timber sale where feasible. Spring or fall underburning would be conducted in ponderosa pine plant associations to restore historic conditions and would incorporate specific management objectives including limited mortality of old and large trees. Pile burning may be considered in areas where underburning would not achieve the desired objectives. Landing piles would be utilized or burned. Approximately 16,900 acres -“Restoration” on map. Forest Restoration with Consideration of Pileated Habitat – Goal: maintain old trees and reduce competitive stresses on them, increase heterogeneity, reduce stand density to maintain large tree overstory structure, and provide structures and species of use to pileated woodpeckers. This area is a part of the number one priority area for implementation (see implementation priorities map) and provides the best opportunities for white fir snags that pileated woodpeckers use. These acres also contain a large number of old growth ponderosa pine that are threatened by white fir encroachment. Removal of young (<150 year old) white fir threatening old growth trees would be a

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priority. The intent, though, is to maintain white fir in this area. This area would also follow a prescription that retains the natural clumping pattern of ponderosa pine, but young white fir in the open would be given equal consideration in retention to ponderosa pine, and clumps of white fir would be favored as skips. Young ponderosa pine threatening old white fir would be removed as would young white fir around old ponderosa pine. White fir greater than 21 inches DBH and less than150 years old would be harvested only if competing with (within two drip lines) ponderosa pine and old sugar pine. Upper Jackson Creek canyon in this area would be largely left untreated, as historically, white fir was dominant in this canyon. Basal area targets would generally range from about 80 to 120 square feet, but the basal area targets would not be a basis for removing some old trees as “surplus.” Previously harvested stands would have “Limited Treatment” as described above to release old trees (mostly in the dry mixed conifer stands). Fuels treatments would include lopping and scattering slash, hand piling, and pile burning. Slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years after the close of the timber sale where feasible. Landing piles would be utilized or burned. No underburning would occur in the pileated area to maintain down woody material for foraging. Approximately 1,630 acres - “Restoration with Pileated Woodpecker Consideration” on map. Lodgepole Pine Encroachment Removal - Goal: improve vegetation diversity, provide wildlife habitat, release native riparian plant species from competition with conifers, and increase hardwood vigor and ability to regenerate. In riparian corridors of hardwood habitat and in riparian meadows (MA 8 and Riparian Habitat Conservation Areas (RHCAs)), cut, girdle or otherwise kill and leave encroaching conifers generally less than 150 years old in hardwood and meadow habitat where it is not feasible to remove and/or is desirable to leave onsite to deter browse of riparian vegetation. In areas where it is feasible, commercial harvest of encroaching conifers would take place to reduce fuels, competition, and restore riparian habitat. Additional lodgepole pine encroachment areas discovered during implementation would also be treated. All actions within RHCAs would comply with INFISH direction and RHCA objectives. Thinning slash would be lopped and scattered and concentrations would be piled and burned. Slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years after the close of the timber sale where feasible. Creep from hand pile burning and/or from adjacent upland units being burned would be allowed. Pile burning and underburning would reduce activity fuel and aid in the reduction of encroaching lodgepole pine. Fall and spring underburning would be considered. Approximately 950 acres - “Lodgepole Encroachment Removal” – on map. Aspen Restoration – Goal: reduce conifer competition and encourage aspen using aspen restoration recommendations. Restoration would include cutting encroaching/competing conifers (generally less than 150 years old and less than 21” DBH) and leaving some slash on the ground to reduce browse by big game and livestock. Additional aspen areas discovered during implementation would also be treated. Commercial harvest of the competing conifers would be done where needed. Thinning slash would be lopped and scattered and concentrations would be piled and burned. Slash piles within sight of roads would be burned, chipped, or removed within two to four years after the close of the timber sale where feasible. Creep from hand pile burning and/or from adjacent upland

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units being burned would be allowed. Approximately 100 acres – “Aspen Restoration” on map. Road Decommissioning, Closures, and Maintenance - Reduce road density and resource damage by closing and decommissioning roads as recommended through project-level travel analysis. Total miles of proposed closures (Maintenance Level 2 (ML 2) Maintenance Level 1 (ML 1)): 4.3 miles. Currently closed (ML 1) roads Currently open (ML 2 ) roads Total miles of proposed road to be decommissioned to be decommissioned decommissioning 178.7 miles 55.1 miles 233.8 miles

o Prioritize decommissioning of the following roads with resource concerns: 1. FR 7650420 (1.9 miles, currently a ML 2 road, crosses Doeskin Creek). 2. FR 7600785 (1.8 miles, currently a ML 1 road, causing resource concerns in Long Prairie) 3. FR 7600786 (1.3 miles, currently a ML1 road, causing resource concerns in Long Prairie) Total miles of proposed priority decommissioning: 5.0 miles Prioritize closure of the following roads: 1. Portion of FR 4900740 (0.9 miles of eastbound road segment from Jackson Creek Campground to the end of the road is proposed to lower from ML 2 to ML 1). 2. FR 7645460 (1.5 mile road to Boundary Springs proposed to lower from ML 2 to ML 1). Total miles of proposed priority closures: 2.4 miles Prioritize maintenance or reconstruction of the following roads: 1. FR 4973130 (3.6 mi proposed for storm proofing; drainage improvements) 2. Portion of FR 4975000 (0.8 miles between Rock Creek and FR 7645000 proposed for drainage improvements). 3. FR 7645460 (1.5 mile road to Boundary Springs proposed for reconstruction and drainage improvements). Total miles of proposed priority maintenance and reconstruction: 5.9 miles Special Forest Product Removal – would include posts, poles, firewood and other special forest products, from all treatment areas. Prescribed Fire Maintenance Treatments – would occur over time following the initial application of prescribed fire to manage natural fuels to levels more closely resembling historic fuel loading, fire regime, and vegetative conditions. Ground-based logging systems may include tree felling with mechanical harvesters or chain saws, and yarding with skidders or forwarders. Vegetative treatments may include leave tops attached, top removal and delimbing in piles or corridors. Establish temporary roads to access portions of units that are not readily accessible from existing forest roads or disturbed areas. Decommission temporary roads following

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treatments. An estimated one mile of temporary road will be constructed for every 1,000 acres of treatment.

Table 2 - Alternative 2, Modified Proposed Action Vegetation Actions Treatment Type Description Goal Fuels Approx. Acres No Treatment Areas around Leave No treatment 2,590 little Yamsay, undisturbed to near Jackson provide cover for Creek, Goshawk big game and and Great Grey habitat for Owl areas goshawks and great grey owls Limited Previously Maintain and Underburning and 7,300 Treatment harvested areas protect large old pile burning to that will be left pine trees, reduce reduce fuels, limit untreated except competition, large tree mortality to reduce stress increase on large (old) heterogeneity, ponderosa pine and provide cover for big game Jackson Creek Recreation area Reduce conifer Lop and scatter 710 Corridor and for public and invasion into slash, hand pile and Boundary Tribal members hardwood/forb burn piles Springs habitats, remove buildings from riparian area, and restore spring Small Tree Previously Improve vigor, Lop and scatter 2,100 Thinning harvested stands reduce slash, hand pile and not needed for competition, and burn piles big game cover increase heterogeneity

Forest Forest with Protect old trees Lop and scatter, 16,900 Restoration in remnant old tree of all species, hand and/or grapple Ponderosa Pine structure, increase pile and burn in and Lodgepole generally in the heterogeneity, high fuel Pine types ponderosa pine increase stand accumulations. type. Variable diameter, favor Underburning in

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Treatment Type Description Goal Fuels Approx. Acres density thinning, ponderosa pine spring or fall to creation of small and sugar pine limit mortality of openings, dead old and large trees; salvage, and lodgepole pine untreated clumps types would not be in lodgepole pine underburned Forest Forest with Protect old trees Lop and scatter 1,630 Restoration with remnant old tree of all species, slash, hand piling, Consideration of structure, increase and pile burning Pileated Habitat generally in the heterogeneity, dry mixed increase stand conifer type diameter, maintain young white fir as part of the stand in addition to ponderosa pine and sugar pine Lodgepole Pine Riparian Remove conifers Lop and scatter 950 Encroachment corridors of that have and/or hand piling Removal hardwood habitat encroached on and pile burning. and riparian meadows and Underburning meadows restore forbs and would reduce hardwoods activity fuel and aid in the reduction of encroaching lodgepole pine Aspen Jackson Creek, Reduce conifer Lop and scatter 100 Restoration Boundary competition and slash; Springs, and encourage aspen concentrations other aspen areas would be piled and burned. Creep from pile burning and/or from adjacent upland unit burning would be allowed

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

No new system roads would be constructed. An estimated 15-17 miles (total) of temporary roads would be established to access the treatment areas (approximately 17,000 acres). One objective of the project design is to keep landings away from main travelways where possible (Frederick L. Way, personal communication, 9/15/2011). To accomplish this objective, temporary roads will need to be created inside units to facilitate harvest with machines and to allow log trucks and other vehicles to drive to landings. Existing old roads and landing locations would be used where feasible, but construction of temporary roads is needed for implementation of the action alternative.

As per standard Timber Sale or Stewardship contract provisions, the location of temporary roads would require approval by the Forest Service prior to construction. The Forest Service would approve the exact temporary road location including the flagged clearing limits that define the extent of construction. Temporary roads would be built to lowest possible standards (minimum widths) to facilitate timber harvest. Following final use, temporary roads will have the first 100- 150 feet scarified, and then blocked with native materials found on site (boulder, logs, rootwads) to prevent further vehicle access. In most cases, the balance of the temporary road will not need to be treated and will be allowed to revegetate naturally.

Heavy timber harvest equipment would go off-road only to get to trees that cannot be reached from the skid trail. Fuels treatments may require off-road use of engines or atvs/utvs for prescribed fire operations, though these vehicles would stay on roads or trails where possible. The Forest Service roads database indicated that approximately 261.1 miles of Forest system roads occur in the Red Knight planning area. These roads would be used to access treatment units. Existing road surface types include 68.95 miles of aggregate and 192.14 of native material. Of the approximate 260 miles of National Forest System roads in the project planning area; 146 miles of these are ML 1 roads, 116 miles are ML 2. There are no Maintenance Level 3 roads in the project area. (for the mileage and ML of individual roads, see the Travel Analysis Report in the Red Knight project record). Due to the nature of proposed treatment types in the Red Knight Project, all Forest system roads within the project boundary may potentially be utilized as timber haul routes. Road maintenance activities for a timber sale are performed during three general timeframes within the life span of the sale: pre-haul, during haul, and post haul. Pre-haul road maintenance prepares the project road system for heavy truck traffic related to the sale. During haul, maintenance sustains optimum road conditions favorable to continued haul activity to avoid road or resource damage. Post haul maintenance ensures that road elements within the sale area and on the haul routes within the National Forest are returned to their full operational ML standards. Timber sale road maintenance activities generally consist of surface blading, ditch pulling, light to medium roadside brushing, culvert cleaning, small quantity cutbank slump removal, and maintenance of existing drainage structures (i.e. water bars, drain dips). Posts/Poles and Firewood

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Post/pole material and firewood may be removed from commercial harvest and small tree thinning areas. ML 1 roads may be used if necessary. Based on what roads were used for harvest operations, these same roads may be available post harvest for post/pole material and firewood removal if these roads have not yet been closed. 2.3 - Resource Protection and Mitigation Measures Resource protection and mitigation measures will be applied to minimize or prevent potential adverse effects of the action alternative. 2.3.1 - Soil, Hydrology and Riparian Areas The riparian treatments include protection measures with regard to equipment, techniques, and timing requirements. These measures are designed to meet Forest Plan (as amended by INFISH) standards and guidelines. The Upper Williamson River Watershed Assessment (2005) recommended measures that have been included in the project design, including restoring natural processes within floodplains, implementing erosion control measures in roadways, and reducing road density. General road reconstruction Dispose of slide and waste material in stable, non-floodplain sites approved by qualified personnel. Provide erosion control at disposal sites to minimize sediment delivery if there appears to be any potential to affect streams. Minimize disturbance of existing vegetation in ditches and at stream crossings to the greatest extent possible. Minimize soil disturbance and displacement, but where sediment risks warrant, prevent off-site soil movement through the use of filter materials (such as straw bales or silt fencing) if vegetation strips are not available. Refuel and service power equipment outside of RHCAs to prevent direct delivery of contaminants into associated water bodies. Do not apply dust abatement materials (for example, lignin or magnesium chloride) within 100 feet of a water body or stream channel during or just before wet weather, and at stream crossings or other locations that could result in direct delivery to adjacent water bodies. Ensure that all large wood is retained in the stream channel during culvert cleaning activities. When cleaning culverts, remove only the minimum amount of wood, sediment and other natural debris necessary to maintain culvert function. Rock aggregate will be added to system roads where necessary to minimize soil movement from native surface roads. Do not deposit material in riparian areas or over steep fill slopes.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Erosion control such as mulch, straw wattles, silt fences, or hydro mulch application will be recommended if extensive areas of exposed soils, cut slopes, or waste areas are created by maintenance activities.

Temporary Road and Landing Construction or Reconstruction Landings would be located away from main travelways where possible. Construction of temporary roads will not occur on slopes where excavations for cut and fill are required. Do not locate on side slopes greater than 30 percent. Do not locate within designated Riparian Habitat Conservation Areas. Do not build temporary roads in areas determined to have high erosion potential or parallel to stream channels, unless outside designated buffer width with adequate ground vegetation and cover. The following standards for temporary roads will be applied through the timber sale contract. The purchaser shall, unless otherwise agreed, use the following road closure methods: No disturbance more than 30 feet from road centerline will be permitted. At road intersections the entrance to temporary roads shall be obscured such that the road is as indiscernible as possible from the intersecting road. This shall be accomplished by scarifying the roadbed, removing the road prism, and placing available soil, rock, brush, and debris to obscure the road entrance. The ditch line of the intersecting, connecting road shall be re-established. Timber Felling, Yarding, and Skidding Stream crossings of ephemeral channels will be at right angles, and the number utilized kept to the minimum possible. All such crossings must be completely rehabilitated the same season of use. Generally, the following measures have been found to follow the Winema LRMP requirement for management activities to produce <20% detrimental soil conditions in treatment units: Using existing skid trails, landings and roads that are favorably located (i.e. are conducive to soil and water objectives and are likely to be part of a long-term, dedicated logging network). Machinery will be limited to operating from skid trails or harvester trails as much as feasible to avoid repeated passes over a given location outside of designated trails. Skid trails for mechanical methods (except harvester/forwarders) will be at least 100 feet apart where feasible. Harvester/forwarder corridors will be at least 40 feet apart where feasible. Mechanized felling equipment is permitted off skid trails/corridors provided that they drive only so far as necessary to cut and remove trees designated for cutting.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Restrict operation of machinery used for piling to skid trail and landings created or used by harvest and yarding operations. If skidders are used, the use of a grapple/arch system for skidding operations will be required to ensure minimal gouging/plowing. Log and Chip Haul Timber will not be hauled in wet conditions where the road will be damaged or runoff to stream channels will be substantial. During haul, assure that no rutting of the road surface is occurring. Haul will cease at any time when the travel way of the road is wet and turbid, water or fines are observed moving off the road surface to ditch lines that deliver to stream channels, regardless of time of year. Ditches will not be bladed past the last cross-drain before a stream crossing. On-site chipping will be permitted, but all chip residues will be removed from Forest Service lands. Landing size will be limited to the minimum size necessary for safe chipping operations. Equipment Operations Limit sharp turning and multiple passes off of skid trails during the harvest operations to minimize soil displacement. Limit ground-based equipment generally to slopes less than 35 percent. Low p.s.i. (< 7) equipment has been shown to substantially reduce compaction forces on many soil types and under many site conditions. This type of equipment should be specified to minimize detrimental soil compaction. Low p.s.i. feller-bunchers will be allowed to make up to two passes, at no closer than 40 foot intervals, off of designated skid trails to cut and retrieve trees. The use of drive-to-tree front-mounted harvesting machines will not be permitted. Contract provisions should allow sale administrators to modify endlining operations as necessary if soil displacement objectives are not being met (i.e. lower the DBH at which hand-felled trees are required to be limbed and topped prior to being endlined). Backblading or spreading organics, topsoil, and duff from near the skid trail back onto the skid trail may be required in areas where skidding has created troughs, berms, or large areas of exposed soil. Construct erosion control structures as needed on disturbed sites on skid trails with slopes greater than 20 percent (e.g. placement of woody debris in skid trails as erosion control structures). Avoid operations during periods of excessive soil moisture or transitional thawing during winter harvest activities, as evidence when rutting from machine tracks or tires occurs.

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Where it is determined that detrimental compaction or displacement has occurred from feller-buncher operations, subsoiling or spreading topsoil and duff back into displaced ground may be required.

Fuels Treatments Mechanical Fuel Treatments Mechanical piling and burning of large piles will be restricted to landings accessed by temporary roads or grapple piling within treatment units outside of INFISH riparian reserves. Burning As a courtesy, the Klamath Tribes will be notified prior to burning activities. Burn plans will be written to comply with silviculture prescriptions that will be consistent with Forest Plan standards and guidelines. Fuels treatments within INFISH RHCAs will be restricted to hand chainsaw use, hand piling, and prescribed underburning or pile burning, which is restricted to those activities contained in a written burn plan and prescribed as “low intensity” burning only. Slash piles shall not be located within the normal high-water flow area of either natural or created drainages. Minimize disturbance of existing riparian vegetation to the greatest extent practical; in particular, maintain shade, bank stability, and large woody material recruitment potential. No machine fireline is to be constructed in INFISH RHCAs. Hand firelines will generally not be allowed and will only be utilized under an emergency scenario. Any such hand line constructed will be fully rehabilitated including reestablishing vegetative cover post need. Fuels shall be disposed of so that they will not reach stream courses. Soil and Water Standard Sufficient amounts of ground cover should be maintained within a riparian area to prevent erosion and the direct movement of potential pollutants into a stream. Riparian areas should be managed to maintain stream banks in a stable condition along at least 85 percent of a stream’s length in any given drainage. In stream-side areas for INFISH categories 1 and 2, present and future sources of large woody material should be provided. Existing instream material should be maintained or enhanced. Vegetation should be managed to provide adequate shading in areas along streams to meet State of Oregon temperature standards. Shade may be provided by overhanging grasses, shrubs, trees, and topography. 2.3.2 - Wildlife

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Seasonal Restrictions There is one known raptor nest in the project area. Active roost and nest sites shall be protected from disturbing human activities during their respective nesting seasons. Raptor and woodpecker nests, include those species not explicitly listed in the LRMP, located before of during implementation of the project shall be protected with seasonal restrictions and buffer zones as described on page 4-48 of the Winema LRMP, or until young are not longer dependent on adults, as determined by a qualified wildlife biologist, for the life of the project. All known raptor and woodpecker nest sites will be assumed active yearly until June 1. If monitoring has shown that no nesting attempt has been initiated of that a nesting attempt has failed by June 1, the nest site will be considered inactive, and the nest site restrictions may be waived by the District Ranger. Monitoring will be supervised and evaluated by a qualified wildlife biologist. Proposed activities including commercial harvest, haul, small tree thinning, and under burning have the potential to disturb big game during the fawning and calving season. To minimize this disturbance, seasonal fawning and calving restrictions will apply to all activities from May 1- June 30 within a quarter mile of aspen habitat. Seasonal restrictions for the Red Knight planning area: Species Restriction Dates Protection Zone Location Deer and elk May1 – June 30 440 yards of all aspen All or portions of units

Goshawk March 1 – August 31 440 yards from nest Long Prairie

Unique Habitat Small Scale Retention Patches Small scale retention patches would cover about 10-15% of all treated land within the Pine and Mixed Conifer Restoration treatment areas, leaving at least approximately 1,815 to 2,725 untreated acres in patches sized from <1 to 5 acres that contribute to the diversity of structure and species composition within the treatment units. Retention patches would frequently be designated to maintain adequate hiding cover for big game. The Klamath Tribes Retention Patch Strategy was considered in development of the Red Knight project’s retention patch layout plan. Ideally, these cover retention patches would be comprised of young, healthy, well-growing trees with full crowns. The ideal condition does not occur frequently, or in the right place often, therefore, dense patches of any condition will suffice. Mature and old trees (particularly pine) should be excluded from retention patches when possible. Retention patches that are designated as cover clumps are comprised primarily of advanced regeneration and pole sized trees varying in size from ⅛ to 5 acres (as a general rule patches in the ½ to 2 acre range are preferable); this generally comprises 10 to 15 percent of a unit’s total acreage. Patch distribution may depend on unit size and shape, as well as cover availability in surrounding stands. For example, a long narrow unit ( or a “panhandle” of a unit) with hiding

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 cover adjacent to the unit may not require any leave areas, whereas a large round or square unit may require the full 15 percent in leave areas. Use natural and administrative conditions to the extent possible, for example: archeological sites of avoidance, EEZs, rocky ground, rocky outcrops, areas with little or no merchantable trees, slopes with northerly aspects, short slopes ≥ 35 percent, etc. Other retention patches would focus on providing habitat for wildlife species such as black- backed woodpeckers or martens, and would center on groups of snags or other features such as mistletoe clumps or berry producing shrubs. Criteria for small scale/stand retention patches, in order of priority: a. Sensitive species sites or other resource areas to protect b. Patches of snags and/or logs; or centered on large snag/log c. Dense understory providing big game hiding cover d. Rock outcrops e. Small trees/large bushes such as service berry, willows, plum, cherry, or aspen f. Green trees with damage / cull trees / mistletoe g. Steep slopes (>35%)

Retention patches in treated areas should be as well distributed as possible. Avoid placing patches along unit boundaries, except to screen heavily traveled roads, private property, and openings such as meadows, scab flats, and previous treatments. Placing patches along a unit’s boundary (scalloped edge) with no or few interior patches is not meeting the intent of retention patches distribution. All retention patches within unit boundaries should be flagged, tagged, GPSd and tracked through timber sales, post-sale silvicultural treatments and prescribed burning.

Where previous projects (e.g. Chester, Dillon, Matt and Cinder timber sales) have delineated leave areas, these retention patches will be maintained through the Red Knight project’s implementation.

Snags and Down Wood Retention of desired snags and down woody material would be done in order to maintain the existing desired decadence for each habitat type. Implement the following mitigations to ensure protection of snags and down wood features: All ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and western white pine snags and down wood greater than 10 in diameter that are not a safety hazard will be left in commercial units. White fir and lodgepole snags and down wood in ponderosa and lodgepole units may be removed. Protect desired snags and logs, whatever their condition class, from felling and fire operations wherever operationally feasible. Snags felled as hazards are to remain on site as coarse woody debris. No snags or down wood will be salvaged in the 1,630 acres of pileated woodpecker habitat. Incorporate ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and western white pine trees with fruiting bodies of heartrot fungi (e.g., Indian paint fungus, quinine fungus, red ring rot), forked tops, or

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dead tops into marking considerations as leave trees within the pine associated/mixed conifer habitat. Retain all hollow trees, snags and logs wherever feasible. Minimize charring of logs to sustain suitability of logs as vertebrate and invertebrate habitat. Specifically, follow guidance in the Eastside Screens that states, “Fire prescription parameters will ensure that consumption will not exceed 3” total (1-1/2 inches per side) of diameter reduction in featured large logs (USDA, 1995).” The Forest Plan direction calls for 1 small pile (at least 3’ by 6’ is size) of slash or natural fuel be left per acre. Natural slash already exists that exceed this standard and more slash will be created through small tree thinning operations. Underburning is intended to remove much of this type of slash in ponderosa habitat. Underburn criteria are developed to leave about 40% unburned to maintain acceptable levels of down wood for wildlife and soil productivity. Where slash is hand piled in pileated units, amounts of natural slash left after piling will far exceed the 1 small pile per acre forest plan standard. Landing piles may be burned, or used for biomass, or left for wildlife. Logs will not be broken into pieces where feasible. Slash treatment of small tree thinning fuels in pileated units are focused on fuels under 9” in diameter and would not treat the more desirable wildlife larger diameter down wood. The Forest Plan identifies the following standards for down wood. Class I or II down logs shall be left in the following numbers and size classes by habitat type.

Species Pieces/Acre Diameter of Small Piece Length & End Total Length Ponderosa Pine 3-6 12” >6’ 20-40’ Mixed Conifer 15-20 12” >6’ 100-140’

The Blue Mountain Guide (Thomas, 1979) identifies the following snag classes needed to meet 100 percent population levels (from Eastside Screening direction) for each of the plant communities in the Red Knight planning area.

Plant Community Snag Size Classes Snags per Acre 20” DBH or greater 0.14 Ponderosa Pine 12-20” DBH 1.36 10-12” DBH 0.75 20” DBH or greater 0.14 Mixed Conifer 12-20” DBH 1.36 10-12” DBH 0.75 12” DBH or greater 0.38 Aspen 10-12” DBH 1.12

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6-10” DBH 1.50

Rock Outcrops Rock outcrops will be protected by a vegetative protection zone of at least 200 feet adjacent to these habitats that are being used by mammals or birds for denning, roosting, or nesting. Foot travel over the rocks will be discouraged in layout and implementation plans to protect bat and other species’ habitats from disturbance, and for safety. 2.3.3 - Invasive Plant Prevention Plan The four prevention practices from The Fremont-Winema National Forests Invasive Species Prevention Practices (Malaby, 2005) pertinent to this project are listed below.

1. Actions conducted or authorized by written permit by the Forest Service that will operate outside the limits of the road prism (including public works and service contracts), require the cleaning of all heavy equipment (bulldozers, skidders, graders, backhoes, dump trucks, etc.) prior to entering National Forest System Lands. This does not apply to initial attack of wildland fires, and other emergency situations where cleaning would delay response time (USDA Forest Service, 2005). 2. Inspect active gravel, fill, sand stockpiles, quarry sites, and borrow material for invasive plants before use and transport. Treat or require treatment of infested sources before any use of pit material. Use only gravel, fill, sand, and rock that is judged to be weed free by District or Forest weed specialists (USDA Forest Service, 2005). 3. Conduct road blading, brushing and ditch cleaning in areas with high concentrations of invasive plants in consultation with District or Forest-level invasive plant specialists, incorporate invasive plant prevention practices as appropriate (USDA Forest Service, 2005). 4. Native plant materials are the first choice in re-vegetation for restoration and rehabilitation where timely natural regeneration of the native plant community is not likely to occur. Non-native, non-invasive plant species may be used in any of the following situations: 1) when needed in emergency conditions to protect basic resource values (e.g., soil stability, water quality, and to help prevent the establishment of invasive species); 2) as an interim, non-persistent measure designed to aid in the re-establishment of native plants; 3) if native plant materials are not available; or 4) in permanently altered plant communities. Under no circumstances will non-native invasive plant species be used for re-vegetation (USDA Forest Service, 2005).

2.3.4 - Sensitive Plants If occupied whitebark pine habitat is discovered, the Chemult Silviculturist or West Zone Botanist will be consulted on the placement of temporary roads, skid trails, landings, fire line, and burn piles to ensure minimal whitebark pine seedlings and saplings are impacted.

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If occupied whitebark pine habitat is discovered, mechanized equipment tracks and tires may be excluded from small portions of the proposed units to reduce damage to five- needled pine seedlings and saplings.

If occupied whitebark pine habitat is discovered, all live whitebark pine would be protected from cutting during proposed harvest and thinning activities.

If any new sites of sensitive plant or fungi species are discovered, the sighting will be reported to the West Zone Botanist. The site will be reviewed on the ground and appropriate mitigations will be developed as appropriate.

If noxious weed sites are discovered within the project area, the sighting will be reported to the West Zone Botanist. The site will be reviewed on the ground and invasive plant prevention practices will be developed as appropriate.

Review areas prior to ground-disturbing activities for the presence of noxious weeds, such as prescribed burn areas, fuels treatments, and harvest activities.

2.3.5 - Air Quality All burning will comply with applicable state and federal air quality laws and regulations. Burning will be coordinated with air quality regulating agencies. Piles will be burned when smoke management forecasts predict mixing heights and transport winds that will carry smoke away from populated areas, public roads, and Class I airsheds. The closest Class I airshed is Crater Lake National Park (CLNP). Point source intrusions are prohibited from July through Labor Day in CLNP. If intrusions occur, no additional areas that could contribute to the intrusion will be ignited and burning might be extinguished. The prescribed burn plan will outline specific fuel moisture and weather conditions that will minimize particulate matter (PM) 2.5 emissions associated with burning operations. Safety provisions to be taken will be: issuing public notices before implementing burning activities, posting signs on roads near burning operations, and avoiding smoke intrusions into populated areas, public roads, highways, and Class I airsheds. 2.3.6 - Disease Control Application of borax to the fresh conifer stumps greater than 18 inches reduces infection rates of annosus root disease in ponderosa pine stands. To reduce the risk of spreading annosus root disease and creating new infection centers that the basidiospores (windborne spores) could colonize, all freshly cut conifer stump surfaces 18 inches and larger in diameter would receive a light coating of sporax (borax) within 24 hours of being severed (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) (EPA Reg. No.1624-94). For more detail, see Use of borax to prevent spread of annosus root disease, Jan Lerum, 2010 in the Red Knight project record. Borax will be applied following all state and Federal rules and regulations as they apply to pesticides. Borax treatments will be applied strictly according to the label and all material safety data sheet instructions, in addition to Environmental Protection Agency label requirements. The pesticide form FS-2100-2 is in the project file. Sporax will not be applied near any threatened or 49

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 endangered plants, or within INFISH RHCA stream protection buffers. During harvest and post- harvest operations the wounding of residual trees will be minimized to decrease the risk of introducing annosus root disease into the stands. 2.3.7 - Roads and Recreation The proposed action is proposing changes to the 2010 Travel Management decision. The proposed action will use some maintenance level 1 (ML1) routes which are closed to motorized vehicles. After the proposed action is complete the ML1 routes which were used will still be closed for public use. The proposed action proposes to change 4.3 miles of route designations or MLs. See section 3.3.17 for more information pertaining to road MLs. All currently closed system roads opened for access to harvest units will be closed after projects are completed. No system road construction would occur. 233.8 miles of system road decommissioning would occur. The Fremont-Winema Best Management Practices (BMPs) that are identified in Appendix F will be followed. 2.3.8 - Heritage Resources Cultural resources are protected from impacts relating to timber harvest, thinning, road construction, and fuels treatments by project design, avoidance, and protection in place. In the Red Knight area, cultural resource surveys were conducted at an intensive level, so it is unlikely that undiscovered sites will be found within proposed impact areas. In the event of an unanticipated discovery during timber sale operations, the contractual provision that provides for the protection of newly discovered cultural resources will be enforced. A similar clause also protects cultural resources discovered during the service contract operations. Reinforcement of site avoidance policy will take place before timber sale and fuel reduction operations begin in conference with the timber sale officer and contracting officer’s representative, the fire management officer and contractor. The archaeologist or cultural resource technician monitor will work closely with both the timber sale and service contracting officer or their representative to ensure cultural resource protection measures are clearly identified out on the ground and monitor the ground disturbing activities, when the contractor is performing the work. Prior to implementation and layout phases, the archaeologist or a cultural resource technician will be actively engaged during the entire layout phases of all timber and fuel reduction treatment areas. Close coordination will be imperative to prevent disturbances to sensitive cultural resources. Protective buffers located around cultural resources will ensure that trees are not inadvertently felled into the areas-to-protect (ATP). The buffers will enhance site setting by leaving an untreated area around the cultural resource. Close communication between the fuels technician and westside archaeologist is essential. Prior to fire line construction, the westside archaeologist or cultural resource technician will relocate all cultural resources and reflag for protection. The archaeologist or cultural resource technician will schedule a field visit with the district fuels technician and burning boss to walk the ATP boundary(s) and flag line to ensure no fire line or fire ignition will impact the ATP. In order to ensure cultural resource protection, the district fuels technician will need to consult with the westside archaeologist when site specific burn plans are being prepared. Together the fuels technician and archaeologist will identify cultural resource locations and specific protection

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 measures for each burn plan. The burn plans should address contingency plans for adequate buffers for ATP, fire line construction avoiding cultural resources, ignition of the unit away from the ATP boundaries, escaped fires and how cultural resources will be protected in such an instance. If necessary, large blocks of the prescribed burn areas may need to be excluded from prescribed fire altogether in order to adequately protect cultural resources. Protective measures which can be used to protect these cultural resources include the following: Establish fire control lines a sufficient distance from ATP areas to guard against spotting of fire into cultural resource areas, or; Completely excluding areas of high probability areas from prescribed burn units. All cambium peeled trees will be raked around their bases to the drip line in order to reduce fuel accumulations in an effort to avoid lethal basal scorch or torching of the crowns. No fuels treatment activities will be allowed within the sensitive cultural resource boundaries of winter village areas, rock features, lithic scatters, or any other types of cultural resources determined to be highly sensitive by the archaeologist. Hand and dozer lines will be directed around ATP to avoid disturbance of potential buried cultural deposits. An archaeologist or cultural resource technician will monitor all fuel treatment activities, especially along dozer lines, mechanical operations and in areas within closest proximity to ATPs. Visual quality and aesthetic value will be maintained for rock and vision quest sites through unit design in relation to the local foreground view from each site. An approximate one and a half tree length protective buffer will be applied around rock feature/vision quest sites. All cultural resources, along or adjacent to, treatment areas will be flagged on the ground for identification and protection as ATPs. The flagging will be renewed during layout of Red Knight-related timber sales and fuels reduction treatments, prior to actual harvesting, fuels or road construction implementation. 2.4 - Summaries and Comparisons of Alternatives Table 3 – Needs Comparison by Alternative

Need Alternative 1 – No Action Alternative 2 – Proposed Action There is a need to restore, Risk of stand replacing events Thinning to reduce stand densities enhance, and maintain a would increase as high stand would reduce the risk of loss of healthy forest habitat by densities continue to stress habitat to disturbance events by developing spatial patterns, trees making them susceptible raising average crown height and forest composition, to disturbance events. decreasing crown bulk density, structure, and ecological increasing vigor of individual processes more typical of a trees and reducing risk to sustainable, resilient, and successful bark beetle attack. fire-adapted forest. This Dense stands of ponderosa Stand composition would move includes the need for pine and mixed conifer would towards ponderosa pine (by development of large, continue to be multi-storied reducing white fir stocking), stand open, limby ponderosa pine putting the large trees at risk structure and patterns would for replacement eagle of mortality from wildfire due move towards more open, single nesting structure along the to ladder fuels and stress from story and densities typical of fire

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Need Alternative 1 – No Action Alternative 2 – Proposed Action upper Williamson River overstocking. dominated forests. corridor. In riparian areas, there is a Aspen and other hardwoods Aspen vigor and regeneration need to improve vegetation would continue to be would increase as more light, diversity, address adverse outcompeted by conifers in water and nutrients become soil and water conditions, the riparian areas and aspen available in the riparian areas with provide wildlife habitat, vigor and numbers would the cutting of competing conifers. release native riparian plant decline. species from competition with conifers, and increase hardwood vigor and ability to regenerate. There is a need for healthy There would be no wood fiber Approximately 25 million board stands capable of cut and no wood products feet of wood products would be sustaining timber products produced. No jobs would be available to be cut to support the (including commercial created or maintained in the local wood products industry and timber, post and poles, local area. No restoration of fund the necessary restoration firewood and other the historic open conditions of work including small tree products) to the local and the forest stands. thinning. regional economies. There is a need to amend No commercial harvest would Old ponderosa pine would be the Winema LRMP in take place. Forest Plan released from competition from order to cut and remove amendment not needed and large, young white fir. Begin to white fir larger than 21 single canopy late and old move multi-canopy stands to inches in ponderosa pine structure not restored. single-canopy late and old stands to restore single structural stages. canopy late and old structural stages.

There is a need to amend No underburning would take Underburning in the ponderosa the Winema LRMP in place. Forest Plan amendment pine plant community would order to underburn, not needed and fuel reduction move fuels towards historic broadcast burn area 3B, to historic condition not condition and reduce risk of large scenic management, achieved. scale wildfire in the area. Scorch foreground partial and black bark on trees and retention, with evidence of stumps would be evident for more charred bark for greater than three years after treatment. than three years after the work has been completed (Winema LRMP, 4-107). Also in this management area there is a need for

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Need Alternative 1 – No Action Alternative 2 – Proposed Action visually appealing scenery that represents the landscape character of the forest along the Silver Lake Highway.

There is a need to reduce No roads would be No new permanent roads would road density and reduce decommissioned. be constructed, existing roads adverse resource impacts of would be maintained. Roads roads. causing resource damage would be decommissioned.

Chapter 3 – Affected Environment and Effects This chapter describes the anticipated consequences of implementing each alternative. This section will compare the alternatives by issue and describe the environmental effects and consequences of the alternatives. The best available science was used to evaluate effects.

3.1 – Activities that May Contribute to Cumulative Effects Potential cumulative effects are analyzed by considering proposed activities in the context of past, present, and reasonably foreseeable actions. The residual impacts of past and present actions are included in the description of the existing conditions. Existing conditions reflect the aggregate impact of prior human actions and natural events that have affected the environment and might contribute to cumulative effects. Cumulative effects analysis does not attempt to quantify the effects of past human actions by adding up all prior actions on an action-by-action basis. See list of past harvest and activities in Appendix A. 3.1.1 - Past Management Activities At the turn of the century, the Klamath Indian Reservation was one of the nation’s richest resources of ponderosa pine. During the railroad logging period between 1914 and 1940 the Reservation yielded over 3 billion board feet of ponderosa pine. The Red Knight planning area is within the former Klamath Tribes’ Reservation lands. Residual impacts from past actions are described in Appendix A and incorporated into the existing condition for each resource. The disclosed direct and indirect effects include the residual impacts of past actions. Past timber harvests covered approximately 7,118 acres between 1970 and the 1990s. Non-commercial thinning covered approximately 2,474 acres from 1970* to present. Livestock (including cattle and sheep) grazed most of the Red Knight for the past century. *Reliable records for past silviculture projects do not exist prior to 1970 3.1.2 Current and Reasonably Foreseeable Future Activities

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Current activities that could contribute to cumulative effects include setting out verbenone pouches (on Yamsay Mountain adjacent to Red Knight) on white bark pine trees to repel mountain pine beetle, fire suppression, firewood cutting (exercising of Klamath Tribes’ treaty rights), mushroom gathering, natural regeneration, road maintenance, and dispersed recreation including hunters camps and recreation at Boundary Springs and Moon Meadow. There is also a developed campground; Jackson Creek Campground that likely would continue to see some use, mostly from deer hunters in the fall. There are 800 head of sheep grazing annually on the allotment using 1,600 gallons of water daily from Jackson Creek. Cattle trespass is occurring in the eastern portion of the area. Reasonably foreseeable future activities that could contribute to cumulative effects include tribal use of the area, firewood gathering, sheep grazing on the allotment, and watershed restoration.

3.2 - Affected Environment and Effects Relating to Consultation and General Issues Received During Scoping 3.2.1 - Treaty Resources and Other Concerns of the Klamath Tribes During consultation, The Klamath Tribes indicated concerns for a variety of wildlife species, particularly mule deer, traditional use plants, cultural site protection, the appearance of the landscape, exercising treaty rights, and Yamsay Mountain as a cultural landscape. Table 4 describes impacts to these resources followed by a more lengthy discussion of impacts to the Yamsay Mountain landscape.

Table 4 – Summary of Direct and Indirect Effects of Each Alternative: Treaty Resources and Other Concerns of the Klamath Tribes and Individual Tribal Members Alternative 1: Alternative 2: Concern No Action Proposed Action

3 Mule Deer Cover would Would encourage long term forage (bitterbrush) increase and production over the greatest number of acres and decrease Optimum understory forage cover available for big game. Would not be a large habitat production would increase in forage production because land capabilities are conditions: decrease as conifers limiting, but there would be some shift of site resources 60% forage- 40% cover continue to shade from trees to forage production. Quality of shrub forage well out shrubs. Forage would be improved. conditions (quality distributed Proposed action would leave 35-40 percent of the area in and quantity) (Thomas hiding cover. Though stands would be open, cover would would continue to 1979). be provided in 10-15 percent of the units as untreated

3 Generally 15 percent of the area will be hiding cover, 10 percent will be thermal cover, and 5 percent will be cover for fawning. Whenever possible, all cover also will be hiding cover. A short-term (10-year) reduction of cover to 15 percent of an area may be justified on a project- specific basis if reduction below 30 percent cover will provide long-term (greater than 10 years) benefits for deer (Forest Plan 4-49).

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Alternative 1: Alternative 2: Concern No Action Proposed Action

Forest Plan decline. Area patches where needed (for more detail, see sections 3.3.6 standard is a would not support of this EA, which deals with wildlife effects, on pages minimum of as many big game 123-127). 30% cover animals due to for deer (4- declining forage 49) production. Current cover is 95 %

Would favor Proposed treatments would move stands toward historic species adapted to conditions. Species that favor more open forested stands dense conifer would benefit in the long term. Species preferring dense, stands over species multistory structure would not be favored, but this habitat Wildlife that benefit from type would continue in clumps and untreated areas (for Species of more open more detail, see section 3.3.4 on page 120 of this EA). Interest conditions. Risk of stand replacement fire, & its effects on wildlife would remain.

Would forgo Most cultural plants are early to mid-successional. Would opportunities to improve habitat by opening stands and removing restore habitats that encroachment from riparian areas. Ground disturbance by have departed from machinery and/or prescribed burning could result in historic conditions. reduced vigor or mortality of plants/fungus. Some plants Existing plants do increase/resprout after logging or prescribed fire Traditional would not be disturbance including yarrow, dogbane, chokecherry, Use Plants damaged by aspen, rosehips, huckleberry and pinemat manzanita (for activities. Risk of more detail see section 3.3.10 – Threatened, Endangered, loss would increase and Sensitive Plants on pages 144-153 and section 3.3.12 over time as Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes on page wildfire risk 154-156 of this EA. For specific species see Appendix increases. E).

No actions would Avoidance & monitoring would be used to prevent be implemented disturbance to sites. After treatment there would be lower that could disturb risk of wildfire damage to sites. Sites would be protected Cultural known sites. Risk from impacts of activities by project design, avoidance, Site of wildfire damage and protection in place (for mitigations, see section 2.3.8 Protection to sites continues. on page 49-50 of this EA, and for National Historic Preservation Act, see section 3.3.13-Cultural Resources on pages 156-157 of this EA).

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Alternative 1: Alternative 2: Concern No Action Proposed Action

Dominant visual Treated stands would appear more open with longer sight characteristic distances, taller trees, less brush and fewer understory would continue to trees. Willows and aspen would be emphasized by be dense conifer removing conifers near the hardwoods. Appearance stands. Gradual where large trees are abundant would be of large diameter loss of larger trees pine stand with many large, platy-barked trees more fully due to stress, visible. The shrub component would initially be reduced insects, competition through underburning and mechanical treatment. The from small trees. Untreated patches within units would soften the visual Appearance Short sight character of the treated units. Piles of slash could persist of the distances would for up to 5 years, which would affect the visual quality in Landscape continue to reduce the area. Though fire is a natural part of the landscape, visual quality. prescribed burning would produce smoke and flames as a Cover areas visual effect (for more detail about smoke effects, see untreated would section 3.3.15 - Smoke Management and Air Quality on retain bitterbrush pages 168-169 of this EA). Boles of some trees would appear blackened and the lower portion of the crowns seed sources, and scorched immediately after underburning. Blackened untreated areas bark and scorched needles from underburning would would have soft exfoliate as trees grow, making evidence of burning only visual character. apparent upon close examination after a few years.

Habitat change The project activities would open canopies allowing for from present an increase in herbaceous vegetation in the short term that condition would be would favor elk. Within 10 years bitterbrush would gradual until a increase and provide improved forage for deer. Short- wildfire disturbed term impacts from logging (could occur at any point in Exercising large areas in a the year), summer fuel reduction, and spring and fall Treaty short amount of burning activities may displace some tribal members Rights time. Existing when hunting or trapping. None of the alternatives condition has considered in the Red Knight project would cancel the changed greatly legal rights established by the Treaty. The Klamath since historic Tribes’ members would maintain the right to hunt, fish, reservation trap, and gather. Water rights are not affected by any of conditions with less the alternatives. forage & less deer.

3.2.2 – Yamsay Mountain as a Cultural Landscape

Yamsay Mountain is a unique landscape feature in that it has a high elevation (8196 feet) in a high plateau setting and there are extraordinary views from the top of the mountain. Yamsay

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Mountain and the surrounding area provide a diversity of habitat including the Yamsay meadow systems that are ideal habitat for mule deer fawning. The Klamath Tribes value the Yamsay Mountain cultural landscape for providing mule deer, elk, and pileated woodpecker habitat, subsistence for the tribes, and an area for religious and cultural practices. Historical and present day uses of Yamsay Mountain include religious, spiritual, hunting activities, and summer camping. The large camps west of Yamsay Mountain at Rocky Ford and Jackson Creek served and persist as the bases for hunting on the mountain, and as important camping and gathering places for the use of the mountain.

The Klamath Tribes were attracted to the Yamsay Mountain area to take advantage of spring, summer, and fall hunting and gathering opportunities. The creeks, springs, flats, and meadows form a complex cultural landscape, attractive for fishing (see EA pages 130-135 for disclosure of effects on fisheries) and hunting (see EA pages 121-125 for disclosure of effects on big game). The landscape provided habitat for important cultural plants for subsidence and other uses. Harvesting wocas, the seeds of the pond lily, was a specialized and crucial Klamath adaptation. The Red Knight planning area is not near Wocas Bay or the Klamath Marsh where the wocas is harvested, therefore there would be no impact to wocas gathering. Yamsay Mountain is associated with primordial figures and events that have formed legends that are important to the Klamath belief and cultural system. Yamsay Mountain is also an important place for teaching cultural values to the Klamath youth.

The historic and present use of Yamsay Mountain by the Klamath Tribes has been conveyed by the identification of the Yamsay Mountain Traditional Cultural Property (TCP). The traditional cultural property finding is based on the landscape making a significant contribution to the development of a community or cultural traditions of a community, which are The Klamath Tribes. Camps on and near Yamsay Mountain would qualify as eligible for the National Register of Historical Places under Criteria A (36 CFR 60.4), “associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the development of a community,” or as described elsewhere, “to the cultural traditions of a community” (USDI 1990a: 12-13). The camps on and surrounding Yamsay Mountain have an association with important events like legends and Tribal members using the area in many ways that have shaped their lives and the Klamath Tribes culture. The landscape as a whole is important to providing cultural traditions and practices. The TCP provides identification of a core area of cultural importance however the landscape surrounding the mountain and adjacent to the TCP provides connection. The persistence of key landscape qualities is important to maintain because they provide the cultural values the traditional users seek on Yamsay Mountain. 1. Yamsay Mountain is an important area of seasonal use to acquire subsistence resources associated with hunting, fishing, and gathering. It is a place that brings families together to pass cultural traditions. To maintain cultural values the setting needs to provide a geographic setting similar to that of the past; one that allows traditional practices to continue and provide the resources for which the Tribal members came to the mountain. 2. As a cultural landscape Yamsay Mountain is associated with Indian cosmology and cultural practices. The relationship to the landscape must continue to exist to allow the various cultural relationships to survive. The visual and aural (sense of place) qualities that communicate cultural values should persist.

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The Red Knight Project is adjacent to the current Yamsay TCP boundary and is 0.5 miles from Rocky Ford TCP. The proposed action can impact the Klamath Tribes use of the Yamsay cultural landscape, including the values of the TCP, even though no actions are proposed within the TCP boundary. Impacts associated with visual, auditory, accessibility, atmospheric, and vegetation changes will be considered on traditional uses.

The existing condition of noise on and adjacent to Yamsay Mountain is generally quiet. The air quality is currently high, however in the event of a wildfire (fire hazard is high), air quality would lower either from a fire on the mountain or from distant drift from the Cascades. The existing visual condition of overstocked trees is not reflective of historic conditions. The current roaded access is mostly accessible except for roads that are overgrown with shrubs and forage. There is minimal traffic on the roads in this area, and dust can accumulate during windy conditions in warmer months.

Environmental Effects

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Yamsay Mountain and Yamsay Mountain as a Cultural Landscape The landscape of Yamsay Mountain and the Red Knight planning area has changed from open vistas to more closed forest over the last 100 years. Under the no action alternative this trend would continue. The understory would continue to close the forest and conifer trees would continue encroaching into the meadows and aspen stands. Important aspects of the landscape that support cultural values and traditions would be lost. In the long term (10 to 30 years), as stand density increases, tree mortality would increase. The increased mortality would add to the fuel loading, which would decrease forage and hiding cover. Landscape conditions that support big game would be reduced or lost because of aging bitterbrush and loss of forage in high density stands and meadows. The draw for hunting would be further reduced. The area would still be available to traditional users and the family camps would continue, but the resources that provided the reason for coming to the area would be reduced because of the trend to closed forest. The majority of the traditional subsistence plants and animals prefer open forest and early successional conditions. These habitat conditions would not occur until the landscape burned. Current fuel conditions indicate that should a wildfire occur there would be detrimental damage to resources. Though the fire would leave a vegetation mosaic across the landscape, large portions would burn at higher intensities than historic conditions indicated. Species that survive low intensity fires may not survive the expected high intensity fire. Depending on the fire behavior, there is a possibility that a high percentage of the large trees may not survive either. A large fire likely would spread into the TCP, since topographically it lies uphill and downwind of the Red Knight planning area.

Air quality would lower either from a fire on the mountain or from distant drift from the Cascades, leading to health issues from extended exposure to particulate matter, carbon monoxide and other toxic gases associated with the smoke produced by large wildfires. A wildfire would burn intensely and exhibit extreme fire behavior where large amounts of ladder fuels and dead debris have accumulated. Increased fire intensity would mean short term loss of existing forage and long term loss of thermal cover important for wildlife habitat (when the larger trees are killed by a crown fire). Increased fire behavior would result in loss of

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 productivity and biodiversity in the forest where the fire occurs. Traditional camping areas would be impacted by a fire that could displace many users until vegetation recovered and forest conditions returned. Following any large fire, substantial portions of this planning area would be regenerated either as a brush field or as even-aged stands of young trees.

The mountain could continue to be used for spirit quests but the landscape that historically sustained the Klamath Tribes would not be visible because of dense forests. This could detract from the quest because traditional cultural resources would not be as much a part of the landscape. A quiet landscape would remain with occasional vehicles use that would not likely be heard on the mountain.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Yamsay Mountain and Yamsay Mountain as a Cultural Landscape

1. Yamsay Mountain is an important area of seasonal use to acquire subsistence resources associated with hunting, fishing, and gathering. It is a place that brings families together to pass on cultural traditions. To maintain cultural values the setting needs to provide a geographic setting similar to that of the past; one that allows traditional practices to continue and provide the resources for which the Tribal members came to the mountain. Impacts to visual qualities: The roads and landings that are near Yamsay Mountain would be visually apparent, as would the machinery using those roads and landings. The traffic and heavy equipment within the Red Knight planning area may be visually apparent from nearby portions of Yamsay Mountain. Though fire is a natural part of the landscape, prescribed burning would produce smoke and flames as a visual effect. Boles of some trees would appear blackened and the lower portion of the crowns scorched immediately after underburning. Blackened bark and scorched needles from underburning would exfoliate as trees grow, making evidence of burning only apparent upon close examination. Treated stands would appear more open with longer site distances, taller trees, less brush and understory trees. Willows and aspen would be emphasized by removing conifers near the hardwoods. Appearance where large trees are abundant would be of large diameter pine stand with many large, platy-barked trees more fully visible. The shrub component would initially be reduced through underburning and mechanical treatment. The view of the Red Knight planning area from the summit of Yamsay Mountain would be a less densely textured forest. Untreated patches within units would soften the visual character of the treated units. Visual quality and aesthetic value would be maintained for sites through unit design in relation to the local foreground view from each site. An approximate one and a half tree length protective buffer would be applied around rock feature/vision quest sites.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Piles would be left on site within the Red Knight planning area for up to five years after harvest to facilitate biomass utilization These temporary changes in visuals may temporarily discourage some Tribal members from hunting, trapping, and fishing from summer through fall. Other tribal members and family groups may be temporarily discouraged from gathering at traditional camps and villages, gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months, or from using the Yamsay Mountain area for a variety of other purposes including teaching cultural values because of the harvest and fuel treatment operations. Visual impacts distant to Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek are not likely to discourage Tribal members from using these traditional camps. The reasonably foreseeable future actions in this area include timber harvest, thinning, prescribed burning, and other watershed restoration activities. These future actions would be temporary and proposed actions would be temporary, so it is possible, though not likely that the actions would occur at the same time. If the actions occurred at the same time, it would lead to minimal cumulative effects, possibly temporarily discouraging slightly more Tribal members from hunting, trapping, and fishing from summer through fall. Slightly more tribal members and family groups may be temporarily discouraged from gathering at traditional camps and villages, gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months, or from using the Yamsay Mountain area for a variety of other purposes including teaching cultural values because of the harvest and fuel treatment operations. Visual impacts distant to Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek are not likely to discourage Tribal members from using these traditional camps. Impacts to auditory/noise environment: When heavy equipment is being used, noise would increase moderately near roads, trails, and landings being used, maintained, constructed, or reconstructed. Noise would moderately increase during heavy equipment operations, including felling, skidding, yarding, and limbing of trees. Chainsaw use may also be audible. This would increase the amount of background noise that could be heard a mile away. These temporary increases in noise may temporarily discourage some Tribal members from hunting, trapping, and fishing from summer through fall. Other tribal members and family groups may be discouraged from gathering at traditional camps and villages, gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months, or from using the Yamsay Mountain area for a variety of other purposes including teaching cultural values because of the harvest and fuel treatment operations. Tribal members would likely continue using Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek because these camps are not near the area where these project activities would be taking place, though those sensitive to the sounds of prolonged use of equipment may choose the quieter times when the equipment is shut down. Impacts to atmospheric conditions: Smoke from prescribed underburning and pile burning would cause local, short-term (approximately 1-2 days) effects on air quality. These effects would not be as detrimental as those of an uncontrolled wildfire. A wildfire would burn intensely and exhibit extreme fire behavior where large amounts of ladder fuels and dead debris have accumulated, whereas prescribed underburns and/or pile burns would not burn as intensely because burning is done during periods of moderate to low fire behavior (spring, fall, or winter). The effects of

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

prescribed underburning and pile burning would include increases in carbon dioxide, carbon, and particulates in the airshed. The temporary lowering of atmospheric conditions/air quality may temporarily displace some Tribal members from hunting, trapping, and fishing from summer through fall, some Tribal members from gathering at camps and villages, some Tribal members from gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months, some Tribal members from traditional camping, and some families using Yamsay Mountain for a variety of purposes including teaching cultural values. There would not likely be any displacement of individuals going to Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek in the summer because any prescribed burning would occur in the fall. Fall use can be impacted as smoke settles down slope during the evenings and night. Some Tribal members may chose not to spend the fall in the camps during periods of burning. In the unlikely event that there is a delay in treatment of slash in the Lower Jack area and the Modoc Planning area, there is a possibility for cumulative effects by a longer time period of lower atmospheric conditions/air quality in the fall and/or lower atmospheric conditions/air quality in the fall than the Red Knight burning alone would create. The cumulative effects are specific to the fall season because any prescribed burning would occur in the fall. These cumulative effects may temporarily displace slightly more Tribal members from hunting, trapping, and fishing in the fall, slightly more Tribal members from gathering at camps and villages in the fall, slightly more Tribal members from traditional camping in the fall, and slightly more families using Yamsay Mountain for a variety of purposes including teaching cultural values in the fall. There would not likely be any displacement of Tribal members from gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months or going to Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek in the summer because any prescribed burning would occur in the fall. Slightly more fall use can be impacted as slightly more smoke could settle down slope during the evenings and night. Slightly more Tribal members may chose not to spend the fall in the camps during periods of burning. Impacts to vegetation changes: Treated stands would appear more open with longer site distances, taller trees, less brush and understory trees. Appearance where large trees are abundant would be of large diameter pine stand with many large, platy-barked trees more fully visible. The shrub component would initially be reduced through underburning and mechanical treatment. Willows and aspen would be emphasized by removing conifers near the hardwoods. The view of the Red Knight planning area from the summit of Yamsay Mountain would be of a less densely textured forest. Untreated patches within units would soften the visual character of the treated units. Vegetation changes may benefit cultural resource values to the use of the area (see impacts to big game (EA pages 121-125) and plant species of interest to the Klamath Tribes (EA page 152-154; Appendix E), but short term impacts may discourage use such as hunting, trapping, and fishing from summer through fall as the landscape changes to open forest character. The changes to vegetation should not impact those Tribal members gathering at camps and villages, gathering and harvesting botanicals during warmer months, traditional camping, and families using Yamsay Mountain for a variety of purposes including teaching cultural values.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

At the end of 30 years, without the period use of fire, treated stands would appear two-storied to multistoried, resembling the current condition, but with a larger average overstory and a smaller, younger understory. Maintenance burns in the understory would move the landscape towards one that provides traditional cultural resources for which the area is used. There are no past, present, or reasonably foreseeable future vegetation management actions other than the proposed actions that will overlap with the Red Knight planning area, so there would not be any cumulative effects to vegetation changes. Impacts to access: Roads within and leading into the Red Knight planning area would have increased truck and machine traffic during road maintenance, road reconstruction, temporary road and landing construction or reconstruction, and timber and chip haul. These project activities would occur and be completed within 5-10 years of the Red Knight Restoration Project decision being signed, and would not necessarily occur every year. The roads that are needed for project activities that are impassible due to brush growth would be cleared and the brush cut to allow vehicles to utilize the open roads. In these areas there would be increased access for tribal members as well as other forest visitors. The area surrounding the Red Knight planning area would have increased traffic. The temporary increase in access may encourage tribal members and forest visitors to use the area more than they used to. There would be temporary, immeasurably minor cumulative effects with the temporary increase in access encouraging forest visitors to use the area more than they used to. The reasonably foreseeable future actions of road decommissioning in the Red Knight area would not affect Klamath Tribal Members, because the Klamath Tribes self-regulate access to their former reservation land. 2. As a cultural landscape Yamsay Mountain is associated with Indian cosmology and cultural practices. The relationship to the landscape must continue to exist to allow the various cultural relationships to survive. The visual and aural (sense of place) qualities that communicate cultural values should persist. The core of the cultural landscape is the Yamsay Mountain TCP. There are no management activities proposed by the Red Knight Project within the TCP. For the most part, the TCP is also located within Forest Plan Management Area 1A – Semi-primitive Recreation (MA 1A). This area is managed to provide non-motorized recreation in a predominately natural appearing environment with at least a moderate opportunity for solitude and feeling of remoteness from the more heavily used and developed areas. These objectives for semi-primitive recreation help to provide and protect the visual and aural qualities of Yamsay Mountain.

The analysis will focus on how the low slope actions proposed by the Red Knight Project may impact the use of the mountain, particularly the top. Much of the proposed activity would be screened from view. The action is likely to discourage some tribal members from using the mountain for cultural activities. The 8,900 acres of MA 1A provides an undisturbed landscape that would allow an individual to escape from the sites where vegetation and fuel management actions would occur. There is connection to the mountain from the traditional camp areas at Rocky Ford and Jackson Creek. The vegetation and fuel treatments would change the

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 appearance of the landscape and evidence of the action taking place would occur through noise associated with working equipment and motorized access along roads. Impacts to visual qualities: Views of the thinning stands or the equipment necessary to remove logs would not likely be viewed from Yamsay Mountain. The natural screening within the TCP and MA 1A would keep views of the lower slope hidden. Any treated stands viewed from the mountain would appear as a less densely textured forest, similar in character to the landscape that Yamsay Mountain provided traditional users. The proposed action would improve the value of sense of place because the landscape would reflect the traditional cultural values for which the area was used. See the discussion above. Though fire is a natural process, prescribed burning would produce smoke as a visual effect. Visual impacts from burning would be a seasonal occurrence in the spring and fall. Impacts to auditory/noise environment: When heavy equipment is being used, noise would increase moderately near roads, trails, and landings. Background noise that could carry several miles would moderately increase during heavy equipment operations, from the felling, skidding, and hauling operations. Noise from chainsaw use for small tree thinning and aspen release use would be confined to the local area. The historic levels of noise from traditional users and forest recreationists would not be audible from Yamsay Mountain. These future actions would be temporary and proposed actions would be temporary, so it is possible, though not likely that the actions would occur at the same time. If the actions occurred at the same time, it would lead to minimal cumulative effects, possibly temporarily discouraging some Tribal members from going to the TCP. Noise impacts distant to Rocky Ford or Jackson Creek are not likely to discourage Tribal members from using these traditional camps. Impacts to atmospheric conditions: Air quality would be reduced during times of burning. Burning occurs at times of good atmospheric dispersal but can last for several days while piles are consumed or areas of heavy fuel concentrations continue to burn. Smoke viewed from the mountain can be a column from underburning or isolated drifts from pile burning. Until the air clears, distant views from the mountain could be impaired. Important connections to the landscape would be lost while particulate material from the smoke obstructs the view. Burning of the scale that would obstruct distant views is normally done at a time when there is good mixing in the air and rain is likely to follow. Impacts to distant views would likely last a day or two. Impacts to vegetation changes: Vegetation changes would restore a traditional vegetation character that drew the Klamath Tribes to use Yamsay Mountain. The proposed action would improve the value of sense of place because the landscape would reflect the traditional cultural values for which the area was used. Those stands that would be visible from Yamsay Mountain would appear more open with taller trees and less brush and understory trees. The willow and aspen component of the landscape would increase. The proposed treatments would move a portion of the landscape

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

to a vegetation character that provided tribal resources for which drew the Klamath Tribes to the mountain. Vegetation changes may benefit cultural resource values to the use of the area, but short term impacts may discourage use. At the end of 30 years, without the period use of fire, treated stands would appear two-storied to multi-storied, resembling the current condition, but with a larger average overstory and a smaller, younger understory. There are no past, present, or reasonably foreseeable future vegetation management actions other than the proposed actions that will overlap with the Red Knight planning area, so there would not be any cumulative effects to vegetation changes. Impacts to access: Other then at times of log haul, traffic on the road would have minimal impacts to accessing the mountain. There would be no cumulative effects to tribal access from the partial road decommissioning. Impacts to tribal members using Yamsay Mountain for cultural activities would be seasonal. Depending on what an individual desires for the experience, they may be discouraged from using the mountain. They may have to choose another location or delay the use to a time that better fits their need or desire. Distant views would be impacted by smoke and background noise from equipment could carry to the mountain to distract from the cultural uses. Other than noise from equipment, the impact would be short lived and an opportunity to use the mountain would be provided. Noise may last a season or several months during the summer high use periods. Should the logging occur in the winter, the operation is less likely to impact any traditional activity because the activity would not overlap traditional tribal use periods. The changing stand composition and structure would be more reflective of the cultural landscape the tribe depended upon which would allow for a more traditional use of the landscape. Realizing that the landscape has mechanically manipulated may impact an individual’s sense of well-being but the action as a whole would mimic a landscape maintained by fire, both natural and human caused fire. The actions associated with aspen release and small tree (less than 7 inch) thinning use smaller equipment that is less likely to impact the use of the mountain. Mechanical piling would have an impact similar to logging but would overlap with traditional use times and may discourage members from using the Yamsay Mountain Area.

3.2.3 – Protection and Enhancement of Late-Successional and Old Growth Forest Ecosystems

Impacts to Old Growth Forest Ecosystems

The Region 6 Interim Old Growth Definition (Hopkins et al., 1993) for ponderosa pine provides another reference condition for evaluating effects. Density and size conditions described in this definition are similar to those described by Youngblood et al. (2004). Old growth structure includes numbers of large trees (>21” DBH), variation in tree diameters, single layer tree canopy, decadence, snags and down wood and gaps (openings) in the canopy. According to the Region 6 definition, old growth ponderosa stands (for low productivity sites) have an age of at

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 least 150 years and a minimum of 10 trees per acre greater than 21” DBH with 2 trees per acre over 31” DBH with 3 snags > 14” DBH and/or 10 percent of the stand with spire tops. Down woody material is measured as the number of eight foot pieces of 12 inch diameter on the large end to be 0-10. Natural gaps in the canopy are to be at least ½ acre in size. For the Red Knight planning area, stands that had 10 or more trees per acre with diameters of 21” DBH from the stand exam data were considered to qualify as old growth for both the ponderosa pine and pine- associated plant groups. Throughout the rest of this EA, when the term “old growth” is used, it is referring to the stands that qualify as old growth by Hopkins’ definition (1993) above, the only exception being section 3.3.23 - Forest Plan Consistency, with the discussion of Eastside Screens. The Eastside Screens has its own definition of old growth, which is defined in section 3.3.23.

Historical Forests and Fuels

Fire suppression, selective logging history, even-age forest management and livestock grazing have had major impacts on the vegetation in the past century. There has been a shift in species composition from predominantly pure ponderosa pine stands to stands of ponderosa pine with components of lodgepole pine at lower elevations and riparian stringers and ponderosa stands with white fir in the higher elevations of the Red Knight area. There has been a shift in structure from a heterogeneous forest with patches of dense trees, openings and clumps of trees resulting from frequent fires that created a mosaic across the landscape to a more homogeneous forest structure with dense understories. There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of small trees across the landscape with the suppression of fires. The numbers of plant species (diversity) and composition has changed in the meadows due to grazing and fire suppression. Bitterbrush was far less abundant historically than it is today (Busse, et al, 2009) probably due to frequent fires. There were more grass and forb species (adapted to the frequent fire regime) until the advent of fire suppression and intense grazing reduced the grasses. Above average precipitation during the 1880-1920 era allowed bitterbrush and ponderosa pine to become established in higher densities than during the pre-settlement fire regime.

Aspen and other hardwoods and forb species are declining as a result of encroachment of conifers into riparian and meadow areas and fire suppression. Historically, lodgepole was kept in check by frequent wildfires and the stands that did develop were of various ages and sizes with a more clumpy appearance of patches and scattered dog-hair thickets of regeneration. The stands dominated by lodgepole pine in the lower elevations near Long Prairie experienced a mountain pine beetle outbreak in the late 1980s. Many of the 7-9 inch diameter lodgepole pine died and were salvaged through End Result Contracts and large scale firewood units. Much of the area had the large diameter ponderosa pine selectively harvested after 1945 when it was part of the Klamath Indian Reservation. In the 1920s and 1930s there was a western pine beetle outbreak in the Klamath Reservation lands and large ponderosa pine that had beetles were felled and had the bark peeled and burned to reduce the spread of the beetles (see silviculture report page photo 1, Weaver 1931). From 1970-1993 (under the Winema NF management) approximately 7,000 acres were harvested in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer stands mostly selection harvests and some overstory removals (under even-aged management until about 1990, then uneven aged management direction). Recent past harvests (since the 1970s) have covered approximately 22% of the Red Knight area. Some stands had the large overstory ponderosa pine harvested to release

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 the “vigorous white fir understory.” The faster-growing white fir and lodgepole pine were released and encroached into the higher elevations and other areas of relatively high moisture with the lack of fire. Shelterwood and seed tree harvests as well as planting of lodgepole pine and ponderosa pine also occurred in the Red Knight project area.

Existing Forests and Fuels

The current forest condition is characterized by vegetative composition, structure and spatial pattern that have moved away from the historic conditions. The forest is much more homogeneous in spatial pattern (dense all over), has multi-storied structure (less single-story), with more shade-tolerant and fire intolerant species (white fir, lodgepole pine) in the stands. The existing condition of the vegetation was determined from timber stand exams (1991-1993), field reconnaissance (2010-2012), interpretations of satellite imagery (remote sensing and GNN (gradient nearest neighbor) models) and LANDFIRE (structural and FRCC) data. The LOS (late, old structural stage) definitions used for the Red Knight area are the “old-growth” definitions from Region 6 Interim Old-Growth Definitions (Hopkins et al., 1993) of various plant groups.

There are three major plant association groups in the Red Knight area including dry lodgepole pine (approximately 4,342 acres), dry ponderosa pine (approximately 24,178 acres) and dry mixed conifer (about 3,046 acres). For this assessment, plant associations where ponderosa pine would be the major climax species with low intensity, frequent fire disturbances (fire climax) are referred to as the ponderosa pine type (Franklin and Dyrness, 1988). Plant associations with a combination of ponderosa pine, white fir, sugar pine and western white pine as climax species are referred to as mixed conifer types. Plant associations with lodgepole pine as the major climax species are referred to as the lodgepole pine type. Meadows include McCarty Flat as a scab flat formation, Long Prairie and scattered smaller meadows mostly being encroached by lodgepole pine and other conifers with fire suppression. There are nine cinder pits in the Red Knight project area.

Table 5 Plant Associations grouped by forest type Forest Type Plant Associations Acres % of Redknight Ponderosa CPS211, CPS212 24,178 75% Pine Lodgepole CLM211, CLS211, CLS212, 4,341 13% Pine CLS311 Mixed Conifer CWS112 3,046 9% Meadow MW, MD(includes McCarty 702 2% Flat) Non-forest cinder pits, rocks 35 <1% (Plant associations from Plant Associations of the Central Oregon Pumice Zone, Volland and Hopkins, 1988, 1999)

Lodgepole pine is well established near meadows and wet riparian stringers throughout the Red Knight area and is interspersed in the ponderosa pine plant associations with the lack of fire. The

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 extensive stands of lodgepole pine are a “biological anomaly” (Hopkins, 1993). Frequent fires would have confined the fire-sensitive lodgepole to the riparian stringers and created a more clumpy appearance of variously aged and sized trees. The stands dominated by lodgepole pine are mostly in the lower elevations of the area near Long Prairie. With its characteristic prolific seeding and high seed viability, lodgepole pine has established itself as a component of most of the plant associations and greatly increased the stand densities in the area. The recent mountain pine beetle outbreak has affected most of the project area including clumps of lodgepole pine near the base of Yamsay Mountain. The lodgepole pine stands in the western part of the project area and on Yamsay Mountain (outside the project area) are experiencing another outbreak of mountain pine beetle as are the stands with clumps of lodgepole pine near the base of Yamsay Mountain. Mountain pine beetles are attacking ponderosa pine and other five needle pines in the area at the present time (Krommes, Eglitis 2010).

Dwarf mistletoe, mountain pine beetle, comandra blister rust, western gall rust and root rots are the most common diseases and insects that are influencing the growth and health of the lodgepole pine stands in the area. There are many standing dead and down lodgepole pine in stands that have nine inch and larger diameter lodgepole pine from the most recent mountain pine beetle outbreak. Shrubs include bitter bush, squirrel tail, Ross’ sedge, western needlegrass and in higher elevations manzanita. Site productivity ranges from very low to moderately high.

Ponderosa pine stands in the area are predominantly multi-story with dense mid and understories of ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and in the higher elevations; white fir. There are many stands with large (>21” DBH), old ponderosa pine that are competing for water, nutrients and growing space with the other large, old and mid and understory smaller diameter trees. Red Knight has very similar conditions to many areas on the Fremont-Winema NFs (and former Klamath Tribes’ reservation lands) including the Black Hills, Modoc, Fort and BlueJay project areas. Mortality of the large trees (snags) is higher now than it was historically throughout the ponderosa pine, mixed conifer and lodgepole pine dry forest types (Brown, Simpson; personal observations 1989-2012 and Red Knight wildlife report, 2012).

In the higher elevations and on north aspects where there is a little more available moisture are dry mixed conifer stands with ponderosa pine, white fir (Abies concolor), sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana), western white pine ( Pinus monticula) and lodgepole pine. These stands are densely stocked and have clumps of down and dead wood from root rots and insect attacks on the conifers. Fir engraver has caused mortality in all sizes of white fir and left many dead tops in the white fir. Mountain pine beetles have successfully attacked the lodgepole pine, sugar pine, western white pine in the mixed conifer stands. Armillaria root disease is present and is causing tree mortality and growth loss. Indian paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium), is a fungus that attacks true firs. It is the most common heart rot of true firs in the Red Knight area and has a distinctive hoof shaped conk on the bole of infected trees. White pine blister rust has infected and killed many of the five needle pines in the area. Understory plants include snowbrush, greenleaf manzanita, bitterbrush, needlegrass, squaw carpet and prince’s pine. The southeast portion of the Red Knight area near the Yamsay Mountain Semi Primitive Recreation Area and in the upper reaches of the Jackson Creek drainage is where most of the mixed conifer stands are located.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Fire Regimes and Condition Classes

The fire regime concept is a generalized way of characterizing the historic role fire played in an ecosystem, describing fire effects and vegetative conditions that likely contributed to historic fire behavior (i.e., fire severity, fire size, fire intensity, and crowning/scorching potential). Three historic fire regimes (Agee, 1993) are thought to have existed in the Red Knight planning area, low severity, moderate severity, mixed severity, with areas of little influence being a category that does not have enough information to provide historical data. The Red Knight planning area contains three historical disturbance regimes based on the dominate vegetation; these vegetation types are Dry Ponderosa Pine, Dry Lodgepole Pine, and Dry Mixed Conifer. Stand development within the ponderosa pine types was associated with frequent, light surface fire (5-15 year fire-free intervals). This scenario is referred to as the Low Severity Fire Regime. Climax lodgepole pine forests have a moderate severity fire regime. A combination of low, moderate, and high severity fire occurs in space and time. The average fire return interval is 60- 80 years. Historically, stand development within the mixed conifer plant groups were associated with both crown fire and mixed severity surface fires with a relatively short return (5-50 year fire-free intervals). This scenario is similar to the Moderate Severity Fire Regime described by Agee (1993). Studies conducted in the mixed conifer zone suggest that the historic fire regime had an average return interval of 10 to 40 years with low intensity burns (Agee, 1993). These frequent, low intensity fires were very effective in suppressing shade tolerant firs and cleaning up the accumulated fuels on the forest floor. White fir becomes a major dominant in the absence of frequent fires because it tolerates understory competition more than pines (Agee, 1993). Active fire suppression and the removal of numerous overstory pines have allowed the understory of some stands to become dense with true firs. These understory trees create a ladder fuel effect with limbs reaching to the ground and crowns reaching into the overstory. These ladder fuels allow fires to burn into the crowns of the overstory, killing trees at all levels. This has changed the fire regime in many of the white fir zones of this planning area to one of infrequent, high intensity burns. Condition class relates to the degree of departure from the historic fire regime intervals and the resulting alternations of key ecosystem components such as species composition, structural stage, stand age, and canopy closure. Fire regime condition classification (FRCC) data indicates that 19,859 acres (61%) of the project area is within a condition class 3, which is a high departure from the natural/historical regime of vegetation characteristics. A total of 71 acres fall within condition class 2 (.2%) and 2,090 acres (6%) fall within a condition class 1, which indicates the regime is considered within its natural range of variability. Due to the types of data that were used to create the FRCC map there are 10,288 acres that have insufficent data to extrapolate their condition class. A majority of the area that does not have sufficent data has been ground checked. It is visibly similar to that of the areas that are within condition classes 2 and 3, so it is reasonable to assume that these areas will be similar in classiffication. Fire Risk and Fire Hazard The probability of wildland fires in the future can be estimated by combining fire risk and fire hazard. Fire risk is the chance that a fire will occur. It is normally obtained through fire history analysis (average number of fires for a given area). Fire hazard is the fuel, topography, and

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 weather conditions that affect fire spread and intensity. Fuel is the only parameter that can be directly manipulated to reduce or increase the probabiltiy and severity of a potential fire. The Red Knight planning area is primarily within the Winema Fire Management Zone 11. The fire return interval is the time in years between two successive fires in a designated area; i.e. the interval between two successive fire occurrences. LandFire data based on historical fire records and the presumed historical fire regime has the Red Knight Planning Area having 23 percent (7,418 acres) of the unit in a 16-20 year interval and that 29 percent (9,342 acres) in a 21-25 year cycle, and 15 percent (4,852 acres) in the 26-30 year return interval. The remaining acres are very small percentages (9 percent being the highest) and fall within the broad range of 36 to 100 years. Thirty nine years of fire history data (1970-2009) show 69 fires within the planning area for a rate of 1.7 fires per year. This occurrence zone reflects a low to moderate fire frequency when compared to the rest of the Chemult Ranger district. Current fire hazard/fuel loading for this planning area uses the 40-fuel model instead of the standard 13 by Rothermal since the 40-fuel model is more dynamic and allows for a better representation of fuels outside of the severe conditions in which the 13 models are based. The 40-fuel model also allows Fire Management more flexibility when using the model for prescribed fire as well as modeling post treatment effectiveness. These fuel models display varying levels of fuel loading, flame lengths and rates of spread for given weather and fuel conditions. Primary fuel models used for planning purposes are GS2, TU1 and TU5. GS2 covers 22,504 acres, approximately 69% of the total project area and the second largest fuel model is TU5, which encompasses approximately 6,340 acres (20% of project area). TU1 is the third most dominate fuel model in the area and covers 1,430 acres (5%). A full description of these fuel models and associated fire behavior characteristics can be found in, “Standard fire behavior fuel models: A comprehensive set for use with Rothermel's surface fire spread model” (Scott, Joe H and Rober Burgan).

Slope, aspect, and the vertical and horizontal continuity of the stands are fire hazard analysis factors that are considered when evaluating the potential for torching, spotting and crown fires, which are frequently associated with stand replacing fires. There are numerous stands in the planning area that could readily support a crown fire due to horizontal and vertical continuity. The vertical continuity of stands (ladder fuels) allows fire to spread into the crowns of larger trees, consequentially increasing the fire behavior and making suppression efforts more difficult and ecological damage more probable. Environmental Effects on Forests and Fuels Scale of analysis

Analysis boundary for the silviculture effects analysis is the Red Knight project area boundary since it is large enough to be considered a watershed (32,000+ acres) and has similar plant communities and disturbance processes. The timeframes considered for the analysis was short term (0-5 years) and about 20 years into the future for long term. These time frames were chosen for a very long-lived resource (trees) so that immediate effect of treatments could be discussed, as well as the expected longer term effects of alternatives on the forest stands. A longer term prediction would be considered speculative because of the uncertainties of future climate change on the forest environment.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Analysis of potential cumulative effects was done by considering the proposed activities in the context of past, present and reasonably foreseeable future actions. For the Red Knight project, activities in the entire Red Knight project area were considered. For the cumulative effects to the former Klamath Tribes’ reservation lands, proposed activities within the entire 1954 reservation boundary was used. “Restoration to pre-1954 complexity and forest structure … restoration of riparian habitats and the possible use of prescribed burning to restore a larger-than-current role for fire” (Klamath Tribes’ Management Plan, 2008, pg.2).

Methodology and Assumptions

Information for the silvicultural analysis was gathered from field reconnaissance (2010-2012), the Forest GIS system, historical vegetation mapping, timber stand exam information (1991- 1993), interpretations of satellite imagery (remote sensing and GNN (gradient nearest neighbor, (Ohmann, 2010) models) and LANDFIRE (structural and FRCC) data. The LOS (late, old structural stage) definitions used for the Red Knight area are the “old-growth” definitions from Region 6 Interim Old-Growth Definitions (Hopkins et al., 1993) of various plant groups. Comparisons with pertinent and recent scientific research, professional judgment based upon observation of past similar activities in similar plant groups on the forest and 20+ years experience of vegetation management on the Chemult District and some FVS (Forest Vegetation Simulation, (Dixon, 2002)) runs were used to estimate the effects of the alternatives. A landscape analysis was done to help determine treatment needs across the landscape of Red Knight. Best available science was considered and used in analyzing the effects of proposed treatments. Scientific information relied on is incorporated and cited in the discussion of effects. A listing of the science can be found in the citations listed section. There is inherent variability in complex natural systems and there is very little scientific research specific to the Red Knight area. Professional judgment was also used in discussing the effects of the proposed action and the no action alternative. Resource professionals contributing to the Red Knight planning effort in fire/fuels, silviculture and wildlife each have over twenty years experience in land and resource management on the Chemult District.

Restoring the vegetation pattern based on the knowledge of historical patterns of structure and composition (Hagmann, 2012; Hagmann, et al., 2013, Churchill, 2012; Agee, 1998) across the Red Knight landscape is anticipated to lead to more characteristic fire regimes and disturbance processes (Hessburg, et al, 2005). It is assumed that several vegetation treatments including underburning may be necessary to reach the historical range of desired conditions. Restoration takes time and an initial treatment may not meet restoration objectives. Initial underburning may temporarily increase surface fuels (Agee, 2002). Underburning may result in mortality of small and large trees (Hood, S.M., 2010). Monitoring would be done to reduce the risk of mortality of large diameter trees during underburning using a modification of the Malheur model (Thies, et al., 2012). It is anticipated that the vegetation treatments would take place over the next 5-10 years and that the effects would last for 10-15 years after treatment occurs. Restoration treatments would be planned to set the forest on the trajectory towards the range of desired conditions. It is anticipated that the initial treatments would take place in the mixed conifer stands of the “Forest Restoration with Consideration of Pileated Habitat” area and “Restoration of Ponderosa

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Pine” stands. High priority for treatment should be complex mixed conifer forests with concentrations of old trees (Franklin, Johnson, 2011) due to risk of stand-replacement fire and competition from high stand densities at risk to bark beetles during a drought.

The forest plan amendment to allow harvest of white fir over 21” DBH but under 150 years in age would apply to the entire Red Knight area. The exact location of all of these trees is not known, but removal of one large white fir could release a large growing space that could be utilized by old ponderosa pine. In the pileated habitat area more white fir would be left in the mix of species than would be left in the ponderosa pine dominated stands. No LOS areas would have enough large trees (>21” DBH) removed to alter their status as LOS. Removing large young white fir would increase the vigor and resilience of the old ponderosa pine in the stands and reduce current tree evapotranspiration and begin to shift stand composition towards more ponderosa pine.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Forests and Fuels The no action alternative would perpetuate the overstocked conditions that slow development of future large tree structure, and continue to escalate the risk of large scale stand replacing wildfires and insect outbreaks. While the "no action" alternative proposes no new projects at this time, fire suppression will continue to occur. In the short term, (one to five years) the fire hazard will remain at a high risk. In the future, dead or dying trees will fall down increasing the fire hazard and subsequently elevating the risk. Natural fuels (pine needles and other dead vegetation) will continue to accumulate and the natural processes of decay are not likely to remove the down and dead woody debris before the next fire cycle. As the available fuel increases, so will the potential for a large stand replacing fire. Potential for resource damage caused by fire suppression efforts will increase. If a large fire were to occur, it could eliminate critical wildlife habitat. It could take up to 100 years to replace this loss of habitat. When large amounts of dead and down debris increase and there is an increase in ladder fuels, a fire would burn very hot and exhibit extreme fire behavior. Such fire behavior could result in loss of productivity and biodiversity in the stands, surface soils could be severely damaged and could take many years to recover. Soil erosion could occur in some of the planning area following an intense post-fire precipitation event. Increased fire intensity also means loss of snags and downed logs important for habitat.

It is likely that about 20% of the forests in the Red Knight area were in a condition other than “park-like”. Not all areas were the same. They were dominated by low severity fire, but not homogeneous due to differing topography, moisture and species. It was a heterogeneous forest and the condition depended on what happened in the last fire event. There was a mosaic of vegetation and fuels historically in the Red Knight area that could withstand a disturbance event such as a low intensity fire. A low intensity wildfire would quickly move into a crowning event if it took place in the existing forest in Red Knight during dry conditions (as evidenced by the recent Barry Point fire in similar forest conditions in 2012 near Lakeview, OR).

The effects from no treatment on fuels and fire would be that a greater amounts of dead and down branchwood and larger woody debris (large logs) and needles would accumulate and create deeper and more continuous surface fuelbeds which would increase surface fire intensity

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 and severity to contribute to torching and crowning fire behavior even under mild fire weather conditions. Trees and other vegetation would continue to grow increasing the stand density and the competition for soil water and nutrients and ladder fuels. When a wildfire does occur with high intensity it could sharply reduce the mineral soil carbon and nitrogen (Bormann, et al., 2008). It could also cause a potential loss in soil productivity and greenhouse gas additions to the atmosphere. Insects and diseases would continue to attack trees causing individuals and clumps of trees to die and contribute to the continuous fuels and a future uncharacteristic wildfire.

The No Action alternative would not introduce heterogeneity into the stands. The homogeneous condition would continue and not move towards the historic pattern of mosaics of openings, clumps, individual trees and untreated retention patches. Openings would occur as individual and clumps of trees died and fell over from insect attack or root rot or a complex of stresses. Leaving the dry fire-frequent forests in the current uncharacteristic condition would increase the short- term risk of loss to wildfire and would preclude management options for the future. The no action alternative would not reduce conifer encroachment and competition in the riparian, aspen or meadow areas. The ecotone between the forest and the meadow, riparian and aspen areas is important for diversity and would continue to be homogeneous with many small diameter trees growing throughout and excessive amounts of dead and down wood.

Old ponderosa pine in the overstory would likely continue to be stressed and mortality would increase in these key components of the forest as they are across the west (Breshears, 2008). Old ponderosa pine would continue to be out competed by younger white fir (less than 150 years old) that provide ladder and crown fuels and increase the potential for wildfire or drought that would kill the old ponderosa pine (Franklin, Johnson, 2012). The focus is on older trees rather than simply larger ones because older trees have “distinctive ecological characteristics and functions” (Franklin, Johnson, 2012). Older trees are not simply larger versions of young trees. Young white fir would continue to regenerate and grow until the next drought causes widespread mortality (Cochran, 1998).

Current bark beetle activity under the No Action alternative would continue to increase. From Region 6 Insect Aerial Surveys there has been increased noticeable beetle activity mapped in 2006-2012 (USFS R6 2012). Field notes from the Red Knight area found 30 percent of the stands visited with some bark beetle activity. Lodgepole pine seems to attract attacks even when scattered through a unit. These attacks have been observed on the Winema National Forest to instigate mortality of adjacent ponderosa pine of all diameters and commonly trees larger than 16 inches DBH (Krommes, Eglitis, 2010). Bark beetle mortality can be expected to continue to cause lodgepole and ponderosa pine and western white pine mortality in all size trees. This has good potential to deplete the old large diameter trees throughout the planning area as well as reducing the average diameter of the remaining stand. This would delay the growth of ponderosa pine into larger diameter classes through reduce growth of trees from competition and mortality of larger trees. Modeling of stand exam data shows that all stands where exams were available were above the upper management zone and would remain at beetle risk in the short term until some form of mortality changes the stand density. Old growth status of lodgepole pine is short- lived and lodgepole old-growth would decline at a faster rate than ponderosa pine old-growth due to mortality from mountain pine beetles (MPB) (Geiszler, 1980). At maturity, lodgepole pine

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 has a diameter and phloem thickness that is suitable for the MPB to successfully attack and reproduce (Cochran, 1994).

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Forests and Fuels Historically, dry ponderosa pine, mixed conifer forests and even lodgepole pine (Stuart, et al., 1989) were mosaics of clumps, dense patches, and openings and widely spaced individual trees. This characteristic pattern and the disturbance processes that maintained it are functionally important. The disturbance process of frequent low and mixed severity fires maintained low and variable tree densities, light and patchy ground fuels, favored fire-tolerant trees such as ponderosa pine and a low and patchy cover of fire-tolerant shrubs and herbs (Hessburg, et al. 2005). The existing condition of the forest is homogeneous with dense understories of fire- intolerant, fire-tolerant trees and few openings. Restoration of the historic pattern and heterogeneity is key to the restoration treatments (Larson, and Churchill, 2012) proposed for the Red Knight area. Pre-fire suppression structure and pattern was resistant to fire and sustainable over time. Increasing the heterogeneity of the forest spatial pattern by maintaining old trees in clumps (defined as two to twenty trees within 20 feet of each other), as individuals widely spaced, creating openings and retention patches at different scales would begin to move the forest towards the historical spatial mosaic pattern. Some of the functions of the components of spatial pattern are listed in the table below:

Table 6 – Patch Type and Function/Effect Patch Type Function/Effect Retention patches (small and large-scale) Canopy cover to provide for shady, moister microhabitats; protect important spots such as: downed log patches, spiritual, cultural and places of worship areas; wildlife hiding and thermal cover; diversity of plant species, snag habitat Openings Inhibit the spread of crown fires by forcing crown fires back down to the ground (fire behavior); impede the build up of epidemic insect outbreaks by disrupting pheromone plumes; wildlife habitat for birds and small mammals that depend on pattern of clumps and openings (white-headed woodpeckers); increase understory plant abundance and diversity; influence snow retention which has a large influence on soil water levels, plant vigor and fuel moisture: openings large enough to reduce canopy interception but small enough to be shaded and protected from wind. Thinning areas Release old trees from competition; trees grow larger faster; tree vigor is improved to resist insect and disease attack; shift composition to fire- and drought-tolerant species; increase

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

mean diameter of residual stand; increase crown base height; thin primarily from below; reduce fuel ladders; reduce potential flame lengths and likelihood of crown fires Clumps of old trees and individual trees Maintains genetic diversity; wildlife habitat; maintain microclimates; protection from predators on a small scale; facilitate wildlife movement across treated areas Hardwoods, riparian areas, meadows Provides plant diversity; influences fire behavior by forcing crown fires to the ground; important wildlife habitat; increases heterogeneity of fuels and vegetation; Underburn areas Facilitates patchy natural regeneration that leads to multi-age structure and recruitment of replacement trees; increases within-stand genetic diversity and increases adaptive capacity to climate change; reduces surface fuels and moves stands towards condition class 1; increases understory plant diversity;

(Adapted from Churchill, 2012)

Restoring the characteristic forest structure would reduce the short-term risk of loss to uncharacteristic wildfire and preserve management options for the future. (Larson, Churchill, 2012). Generally most old trees over 150 years old would be left to maintain genetic diversity, wildlife habitat and old tree structure (includes ponderosa pine, white fir and other conifer species). Some old trees less than 21” DBH would be harvested where they are suppressed (vigor classes C and D from Van Pelt, 2008) and where needed to contribute to economics of restoration thinning. Thinning of younger trees in the stands would reduce competition and improve vigor of individual trees and reduce ladder fuels. Within stand variability would mean within stand density differences which would cause trees to grow at a variety of rates and a range of vigor.

As summarized in Table 6- Patch Type and Function/Effect, the retention patches would provide shady microhabitats and wildlife habitat, protect downed logs and other resources from mechanical damage during harvest operations, and retain the existing diversity of plant species within the patches. The openings would inhibit the spread of crown fires, impede build up of epidemic insect outbreaks, provide habitat for species that require openings, increase plant diversity and influence snow retention. The thinned areas would release old trees from competition, improve residual tree vigor, shift composition to fire and drought tolerant species and reduce the potential for crown fires by reducing the ladder fuels. The clumps of old trees and individual old trees would provide for genetic diversity and wildlife habitat and distinctive ecological functions. Restoring the riparian areas and meadows would provide for plant diversity (especially plants culturally important to the Klamath Tribes), increase heterogeneity of fuels and vegetation and would influence fire behavior. The underburned areas (ponderosa pine forest

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 types) would facilitate patchy natural regeneration, reduce surface fuels and would move the underburned stands towards the historic condition class.

Large scale/landscape retention patches would be chosen to contribute to the required big game cover:forage (30:70) ratio from the Winema LRMP and to provide habitat for wildlife species that prefer higher tree densities and canopy closure. Large scale/landscape retention patches consist of approximately 2,590 acres of untreated areas well-distributed across the Red Knight area including around Little Yamsay Mountain and within management areas for goshawk and great grey owl. Small tree thinning will break up the vertical and horizontal continuity of the stands. This treatment reduces the possibility of fire climbing into the crowns of trees and reduces the risk of future tree mortality due to insect and disease. This silviculture treatment in conjunction with a fuel disposal treatment will decrease the potential for a stand replacing fire. In the short term (three to five years), harvest activity fuels may increase the fire hazard. Thinning stands would reduce the density of trees which would reduce the vegetation competition for moisture, nutrients and light in these dry forests. Filip and Fitzgerald (1999) recommend thinning in ponderosa pine forests to improve tree growth and vigor, reduce stand density and reduce mortality from root disease and bark beetles. Their study in Central Oregon found that thinning reduced root disease-caused mortality and increased the basal area growth of trees even 30 years after the treatment. Busse et al. (2009) found that thinning treatments are a suitable practice for restoring ecological characteristics and are important first steps for restoration of resilient ponderosa pine sites. Thinning changes the microclimate for mountain pine beetles by increasing insolation (more sunlight), light intensity, wind movement and reduction in humidity which reduce risk of successful bark beetle attacks. The first year after thinning there may be a slight reduction in growth (due to thinning shock – reduced photosynthetic capacity related to loss of shade leaves after exposure to full sunlight). Thinning stands would change the forest condition by reducing the competitive moisture stress which would make the residual trees more resilient to insects attack and disease. Reducing the lodgepole pine and white fir from the ponderosa pine stands would move the composition towards historic conditions when ponderosa pine dominated the stands. Restoration of inter-mixed stands (ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine) requires the aggressive removal of lodgepole pine and re-introduction of fire to provide long-term sustainability of ecosystem health and preservation of large diameter ponderosa pine (Shuffield, C.D., 2011). Reducing the numbers of lodgepole pine in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer stands would reduce the trees that are the preferred host of mountain pine beetle and would reduce the risk of uncharacteristic build up of broods of beetles and reduce the risk that the beetles would attack ponderosa pine and other pine species such as western white pine and sugar pine in the stands. Variable density thinning proposed in Red Knight area would accelerate the development of and maintain existing LOS ponderosa pine, mixed conifer and lodgepole pine by thinning around old trees to reduce competition. The different densities would result in different growth rates on the trees with lower growth rates in denser clumps and higher rates on trees that are growing in more open conditions. In places where lodgepole pine and white fir would be harvested gaps would be created. Large white firs have large crowns and their removal would create larger openings than removing lodgepole pine with smaller crowns. Larger openings would last longer as it takes

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 more time for vegetation to fill in the larger gaps. White fir grows rapidly and can reach diameters of over 21” DBH in much less than 150 years. Young white fir trees (<150 years old) that happen to be over 21” DBH would be harvested if they are growing near or competing with old ponderosa pine. The 21” diameter limit was used as a surrogate for old trees in the Eastside Screens. With Van Pelt’s guide (2008) older trees are more easily identified by their bark and form characteristics and the restoration strategy for Red Knight includes restoring historic pine- dominated stands. Most old ponderosa pine (over 150 years) would be retained and some of those would be less than 21” DBH. The proposed treatment would move the stands from multi- strata LOS towards more single-strata LOS that occurred historically over approximately 12,564 acres after all treatments including small tree thinning is completed.

Untreated stands and retention clumps would contribute towards the diversity of structure and composition that occurred historically. Untreated stands and clumps would maintain the existing composition of lodgepole pine and white fir of all sizes and other overstory and understory plant species including shrubs such as bitterbrush over approximately 2,590 acres in large scale patches (No treatment areas, includes Little Yamsay mountain). Limited treatment areas (about 7,300 acres in past harvest units) would maintain existing composition and condition except near remnant large, old trees where younger small and large trees would be cut (for approximately two drip lines or 20-30 feet) to reduce competition on the old trees, increase the likelihood of survivability of the old trees into the future and increase heterogeneity of structure. Small scale retention patches within restoration treatment units would cover about 10-15% of treated units (approximately 1,690-2,535 acres) and range in size from <1 to 5 acres approximately and contribute to the diversity of structure and species composition within the treatment units.

Small tree thinning would be done where necessary and would reduce the ladder fuels and competition around the residual and old trees. Treatments would maintain old (generally older than 150 years) and large trees in clumps and as individuals. All live ponderosa pine, sugar pine and western white pine over 21” DBH would be retained. Treatments would generally favor fire resistant species such as ponderosa pine over white fir and lodgepole pine. In the ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine the harvest and small tree thinning effects are expected to last for 15 -20 years until the next cohort of regeneration becomes established and the trees grow and continue to compete for growing space and water. In the mixed conifer stands with higher site quality vegetation grows faster and the effects of thinning would be expected to last for a shorter timeframe possibly 10 years.

In the mixed conifer stands reduction of the shade-tolerant and fire-sensitive species such as white fir would move the forest condition towards the historical condition when ponderosa pine dominated the conifer mix with periodic fire. White fir grows very rapidly, produces a dense crown cover and is susceptible to many insects and diseases when moisture is limited. Cochran (1998) found that stands with a large component of white fir on sites similar to Red Knight with precipitation under about 30 inches a year were at high risk of mortality due to fir engraver even at low densities. In areas where white fir did not grow historically (outside of the restoration with consideration of pileated habitat area) (Hagmann, 2012; Hagmann et al., 2013) in Red Knight, large, young white fir now are components of some of the stands with the suppression of fire. White fir this is younger than 150 years old competing with ponderosa pine would be harvested to reduce competition and move the composition of the stands towards historic conditions. There

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 are white fir larger than 21” but younger than 150 years old that may be harvested where they are competing with old ponderosa pine.

In the Forest Restoration with Consideration of Pileated Habitat area (about 1,630 acres) thinning would be done to reduce competitive stress on old trees including old ponderosa pine, white fir, sugar pine, western white pine trees. Young white fir would be maintained as individuals and in clumps throughout the stands where they do not compete with ponderosa pine and contribute to the heterogeneity of species in the stands. White fir has much larger and fuller crowns than pine species and contributes to the ladder fuels that could carry a fire into the crowns of the trees. Reducing the white fir composition in the stands would reduce the ladder fuels and reduce the risk of ground fires developing into crown fires.

Thinning the white fir would also create more slash and down woody material in the stands. Some of this material would be skidded to the landing during harvest, but some would also be left in the stands with breakage of tops and limbs during harvest operations. Past experience has shown that sufficient amounts of down woody and green biomass material are left in the stands following a harvest operation to contribute to long term soil productivity (Busse, 2010). Thinning the stands could create surface fuels which could increase surface fire intensity.

Studies in northern California (Egan, 2010) found that thinning reduced the density of mortality from MPB in ponderosa pine stands compared to non-thinned stands due to residual tree vigor and stand microclimate. Mortality due to fir engraver occurred in direct proportion to the amount of white fir in the stand suggesting that thinning doesn’t change the susceptibility of white fir to fir engraver. Similar to Cochran (1998) who found high levels of mortality in white fir thinned to various densities after a drought period. The most recent study in California shows that the mortality due to fir engraver was related to the amount of white fir in the stand and the elevation of the stand. Elevation is a proxy for water availability where the higher elevations usually have more annual precipitation. The treatments proposed in the Forest Restoration with consideration of Pileated Habitat area would maintain more white fir in the composition of the mix of species than in the restoration treatments in the ponderosa pine stands. The study supports discriminating against residual white fir and retaining a greater ponderosa pine component similar to historic compositions during thinning treatments to reduce the amount of fir engraver caused mortality during periods of drought.

Trees (either of the same or different species) can be linked by the hyphae of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi that allow carbon and nutrients to pass among them and promote forest establishment following a disturbance. These linkages can reduce plant competition for resources, promote forest recovery and influence the pattern of plant succession. Management practices that retain living trees and shrubs (such as the proposed thinning in Red Knight) and input of organic matter provide the energy source and substrate necessary for ECM linkages (Amaranthus, Perry, 1994). Disturbance is a major factor affecting the variation and diversity in the forest ecosystem. Events such as fire, winds, floods and insect and pathogen activities shape the forest ecosystem through space and time. Disturbing the forest to remove commodities (thinning) does not necessarily conflict with maintaining spatial and temporal linkages between plants via ECM fungi. Forest practices can mimic natural disturbance regimes and help assure that ECM fungal linkages among plants are not severed and that trees and soil ecosystem

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 continue to operate as a coherent and dynamic unit. By managing and maintaining the ponderosa pine stands clumpy nature, the proposed actions would be maintaining the underground ECM linkages that contribute to a healthy forest. Keeping all the large trees in a clump would allow those trees to continue to function as, basically, one large tree. These ECM linkages may be very important in the relatively young and infertile volcanic soils of Central Oregon.

All of the stands have infections of dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium spp.) that affect ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and true firs in the area. Dwarf mistletoe causes growth loss, distortion of growth, topkill, mortality and predisposition to attack by bark beetles (Stanton, 2007) by creating water and nutrient stress in the tree since these obligate parasites depend almost entirely on food produced by the tree. Leaving all large overstory ponderosa pines with infections of dwarf mistletoe would cause repeated raining down on the smaller trees in the understory of the seeds of the dwarf mistletoe plant (Forest Health Notes, WSU). Hawksworth, (F.G., 1990) found that severity of mistletoe infection increased more rapidly in surviving small trees than in the large trees, trees of all diameter classes dwarf mistletoe ratings increased from moderate to severe over a 32 year period in a ponderosa pine multi-storied stand and that mortality of ponderosa pine is strongly correlated with dwarf mistletoe intensity.

Forest vegetation simulator (FVS) runs of representative stand exam information (from 1992) using the dwarf mistletoe extension to simulate infection effects showed a dramatic increase in mortality in the next 20 years in the ponderosa pine stands with no treatment. Any one of these factors alone may not cause the death of a tree, but in combination and in concert with a lengthy drought in the Klamath Basin may cause widespread mortality of both the large diameter and small diameter trees in the project area. Removing infected trees and thinning to increase residual tree vigor have been shown to be effective treatments in these stands. Left untreated, areas of infected single storied stands would likely result in a reduction in diameter and height growth, low tree vigor and increased tree mortality as well as higher fire severity and the spread of dwarf mistletoe through the stand at a rate of about 1-2 feet per year.

In uneven-aged stands with an infected overstory, the understory would become heavily infected with dwarf mistletoe. These trees would create fuel ladders under large trees, would never produce viable seed and would serve as a source of mistletoe that would spread laterally through the stand increasing the overall level of dwarf mistletoe in the stand. Without mitigating measures this scenario would increase in area across the landscape, increase the risk of stand replacing fire and ultimately would reduce the probability of recruiting new viable cohorts of trees and consequently, Late Old Structure (LOS) would likely not be maintained in heavily affected areas. With a series of silvicultural treatments that include selecting for the removal of dwarf mistletoe infected trees in the stand and the reintroduction of fire on a historic fire return interval, there is an increased probability of stabilizing the deleterious effects of mistletoe and ultimately achieving more LOS throughout the stand as compared to no treatment. Smith, A. 2009, Hawksworth and Wiens (1996) note that inducing the formation of witches’ brooms and causing top kill and mortality of host trees, dwarf mistletoes affect the species composition, vertical crown structure, and spacing of trees within infected stands. These direct effects, in turn, have numerous consequences on the physical structure and functioning of the ecosystem. For example, brooms provide forage, nesting, and cover for birds and mammals but also increase the likelihood of ground fires becoming crown fires by contributing to the ladder fuels. Canopy gaps

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 caused by mistletoe–induced mortality increase within-stand diversity but also reduce the interior-forest area. Depending on management objectives and priorities, the effects of dwarf mistletoe are interpreted as positive, negative, or usually of mixed consequence.

Treatments that reduce the overall stocking levels of the stands, as in the Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine plant association groups, will create more open structure. This will allow fire management to perform prescribed fire operations under appropriate conditions. This will more closely resembles historic, low intensity fire and aid in restoring the area to conditions that reflect the appropriate FRCC classification.

Restoration thinning in Red Knight would follow Agee and Skinner (2005) three principles of fire resistance for dry forests. Reducing surface fuels that would have the effect of reducing potential flame length, makes control of fire easier, since there would be less torching of trees, and makes a fire safer for fire fighters to fight. Increase height to live crown that would have the effect of less torching since the flames need to be taller to reach the limbs to burn, but also can increase surface winds that may dry out fuels and influence fire behavior. Decreasing crown density which would make tree-to-tree crown fire less probable and reduces crown fire potential by spacing out the distance between inter-tree crowns, but may also dry out surface fuels and increase surface winds. Keeping big and old trees of resistant species would decrease mortality by keeping the trees that are fire-resistant with thick bark and morphology that evolved with frequent fires. The long dry summers appear to have a much larger effect on fuel moisture than the amount of canopy cover (Estes et al., 2012). Fuel moisture differences resulting from thinning and not thinning would not be expected to influence fire behavior.

Increasing the heterogeneity of the forest spatial pattern by maintaining old trees in clumps (from two to twenty trees within 20 feet of each other), as individuals widely spaced, creating openings and retention patches at different scales would begin to move the forest towards the historical spatial mosaic pattern. By restoring the spatial pattern it is assumed that the processes associated with the historical mosaic pattern would function in much the same way as they did historically (Churchill et al, 2013). The scale of the treatments is extensive and appropriate for the landscape as a whole. Most of the ponderosa pine plant communities would be considered for underburning after the harvest and post harvest treatments are completed (approximately 12,000 acres). There are some areas that would not need tree thinning before an underburn, but these areas are small and not continuous. They are mostly patches of old ponderosa pine trees surrounded by stands that do need thinning before the introduction of fire. Bringing the stands back into the HRV with one treatment is probably not possible. Thinning the stands followed by small tree thinning and then underburning would be necessary to move the stands into condition class I. Periodic underburns would be necessary after the initial underburning to maintain the condition class of 1. If the historical structure was restored the ponderosa pine forest may be resistant and resilient to native insects and diseases, uncharacteristically severe wildfires and be beneficial to many wildlife species (Graham, Jain, 2005).

An effect of fire exclusion has been an accumulation of organic layer where the tree roots, ectomycorrhizae (EM) and nutrients are concentrated. The old ponderosa pine trees tend to have accumulation of bark around the base of the tree that has sloughed off during the previous century. A fire that burns with a long resonance time or in very dry duff conditions could damage

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 the fine roots and EM associated with the organic layer and possibly kill the tree. Another effect of fire exclusion and the accumulation of organic materials is the change in composition of the litter from ponderosa pine litter to true fir litter. This change can alter EM habitat and water holding properties. The true fir vertical distribution of EM short roots is compressed dramatically compared with the ponderosa pine EM activity which occurs much deeper in the soil. (Graham, Jain, 2005).

This process probably evolved with the frequent fire occurrence and is one of the processes of which not much is known. The ponderosa pine dominated forests EM are relatively well protected from wildfire damage, but when a wildfire burns in forests with uncharacteristically deep organic layers they can have a detrimental impact on the EM activities. The absence of fire has increased site productivity in the ponderosa pine sites due to a long term benefit with maintaining understory vegetation and its effect on the upper soil horizon (Hopkins and Cochran, 1990). Understory shrubs also have been found to reduce tree growth rates and compete with conifers for soil water (Busse, 1996).

Thinning of the lodgepole pine stands and salvage of the dead lodgepole pine would reduce the fuels available to burn in a wildfire. Restoring some of the variety in stand structure by creating openings and maintaining denser patches would break up the horizontal and vertical continuity of fuels in the lodgepole pine stands. Dead and live lodgepole pine would be harvested from the mixed conifer and ponderosa pine stands where it exceeds down woody requirements and the effect would be to reduce the fuels available if a wildfire occurred. Lodgepole pine with active wildlife cavities or evidence of wildlife use would be left in the stands and not harvested to provide habitat.

The effect of underburning on understory shrubs would be negative as many of the browse species favored by big game are sensitive to fire especially bitterbrush. Riegel et al., in the Alternative Fuel Treatment study partly on the Chemult District found there is a lag time for vegetative response after an underburn. They found that fire did not stimulate herbaceous production, but anecdotal observations in areas that have had lightning strikes and underburned small areas in the Red Knight area and other underburns in the Modoc area bunch grasses, western needlegrass and other forbs were stimulated and are growing. The needle drape and dead unproductive browse that exists in the Red Knight area would benefit from underburning by killing the decadent brush in a mosaic pattern leaving about 30% of the area for seeding in by rodents of new plants. Ceanothus seed can live many years (400+) in the soil and manzanita is fire-adapted to crown sprout after an underburn. These species are not big game browse species and are difficult to manage in a more open canopy after thinning. Underburning does stress large trees and attracts bark beetles (western pine beetles) and can affect the resin defenses of large trees over the long term.

The Proposed Action Alternative 2 could increase the spread of Annosus root disease. To reduce the risk of spreading Annosus root disease, all freshly cut conifer stump surfaces, 18 inches and larger, would receive a light coating of sporax (borax) within 24 hours of being severed (sodium tetraborate decahydrate) (EPA Reg. No.1624-94). Borax is most likely to be found in shallow penetration of the stump after application of the pesticide on the freshly cut stump, or in the soil

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 after rainfall. Because of the shallow penetration of borax of the stump, natural decay processes and organism are not anticipated to be affected, with the exception of those organisms colonizing the surface of the stump. Borax levels in a three inch ring around the base of the stump are expected to initially exceed background levels, but residues are not expected to last more than one year. Historical use of borax over the last 25 years has not lead to observations that stump treatments have lead to death in adjacent plants or animals (Durkin and Koltzbach, 2006).

There is considerable variability in the sporax application process since the actual amount depends on the size of the stump, the number of stumps per acre, the person applying the sporax and the applicator (shaker bottle). Based on sample plot data it is estimated that approximately 30,000 trees (mostly white fir) would have cut stumps of 18 inches in diameter and larger. The application rate is two pounds of borax per 100 square feet of basal area. Based on an average stump diameter of 24 inches, each would receive approximately one ounce of borax. This equates to 1,062 pounds of borax being applied over the harvest units (17,000 acres) which averages out to approximately 0.27 pounds (4.3 ounces) of borax being applied per acre. Risk assessments (Durkin and Koltzbach, 2006) conclude that properly applying the pesticide (borax), may affect specific individuals but it is highly improbable that there would be any detrimental effects on the populations of mammals, birds, plants, fish, aquatic organisms, terrestrial insects, and invertebrates within the analysis area. Following the product label instructions for personal protective equipment, spill and storage procedures the use of sporax to control Annosus root disease does not present risk of detrimental effects (Annosus Root Disease Control and Stump Treatment Guides, R-6 Fremont-Winema in project record).

Cumulative Effects on Forest and Fuels

Cumulative Effects of the Proposed Action alternative along with past, present, and future actions would be a reduction in inter-tree competition, ladder fuels and stress on the forest over a large landscape. The total acreage of National Forest land within the former reservation is 689,827 acres (Klamath Forest Plan, 2008). The combination of the proposed actions in the Red Knight area with the other restoration projects within the former Klamath Tribes’ reservation (1954) would create a large area (240,000 acres) that would be moved towards more historic conditions including more spatial heterogeneity and its associated benefits. The ongoing vegetation management planning areas on former reservation lands include Lower Jack, Modoc, Fort, Black Hills, and Coyote. Future planning areas are Blue Jay and Lobert. The map “Fremont-Winema Restoration Projects within Former Klamath Indian Reservation” on EA page 81 (D. Johnson, 2013) displays the location of restoration projects and ongoing livestock allotments within the former reservation. Approximately 254,000 acres or 37% of the former reservation are being planned for restoration treatments or have been planned recently (within the past 2 years).

With a very large landscape moved towards more historic and sustainable conditions, future natural fires started by lightning could be allowed to burn if appropriate conditions exist. Allowing fires to burn would begin to restore the historic processes and disturbances necessary to sustain the forest into the future. Planning projects over such a large proportion of the former

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 reservation lands (37%) in a relatively short time frame may be disturbing to some Klamath Tribal members. For many years little timber harvest and associated activities occurred on the former reservation lands. The Red Knight projects are designed to be consistent with the MOA, Klamath Forest Plan goals, the Forest Service mission of multiple-use including commitments to local communities and accelerated landscape restoration objectives. The cumulative effects of the restoration activities will begin to move the former reservation forest towards a more sustainable and resilient landscape in the future.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

3.3 - Affected Environment and Effects Relating to Other Resources

3.3.1 - Threatened, Endangered and Sensitive Terrestrial Wildlife Species

Species considered in this assessment are federally listed or listed as sensitive by the USDA Forest Service and are known or suspected to occur, or have habitat on the Winema side of the Fremont-Winema National Forest. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service March 2013 list of federally Threatened, Endangered, Candidate and Proposed species was reviewed for species that may be present on the Fremont-Winema National Forest.

After a review of habitat requirements and existing habitat components, it was determined that the listed species (northern spotted owl), has no habitat in the project area and the project area is over 20 miles east of the spotted owl range line. Spotted owls and their habitat will not be addressed further.

There are no other known federally listed Threatened, Endangered, Candidate or Proposed species or habitats within this project and none will be discussed further.

Sensitive Animals The Forest Service Region 6 Special Status Species list (December, 2011), which includes federally listed, federally proposed, sensitive, and strategic species, was reviewed for species that are documented or suspected on the Fremont-Winema National Forests. After a review of habitat requirements and existing habitat components, it was determined that the following eight species have habitat in the project area: bald eagle, Lewis’ woodpecker, white-headed woodpecker, fringed Myotis bat, pallid bat, evening field slug, western bumblebee and Johnson’s hairstreak butterfly.

Bald Eagle Nests are usually located in multi-storied stands with old growth components and are near bodies of water which support an adequate food supply (USDI, 1986). Food sources consist of mammal carrion, fish, ground squirrels and birds. Nests are generally located in the largest, live trees in the area with the tree canopy covering nests to varying degrees. The species of tree does not seem to be as important as tree size, branch form, and location. Nest trees provide an unobstructed view of a body of water and are often located in prominent places on the topography. They have been known to be located on cliffs and man-made structures.

Bald eagles have been seen foraging on dead big game at various locations around the area. The nearest known nest is on private property approximately 2 miles away from the west side of the Red Knight project. The large ponderosa pines provide potential nesting and roosting trees in proximity to the Williamson River valley along the southwest side of the proposed project area. This area is designated as MA15 Upper Williamson (252 acres) and is managed to produce larger diameter, open-canopied, long-limbed ponderosa pine for replacement bald eagle nesting habitat.

No Action Effects and Determination on Bald Eagle

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

The No Action Alternative may impact habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species.

This area is not used for nesting currently, and rarely used for roosting. Without management of fuels in the forest around the potential bald eagle roost and nest trees, loss of these trees due to catastrophic wildfire is probable under the No Action alternative. This risk is speculative, but based on current stand conditions and the trend of increasing fuels; such an event is reasonably foreseeable within the next few decades.

Growth in large tree structure for future nest and roost trees will continue to be retarded if no action is taken, due to the continued competition with second-growth trees within the stands. Some large trees may be lost due to the continued stress caused by the ongoing drought conditions. In the long term, bald eagles and other species which are associated with larger trees and open, late-seral forests would have fewer potential nesting and roosting trees under the No Action Alternative than if treatments are done in the Red Knight area.

Alternative 2 Effects and Determination on Bald Eagle The proposed actions would have no impact on bald eagles. There is no bald eagle nest in or near the Red Knight area. There will be no disturbance to any nesting eagles as a result of any actions associated with the Red Knight project.

The Red Knight proposed actions will have a long term beneficial impact on habitat for bald eagles. The desirable large tree structure would be maintained in the Red Knight area. Reducing stand density allows for greater growth potential and development of future large tree structure. Management of fuels in the ponderosa habitat reduces the risk of catastrophic wildfire destroying potential habitat.

Cumulative Effects on Bald Eagles The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to bald eagles. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk are common to the eagle habitat in the surrounding area. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, and Modoc projects would help to reduce severe fire risks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District adjacent to Red Knight while lack of action in Red Knight would contribute toward increasing fire risk and loss of potential bald eagle trees. Cumulative effects of actions should be beneficial to bald eagles.

Lewis’ Woodpecker and White-headed Woodpecker Lewis’s woodpeckers need oak savannah or patches of burned old ponderosa forest, with large snags in an advanced state of decay or trees with soft sapwood for excavation. They require an under story shrub component for insect (food) production.

White-headed woodpeckers need large mature tracts of relatively open canopy ponderosa pine forests with large snags for foraging and nesting. They forage primarily on ponderosa pine seeds plus fly catch for insects during breeding season. They excavate soft snags. Excessive downed wood may favor its competitor the hairy woodpecker. Down wood may also increase the density

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 of predators such as ground squirrels and chipmunks. Sugar pines are thought to be extremely important locally by providing a secondary seed food source to ponderosa in alternating seed producing years. White-headed woodpeckers will nest in high cut stumps and large root wads when appropriate snags are not available.

Currently ponderosa habitat in this project area is second or third growth with some remnant large ponderosa structure and dense understories. The dense understories do not favor white- headed or Lewis’ woodpeckers (PIF, 2001). The amount of open old-growth ponderosa pine forest that has been maintained by frequent, low-severity fires has declined by approximately 85% from historical conditions to present across the Pacific Northwest. Unlike historic broad scale, frequent, low intensity fires, there have been only small, scattered fires in the Red Knight area in the past century. Species associated with the ponderosa community, such as the white- headed woodpecker, and those linked strongly with fire affected forests such as Lewis’s woodpecker, have likely declined in abundance (Johnson and O’Neil, 2001).

The PIF Plan identifies the following desirable habitat attributes for white-headed and Lewis woodpeckers associated with ponderosa pine habitat; large patches of old forest with large trees, large snags, open understories with regenerating pines, and patches of burned old forest. Lewis’ Woodpecker and White-headed Woodpecker No Action Effects and Determination No action in the Red Knight area may impact individuals and habitat for white-headed and Lewis’ woodpeckers, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to either population or species. The trend toward increased understory density threatens the remaining old-growth habitat with high fuel loading that contributes to increasing wildfire hazard, overstocking and competition stressing the large tree structure, and with increasing canopy closures that do not support the habitat needs of these species. Habitat for these species would improve in the short term as large tree mortality increases either through competition stress or wildfire, but then decline in the long term due to continued degradation of old-growth ecosystems from unnaturally dense understories. Growth in large tree structure for future nest trees will continue to be retarded if no action is taken, due to the continued competition with second-growth trees within the stands. Some large trees may be lost due to the continued stress caused by the ongoing drought conditions. In the long term, Lewis’ and white-headed woodpeckers, and other species which are associated with larger trees and open, late-seral forests would have fewer potential nesting trees under the No Action Alternative than if treatments are done in the Red Knight area. Should a wildfire occur, the immediate short term increase in burned snags and open landscape greatly favor both species. However, this boom is short lived to less than 20 years which is the extent that burned snags will remain standing. Once the snags fall, the area would be devoid of any necessary large trees structure for over a century as the trees grow back.

Lewis’ Woodpecker and White-headed Woodpecker Proposed Action Effects and Determination Disturbance associated with Alternative 2 actions may impact individuals, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species. There 87

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 is potential to disturb breeding birds during operations that occur during the nesting season. The level of disturbance may vary greatly and may not disrupt normal nesting behavior on the one extreme, or may cause nesting failure on the other extreme. Disturbance would be short in duration with the potential to disturb any given site for a few weeks during harvest, a few days during under burn operations and a few days for small tree thinning operations. As all large (>10” dbh) ponderosa snags would be retained except in the rare case where one is determined to be a hazard, no woodpecker nest trees should be removed. Cutting snags that show signs of woodpecker nests or other wildlife use would be avoided wherever possible and consulted on with the Wildlife Biologist and/or District Ranger. All ponderosa pine snags greater than 10” dbh that are felled would remain on site as coarse wood. Alternative 2 actions would have a beneficial impact. White-headed woodpeckers and Lewis’s woodpecker would benefit from mechanical treatments and under burns in the ponderosa habitat in the long-term. Both alternatives leave the desirable large tree structure, layering, dead wood, and tree species composition for these species. Mechanical thinning and under burning lengthens sight distance ability to detect predators for these species with behavioral adaptations associated with open stands. Inter-specific species competition decreases as those species associated with dense multi-layered structure move out. Underburning kills lower branches and pockets of small trees that in turn provide habitat for insect prey these species use. Insectivorous birds, such as Lewis’s and white-headed woodpeckers may also increase, at least temporarily.

Cumulative Effects on Lewis’ Woodpecker and White-headed Woodpecker The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to Lewis’ and white-headed woodpeckers. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the woodpeckers’ habitats in the surrounding area. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, and Red Knight projects on Chemult and similar, adjoining projects on Chiloquin and Silver Lake Districts would help to reduce severe fire risks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District and extending across the Williamson River and the county line. These same actions will protect and accelerate development of the ponderosa old growth forest characteristics that are desired woodpecker habitat. The cumulative effects should be beneficial to the Lewis’ woodpecker and white-headed woodpeckers.

Fringed Myotis Bat and Pallid Bat Both bat species are associated with large diameter snags and live trees with deep furrowed bark, old buildings, tree hollows and crevices in rock outcrops. They forage over meadows, small water bodies and streams (Western Bat Group Workshop, 1998). Pallid bats are more closely associated with ponderosa (Cross, 1997). The large diameter fir, sugar pine, white pine and ponderosa provide the large tree and snag structure these bats use and meadow areas provide good forage habitat. Pallid bats were found during 1996 bat surveys across the forest, but fringed Myotis bats were not.

Fringed Myotis Bat and Pallid Bat No Action Effects and Determination

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

The No action alternative may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to either population or species at the project scale. The trend toward increased under story density threatens the remaining old-growth habitat with high fuel loading that contributes to increasing wildfire hazard, overstocking and competition stressing the large tree structure. Habitat for these species would improve in the short term as large tree mortality increases either through competition stress or wildfire, but then decline in the long term due to continued degradation of old-growth ecosystems from unnaturally dense understories.

Fringed Myotis Bat and Pallid Bat Alternative 2 Effects and Determination Alternative 2 actions may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to either population or species. Activities may disturb individuals roosting and denning in the area. Disturbance will be short in duration with the potential to disturb any given site for a few weeks during harvest, a few days during under burn operations and a few days for small tree thinning operations. The level of disturbance may vary greatly and may not disrupt normal roosting and denning behavior on the one extreme, or may cause abandonment of the site on the other extreme.

Alternative 2 actions will have a beneficial impact on habitat for these bat species. Proposed treatments move units toward the open, large tree dominated, fire resistant structure and function of the historic ponderosa community that is desirable for these bat species. Treatments protect large blocks of late structural habitat. Large blocks provide higher quality habitat for bats, as well as greater fire protection within and adjacent to treated blocks.

Proposed cutting and burning activities in the mature ponderosa would remove the small diameter trees from under the big trees. The large diameter trees and snags that provide the highest quality roosting structure would be left. Existing roosting and denning habitat in the large ponderosa trees and snags would be maintained in the short term and improved under Alternative 2 in the long term. The extra growing space and reduced competition for nutrients and water for the remaining trees should provide for increased growth with time.

Proposed actions that maintain meadows and aspen on the landscape will be beneficial for these species. Aspen and meadow areas will continue to be good foraging habitat for the fringed Myotis bat and the pallid bat.

Cumulative Effects on the Fringed Myotis Bat and Pallid Bat The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to fringed Myotis bats and pallid bats. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the bats’ habitats in the surrounding area. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Modoc and Red Knight projects and similar projects on the adjacent Forest Service Districts would help to reduce severe fire risks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, extending across the Williamson River and the county line. Present and future foreseeable actions will also protect and accelerate development of the

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 ponderosa old growth forest characteristics that are desired bat habitat characteristics. The cumulative effects should be beneficial to the fringed Myotis bat and the pallid bat.

Evening Field Slug This species is rare and little is known about its specific habitat needs, or distribution. It may be found in or near wetlands, springs, seeps, and riparian areas. Specimens may be found on logs, among sedges, attached to decaying leaf surfaces, in litter, on rocks, in talus and rock slides, or inside other shells. For more information on species habitat requirements refer to USDA/USDI Interagency Special Status / Sensitive Species Conservation Strategies for the Evening Field Slug found at http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/sfpnw/issssp/ . A partial survey for molluscs was done by Terence Frest and Edward Johannes along Irving Creek in the adjacent Modoc project in 1999. The evening field slug was found at the headwater spring (Frest and Johannes, 2000). Boundary Spring was surveyed in 2005 (2005 Final Report to ISSSSP). Habitat for the evening field slug was found, though no individuals.

Evening Field Slug No Action Effects and Determination There would be no impact from the no action alternative on the evening field slug or its habitat. Evening field slugs are found in wet substrates that are not likely to experience changes due to no action.

Evening Field Slug Proposed Action Effects and Determination

Alternative 2 actions may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species. Boundary Spring and its outflow zone is habitat for the evening field slug. There is potential to crush the slug, if any are present, during removal of the spring box and piping. The magnitude of disturbance is limited to an area about 4 feet wide by 35 feet long. This is about 1% of the potential slug habitat at this spring. The magnitude of impact is very small.

In general, much of the aspen stands and meadows are quite dry during much of the late summer and fall seasons, and may not provide the necessary perennial wet soil conditions and substrates slugs need. However, portions of aspen stands, particularly areas adjacent to Jackson Creek, may contain wet conditions. All mechanized equipment will be kept out of wet areas and away from the creek edge. Some conifer will be felled toward the creek which may result in the potential to crush individual slugs, if present. The felling of conifers toward the creek provides additional down wood substrate for them which would be beneficial after the activity occurs. Hand crews felling conifers have the potential to walk on and crush individuals. Foot traffic would impact a small percentage of the wet areas and is limited to at most a couple passes over the same ground over a period of 1-2 days.

Cumulative Effects on the Evening Field Slug

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to evening field slugs. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Modoc, Red Knight and surrounding projects keep nearly all actions out of habitat associated with this species. Actions that do occur within habitat for this species through all these projects are limited to foot traffic and tree felling in riparian areas, and digging out the Boundary Springs water development within this project. These activities would have potential to crush individuals on a very limited basis. The cumulative effects should have little impact on evening field slugs.

Johnson’s Hairstreak See the ISSSSP fact sheet at http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/sfpnw/issssp/ . Ecoregions where this butterfly occurs in Oregon, as determined by the Oregon Biodiversity Information Center, include the Ochoco, Blue and Wallowa Mountains, Coast Range, East Cascades, Klamath Mountains, West Cascades and Crest and Willamette Valley. Its presence has been verified on the Fremont-Winema Forests, but no surveys have been done in the Red Knight area. Most sightings have been documented below 3500 feet in elevation, but one was documented at over 5000 feet in Jackson County. The species is very difficult to detect because it spends most of its time in the tree tops.

Larvae can be found feeding on mistletoes of the genus Arceuthobium, which is a common genus of dwarf mistletoe found on every species of conifer in the Red Knight area. Caterpillars feed on all exposed plant parts and secrete a sugary solution which is used by ants that in turn protect the caterpillar from predators. Caterpillars can be found on host leaves April-October.

Nectar of flowers in several families from numerous genera including Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus, Cornus, dandelion, Fragaria, Rorippa and Spraguea is consumed by adult butterflies who obtain additional moisture by visiting mud puddles (Shields 1965). All genera but Cornus are known to occur in the pine associated habitat in the higher elevations of the Red Knight area. Dandelion, Fragaria, Rorippa and Spraguea may also occur in the ponderosa pine habitat.

Adults fly from mid May to early September with peaks occurring in May and August. In the northern part of the range, and at high altitudes, one flight occurs from late May- mid July (Scott 1986). Callophrys johnsoni is considered to be the only obligate old-growth butterfly.

The Johnson’s hairstreak 2010 survey report identifies the Yamsay area as low probability for occurrence (Davis and Weaver, 2010).

Johnson’s Hairstreak No Action Effects and Determination No action may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species. The brush, grass, forbs ground cover that provides flower foraging habitat is reduced by tree canopy cover that shades out the under story species. With the no action alternative, tree canopy cover would continue to increase and flowering species in the under story decrease. Overall, flower species used for forage would continue to decline. Mistletoe will be maintained in the overstory and continue to spread through the developing understory.

Johnson’s Hairstreak Alternative 2 Effects and Determination 91

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Alternative 2 may have a beneficial impact on Johnson’s hairstreak. Old growth large tree structure would be maintained in the short term and developed more quickly in the long term. Alternative 2 improves growing conditions in the understories for flowers that may provide forage for Johnson’s hairstreak by opening up forest canopies and letting more light, moisture and nutrients to the understory shrubs and plants across the project. In the short term, burning further reduces bitterbrush competition (not a species used by hairstreaks) in the understory, favoring grasses and forbs.

Mistletoe in the large trees will be retained. Mistletoe in the under story trees will be reduced by removing most of the understory and retaining only those trees needed to keep a fully stocked stand. Mistletoe will remain common in all tree sizes through the entire area. Flower foraging habitat will remain more limiting than mistletoe breeding habitat.

Alternative 2 activities may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species. Thinning activities may cut young trees with caterpillars and crush them during operations. Given the species preference for old growth trees with mistletoe that will remain undisturbed, cutting the smaller understory trees will have little potential to impact resident caterpillars.

Cumulative Effects on Johnson’s Hairstreak The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to Johnson’s hairstreak. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk and potential loss of large tracts of habitat are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the hairstreak’s habitats in the surrounding area. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Modoc and Red Knight projects, and adjacent projects on Chiloquin and Silver Lake Districts, would help to reduce severe fire risks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River, and the county line. Present and future foreseeable actions will protect and accelerate development of the old growth forest characteristics that are desired hairstreak habitat. These same actions would open the majority of the mature/old growth habitat understories to more sunlight, nutrients and growing space for flowers. The cumulative effects should be beneficial to Johnson’s hairstreak butterfly.

Western Bumblebee Western bumblebees are found all across the western United States, Canada and Alaska. They are a generalist pollinator using a wide range of flowering plants and crops. They use abandoned rodent burrows and bird nests as nest and hibernation sites.

Western Bumblebee No Action Effects and Determination No action may impact individuals and habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend toward federal listing or loss of viability to the population or species. The brush, grass, forbs ground cover that provides flower foraging habitat is reduced by tree canopy cover that shades out the under story species. With the no action alternative, tree canopy cover would continue to increase

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 and flowering species in the understory decrease. Overall, flower species used for forage would continue to decline until an environmental disturbance such as a large scale bug-kill or fire occurs in the area. In the event of a fire or other disturbance, habitat for the western bumblebee would expand for the duration of time that forbs and grass dominate, until regrowth of trees and shrubs shaded out the understory.

Western Bumblebee Alternative 2 Effects and Determination

Alternative 2 may have a beneficial impact on the western bumblebee. Alternative 2 maintains coarse wood cover that provides sites for rodent burrows and tree structure for bird nests used by western bumblebees. It also improves growing conditions in the understories for flowers that may provide forage for western bumblebees by opening up forest canopies and letting more light, moisture and nutrients to the understory shrubs and plants across the project. In the short term (10 – 20 years), burning reduces bitterbrush competition in the understory, favoring grasses and forbs, which would be beneficial to bees and other insects. Treating meadows also promotes retention and at least short term improvement of both the variety and number of forage plants for western bumblebees.

Cumulative Effects on Western Bumblebee The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to western bumblebees. Present and future foreseeable actions would maintain meadows and open the majority of the mature/old growth habitat understories to more sunlight, nutrients and growing space for flowers used for foraging by western bumblebees. These cumulative effects would be beneficial to western bumblebees.

However, the combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Modoc and Red Knight projects, and adjacent projects on Chiloquin and Silver Lake Districts, would reduce severe fire risks and insect outbreaks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River, and the county line. This could reduce the potential development of large swaths of post-fire/disturbance western bumblebee habitat. 3.3.2 – Terrestrial Management Indicator Species (Old Growth Ecosystems)

Management Indicator Species (MIS) are selected animal species whose welfare is believed to be an indicator of the welfare of other species using the same habitat, or a species whose condition can be used to assess the impacts of management actions on a particular area. The table below includes those species that were identified as terrestrial MIS for the Winema National Forest in the Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) (USFS 1990, 4-131). All of the species identified as MIS within the Winema LRMP are associated with old growth forests, though from a variety of plant associations. All of these MIS species are also included in the analysis of effects to general wildlife habitats (e.g. Snags and Coarse Wood), and/or are on other lists of species of concern that are analyzed separately in the project file.

Unless otherwise noted, species and habitat characteristics are derived from Birds of Oregon (Marshall et al. 2003) and Land Mammals of Oregon (Verts and Carraway 1998). Additional

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 reference data for this analysis was largely compiled by Kim Mellen-McLean, Regional Wildlife Ecologist, USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. More information about MIS animals and Regional policies can be found on the Region’s intranet website at http://fsweb.r6.fs.fed.us/natural-resources/wildlife/mis.shtml. More information about these MIS is also found in the project file.

Winema LRMP Management Indicator Species

Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present

American marten Martens are identified as a Winema MIS for mature Species and (Martes americana) and old growth mountain hemlock and high elevation habitat present lodgepole pine ecosystems. Also locally known to use mixed conifer with a high percentage of white fir. Not detected in ponderosa pine habitat. Closely associated with late-successional or mixed-age stands of mesic conifers, especially those with complex physical structure near the ground, such as wet lodgepole or red fir areas. Seventy percent of all dens located have been in standing trees, logs or snags in large structures characteristic of old-growth forests (Ruggerio, et al., 1994). Will also utilize large stumps as resting sites. Hunt small mammals by traveling on the ground or over snow. Prey beneath snow caught through access points to the subnivean space created by coarse woody debris. Also eats insects, small birds, fruits, and carrion. Northern goshawk Goshawks are a Winema LRMP MIS for a variety of Species and (Accipiter gentilis) mature and old-growth ecosystems. Found in mixed- habitat present conifer habitats, may also utilize stands of lodgepole, ponderosa pine and aspen. Mosaic foraging areas include large trees, snags, and down logs interspersed with openings supporting a large range of suitable prey. Often found foraging in riparian areas. A pair of nesting goshawks was detected in Long Prairie in the Red Knight area. Another nesting pair was detected along the Jackson Creek gorge in the roadless area just outside the Red Knight boundary. Fledged young were detected near Buckskin Butte, but no nest was found.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Winema LRMP Management Indicator Species

Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present

Pileated woodpecker Pileated woodpeckers are a Winema MIS for multi- Species and (Dryocopus pileatus) storied mature and old-growth stands of mixed habitat present conifer, ponderosa pine, and ponderosa pine associated species, cottonwood and aspen. Dependent on large-diameter trees with decay for nesting, roosting and foraging. Primarily found in dense, mixed-conifer forests in late seral stages or in deciduous tree stands in valley bottoms. Rarely found in stands of pure ponderosa pine. Three-toed woodpecker Three toed woodpeckers are a Winema MIS for Habitat present (Picoides tridactylus) mature and old-growth subalpine fir/mountain hemlock and lodgepole forest; thought to be a bark and wood-boring beetle larvae specialist in its foraging, also associated with burned areas. Northern spotted owl Red Knight is outside the known range of the spotted No species or owl. Typically found in old growth mixed conifer habitat present (Strix occidentalis) forests dominated by Douglas-fir, but occasionally in younger forests with remnant old growth structure. Habitat exhibits moderate to high canopy closure, multilayered, multispecies canopy dominated by large over story trees, high incidence of large trees with decadence, numerous large snags, heavy accumulations of down wood and open flight space within and beneath the canopy (USFWS 2011).

Pileated Woodpeckers Large Scale “Viability” Assessments The assessment process that was used by the ICBEMP is based on using the concept of Historic Range of Variability (HRV) to assess likelihood of maintaining viable populations of species. By managing habitat within HRV, it is assumed that adequate habitat will be provided because species survived those levels of habitat in the past to be present today. Thus, if we manage current habitats within the range of historic variability, we will likely do an adequate job of ensuring population viability for those species that remain (Landres et al. 1999).

Source Habitats for Terrestrial Vertebrates of Focus in the Interior Columbia Basin: Broad- Scale Trends and Management Implications (Wisdom et al. 2000) provides valuable information on habitat trends in the Columbia Basin. The Red Knight area is within the Upper Klamath

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Ecological Reporting Unit. Historically 1.21% of this ERU was in pileated woodpecker habitat. Currently 29.8% is in pileated woodpecker habitat. This shows a strongly increasing habitat trend.

Existing Condition Large snags are used for nesting. In the Blue Mountains (Bull 1987), typical pileated woodpecker nests are in snags with broken tops, and little remaining bark. Ponderosa pine and western larch were preferred species. In Sun Pass State Forest, located by the southwestern corner of Chemult District, nests were in broken topped, white fir snags or live and dead aspen. Dbh of nest snags and trees ranged from 17 to 44 inches (Raley and Aubry 2004). Bull et al. (1992) found large snags, decadent trees and hollow grand fir are used for pileated woodpecker roosting. The majority of roosts were in hollow grand fir infected with Indian paint fungus; large ponderosa pine snags were also used as roosts.

In the Sun Pass State Forest, Raley and Aubry (2004) found snags > 14” dbh were used more than expected based on availability for foraging; average dbh ranged from 11-18” on 4 study areas. White fir and ponderosa pine were the primary species of snags used for foraging. Logs used for foraging averaged 8-9” on their large end diameters and 16-29’ long, on 4 study areas. Most down logs used for foraging were sound to moderately decayed pines (ponderosa, sugar, and lodgepole).

In 1992 and 1993, Chemult district biologists and Klamath Tribes biologists completed full pileated woodpecker surveys for the western Yamsay Mountain area. A nesting pair was found in Sheep Creek on private land about a quarter mile south of the adjacent Modoc project in 1992. Several vocalizations were heard in the mixed conifer habitat along Knight Creek in 1993. No recent surveys have been done.

Based on walk through surveys, the higher elevation mixed conifer habitat in the Red Knight area shows similar large snag densities to the ponderosa habitat, but with more white fir decadence in all size classes. This mixed conifer forest type is being emphasized for management of pileated woodpecker habitat.

These snag density numbers were compared to research data from DecAID (http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/wildlife/decaid/index.shtml). Eighty six percent of the ponderosa habitat within the Red Knight area fell in the 50-80% landscape snag density tolerance level for pileated woodpeckers. Fourteen percent is in the >80% tolerance level for landscape snag density levels. This data indicates the Red Knight area is outside and well above the HRV for landscape scale snag densities for pileated woodpeckers.

The ponderosa and eastside mixed conifer habitat type tolerance levels for snag densities at pileated woodpecker nest and roost sites are fairly similar to tolerance levels for vegetation from unharvested plot data used in DecAID analysis. Plot data shows that only a small portion of the landscape in the ponderosa stands are capable of providing nesting and roosting habitat for pileated woodpecker. Ponderosa pine is not considered good habitat for pileated woodpeckers (Bull et al. 1986, cited in DecAID). Other areas of the forest should be emphasized for management of pileated woodpecker habitat.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Yamsay Mountain, where the Red Knight area lies, is a large shield volcano that is over 140 square miles in size about 25 miles east of the Cascade foothills. It supports an elevational band of potential PIWO habitat, most of which is not on the Winema National Forest. There are two pileated woodpecker Management Areas (MA7s) on Yamsay Mountain, one in the Modoc project area to the south near Sheep Creek, and another at the head of Jackson Creek in Red Knight. The Forest pileated woodpecker MA7 grid is interrupted between Yamsay Mountain and pileated woodpecker habitat in the Cascades to the west by 25 miles of unsuitable habitat.

The higher elevation mixed conifer across the west side of Yamsay Mountain provides a patchwork of habitat that connects the two pileated woodpecker MA7s. The patchwork is made up of ridge tops and south slope aspects that tend to be drier, hotter sites less suited to pileated woodpecker habitat, while the north slope and deep canyon aspects provide micro site conditions that support the more favorable pileated woodpecker mixed conifer habitat.

There are roughly 67,170 acres of pileated woodpecker habitat across the Winema National Forest, according to the Fremont-Winema National Forests Viable Ecosystems Management Guide (VEMG), which provides a process to apply ecosystem management concepts to project level planning. More information about the VEMG process can be found at the Forest Wildlife Biologist’s office.

There are roughly 2,500 acres of pileated woodpecker habitat in the Red Knight project, as estimated by the project Biologist and Silviculturist (4% of the Forest’s estimated habitat). The VEMG model originally estimated just 270 acres. Pileated woodpecker surveys and field assessments of habitat conditions were used to refine the Winema pileated woodpecker VEMG Habitat Model and make site specific habitat calls for the Red Knight area. Based on home range sizes described above, the Winema NF supports between 32-63 breeding pairs of pileated woodpeckers. The Red Knight area should support 1 pair.

Desired Future Condition The desired future condition (LRMP pg. 4-131) is multistoried mature and old-growth stands of mixed conifer, ponderosa pine, and ponderosa pine and associated species, as well as riparian areas of large cottonwood or aspen trees, that provide the preferred nesting and feeding habitats for pileated woodpeckers. Snags of appropriate species, size, and density are available, as well as dead and down woody material and heart rot. Snags for nesting and foraging are surrounded by mature or old-growth timber and are clumped in small patches throughout the nesting habitat.

LRMP Management Requirements for pileated woodpeckers (pg. 4-133): 1) A minimum of 300 acres of mature and/or old growth mixed conifer, ponderosa pine, and ponderosa pine and associated stands shall be provided as breeding and primary foraging habitat for one pair of pileated woodpeckers. These woodpeckers may also nest in large aspen or cottonwood trees associated with riparian areas. 2) Pileated woodpecker habitat should be contiguous where possible; otherwise, stands shall be at least 50 acres in size and not more than a quarter mile apart. 3) Within the 300 acre primary breeding area, a minimum average of two hard snags per

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

acre greater than 12 inches DBH shall be maintained as follows. a. Forty two suitable nesting snags (hard) greater than 20” DBH shall be available within the 300 acre primary breeding area. b. Within the 300 acre breeding area, 558 hard snags greater than 12” DBH will be maintained. 4) An additional 300 acre feeding area shall be provided in adjacent management areas. 5) Pileated woodpecker MA 7 areas shall be dispersed throughout suitable habitat, not more than 5 miles apart from the center of one area to the center of another area. Disturbing human activities within a quarter mile of an active pileated woodpecker nest site shall be discouraged or minimized from March 1 through July 31.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Pileated Woodpeckers Current trends impacting pileated woodpecker habitat that are a result of past timber harvest, fire suppression and extended drought would continue if there is no action, resulting in an eventual loss of large diameter trees, an expansion of mixed conifer into ponderosa pine stands and a reduction in ground cover shrubs and forbs with increased canopy closure in the Red Knight area. The no action alternative combined with past activities and future climate change will perpetuate and possibly accelerate these trends over the next decade.

In the short term, the increased decadence contributes positively to pileated woodpecker forage and perhaps nesting habitat conditions. In the long term, loss of the large tree structure and slowed development of future large tree and snag structure will negatively impact desirable pileated woodpecker structure and degrade or destroy habitat resulting in a decline in species viability at the project and forest level by the loss of one nesting pair.

The pileated woodpecker habitat in the Red Knight area is in Condition Class II and the rest of the Red Knight area in Condition Class III. The entire area is already at increased risk from catastrophic wildfire compared to historic conditions. This is expected to get worse under the no action alternative.

Cumulative Effects of the No Action Alternative on Pileated Woodpeckers The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to pileated woodpeckers. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire and insect outbreak risk are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer habitat in the surrounding Forest.

Management on Forest Service lands in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest, which would benefit pileated woodpeckers. In the short term, these projects retain large trees and existing LOS stand acreage that provide pileated woodpecker habitat. Red Knight is central to connecting the projects. Lack of action in Red Knight would contribute toward more pileated woodpecker habitat across the area in the short term, but in the long term the negative trend of loss of old growth habitat would continue.

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

All of the acreage within the Red Knight project is in Forest Service management. There are no private inholdings. Non-Forest Service lands in the surrounding area include the township-wide Long Bell tract and other privately held acreages that are heavily managed “industrial” forest lands, ranches along the Williamson River, and the Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge. All of these areas are primarily providing early seral forest habitats, meadows or marsh, and are not expected to change their habitat status in either the short or long term. The Refuge has a narrow perimeter of encroached old growth ponderosa pine, but does not typically do any active management within their forest stands. Habitat for pileated woodpeckers is rare on non-Forest lands and is not expected to be reduced or expanded over time.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Pileated Woodpeckers The forest plan amendment to allow harvest of white fir over 21” DBH but under 150 years in age would apply to the entire Red Knight area. The exact location of all of these trees is not known, but removal of one large white fir could release a large growing space that could be utilized by old ponderosa or sugar or white pines. In the pileated habitat area more white fir would be left in the mix of species than would be left in the ponderosa pine dominated stands at lower elevations. No late, old structural stage (LOS) areas would have enough large trees (>21” DBH) removed to alter their status as LOS. Removing large young white fir would increase the vigor and resilience of the old pines in the stands, reduce current tree evapotranspiration levels, and begin to shift stand composition towards more ponderosa, sugar or white pines which are more drought and fire resistant than firs.

Large trees, snags, and logs would be retained as nesting and roosting habitat for pileated woodpeckers and other species. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post-treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat over time. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

No ponderosa pine, white pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, aspen or white fir snags or down wood > 10 inches in diameter will be salvaged. Snags felled as hazards are to remain on site as coarse woody debris. Trees from 14 inches and greater, determined to be “cull” because of defects such as mistletoe brooms and dead tops would be selected for retention in the units, either individually or in patches. The existing desirable PIWO structure would be maintained as a result of these project design features. In the long term, removal of under story competition for nutrients, water and growing space should promote accelerated growth of remaining trees and enhance pileated woodpecker habitat characteristics.

Alternative 2 also cuts down encroaching conifers < 21” dbh in aspen habitat allowing more sunlight in to stimulate aspen regeneration and growth necessary to maintain the aspen stand. Most conifers to be cut are lodgepole pine. Select felled conifers or slash would be strategically left on the ground to protect aspen seedlings from browsers. Conifers cut and left for these purposes contribute to the decadent down wood component used by pileated woodpeckers. There are no known nesting pairs to be disturbed by these actions. In the short term, foraging

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

PIWO may be disturbed and desirable aspen structure is maintained. In the long term, aspen stands are likely to respond to the increased sunlight by expanding out around the stand edges thereby increasing the amount of pileated woodpecker habitat (Seager, 2010).

Alternative 2 lowers the FRCC from III to II or I in the ~ 17,000 acre pine Restoration treatment area immediately adjacent to pileated woodpecker habitat, and in the 1,600 acres of treatments in mixed conifer. This significantly reduces the chance for catastrophic wildfire destroying pileated woodpecker habitat in the Red Knight area.

Cumulative Effects of Proposed Action on Pileated Woodpeckers The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to pileated woodpeckers. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the ponderosa habitat in the surrounding area. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Red Knight and other connected projects such as Bluejay, Bridge-Buck, and Oatman would help to reverse negative long term habitat trends and reduce severe fire and insect outbreak risks over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River and across the county line. Red Knight is central to connecting all of the treated areas.

Management on Forest Service lands in Red Knight and in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest, and expansion of aspen stands, which would benefit pileated woodpeckers. In the short term, the projects do not change existing habitat for pileated woodpeckers as they retain large trees and snags, and existing LOS stand acreage.

All of the acreage within the Red Knight project periphery is in Forest Service management. There are no private inholdings. Non-Forest Service lands in the surrounding area include the township-wide Long Bell tract and other privately held acreages that are heavily managed “industrial” forest lands, ranches along the Williamson River, and the Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge. All of these areas are primarily providing early seral forest habitats, meadows or marsh, and are not expected to change their habitat status in either the short or long term. The Refuge has a narrow perimeter of encroached old growth ponderosa pine, but does not typically do any active management within their forest stands. Habitat for pileated woodpeckers is rare on non-Forest lands and is not expected to be reduced or expanded over time.

Viability Conclusion for Pileated Woodpeckers The overall direct, indirect and cumulative effects for Alternative 2 would result in maintaining habitat short term and improving habitat long term for pileated woodpeckers. The Red Knight Project is consistent with the Winema LRMP as amended by the Eastside Screens, and thus continued viability of the pileated woodpecker is expected on the Fremont-Winema National Forests.

American Marten Marten are officially a Winema Forest Plan management indicator species for mature and old growth mountain hemlock and high elevation lodgepole pine with multi-canopied stands 100

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 containing a high diversity of understory plants. Other habitat components include talus slopes, rock piles and crevices, cliffs and rims, snags, stumps, and dead and down woody material (LRMP pg. 4-132). More recently, marten are known to be affiliated with white fir dominated stands at mid-elevations on the Klamath District of the Fremont-Winema Forest, based on infrared camera studies completed in winter 2013 (Albert, 2013). Open ponderosa pine forest is not considered habitat for martens on the Winema National Forest. Studies included in DecAID (Mellen-McLean 2009) have a considerable focus on marten’s use of decadent lodgepole pine without differentiating elevation. Based on local experience, marten are assumed to inhabit larger blocks of late seral mixed conifer, lodgepole pine, and aspen at all elevations across the Forest where large diameter snags and logs are present along with high canopy closure.

There are approximately 97,110 acres of marten habitat on the Winema National Forest and 3,030 acres within the Red Knight area. As with the other MIS species, VEMG was used to develop a Winema marten habitat model. Marten snow track surveys and field assessments of habitat conditions were used to refine the Winema Marten Habitat Model and make site specific habitat calls for the Red Knight area. Based on described home range sizes, the Winema National Forest supports between 116-561 breeding females. The Red Knight area should support 1-3 breeding females.

Since the Winema Forest Plan was developed in 1990, a marten research study was done on the Chemult Ranger District about 23 miles north of the Red Knight area. The Chemult marten telemetry study (1993-1998) collected habitat and denning information to determine lodgepole salvage logging effects on martens in the Jack Creek watershed just north of Middle Jack area. During this study, 110 martens were collared and 6,150 telemetry locations gathered. There were 820 rest sites and 160 den sites characterized. Machine slash piles were most commonly used rest sites and a close second in use for denning sites. Large ponderosa logs were most commonly used for denning and second most commonly used for rest sites. Other resting and denning structures include large snags (ponderosa and lodgepole), squirrel middens, natural debris piles, and cabins. Marten prey species include all rodent species and birds.

Several years of snow tracking surveys and camera sets were done to detect martens and other carnivores at various times and locations on the Chemult District from 1989 to 2001. Snow tracking done in the Redrock area (includes Red Knight) did not detect martens in small scattered low elevation lodgepole patches or ponderosa habitat, and rarely found them in the mixed conifer.

Desired Future Condition

There are two management requirements in the Winema LRMP for marten (pg. 4-134). 1) A minimum of 160 acres of contiguous mature and/or old growth mountain hemlock or high elevation lodgepole pine shall be provided as a territory for one breeding female (hereafter referred to as a marten MA7). This also constitutes part of a territory for a breeding male: this territory covers several female territories. 2) Marten areas shall be dispersed throughout suitable habitat, not more than 3 miles apart measured center to center. A grid of 160 acre plots was established across the forest to meet the marten management requirements.

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There are no 160 acre marten MA7’s in the Red Knight area because the high elevation lodgepole pine and mountain hemlock described in the LRMP are not present within the project. The Yamsi Mountain Semi-Primitive Roadless Area adjacent to Red Knight contains the nearest habitat as described in the LRMP.

The desired future condition for martens (LRMP pg. 4-132) is mature and old-growth mountain hemlock or high-elevation lodgepole pine ecosystems. These communities consist of multicanopied stands containing a high diversity of understory plant species. Special and unique habitat components include talus slopes, rock piles and crevices, cliffs and rims, stumps, and dead and down wood material.

Outside of the high elevation forests described in the LRMP, management that retains and promotes marten habitat in mixed conifer, lodgepole pine and aspen riparian areas, and the other special or unique habitats, is considered desirable by the inter-disciplinary team.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Martens In the short term, without the proposed treatments martens are likely to continue to use the higher elevation, mixed conifer habitat and the riparian corridors in the older lodgepole pine habitat in a manner similar to their current usage through the Red Knight area. In the long term, precluding a large scale wildfire or large scale bark beetle or disease outbreak, encroachment of fir and lodgepole into the ponderosa habitat, increasing tree mortality rates and resulting increases in decadence in the ponderosa, lodgepole and mixed conifer habitats will favor marten expansion in the Red Knight area.

However, the risk of catastrophic wildfire and loss of habitat increases with no action. Most of the Red Knight area is fire regime condition class III, indicating the potential for wildfire is high. The potential for loss of large tracts of habitat due to wildfire or other disturbance factors increases with the no action alternative.

Cumulative Effects of the No Action Alternative on Marten

The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to marten. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire and insect outbreak risk are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer habitat in the surrounding Forest.

Management on Forest Service lands in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest, which would benefit marten. In the short term, these projects retain large trees and existing LOS stand acreage that provide marten habitat. Red Knight is central to connecting the projects. Lack of action in Red Knight would contribute toward more marten habitat across the area in the short term, but in the long term the negative trend of loss of old growth habitat would continue.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Marten

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Martens, like PIWO, are known to use forested aspen habitat for denning and foraging. Conifers cut and left for aspen sapling protection and down wood in the riparian areas contribute to the decadent down wood component used by marten. In the short term, desirable aspen structure is maintained. In the long term, aspen stands are likely to respond to the increased sunlight and decreased completion from conifers by expanding out around the stand edges thereby increasing the amount of marten habitat. Removal of under story competition for nutrients, water and growing space should promote accelerated growth of remaining trees and enhance marten habitat characteristics. There are no known denning females to be disturbed by the proposed actions although foraging marten may be disturbed.

Large trees, snags, and logs would be retained as denning or resting habitat for martens and other species. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post-treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat over time. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

Alternative 2 lowers the FRCC from III to II or I in the ~ 17,000 acre pine Restoration treatment area immediately adjacent to marten habitat, and in the 1,600 acres of treatments in mixed conifer. This greatly reduces the chance for catastrophic wildfire destroying marten habitat in the Red Knight area.

Cumulative Effects of the Proposed Action on Marten The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to marten. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk or risk of stand replacing insect and disease outbreaks are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the ponderosa and mixed conifer habitat in the surrounding Forest. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Red Knight, Bluejay, Bridge-Buck and Oatman projects would help to reverse trends and reduce severe fire risks in marten habitat over a large contiguous area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River and the county line. Adjacent higher elevation mixed conifer habitat also benefits by being adjacent to an extensive low fire risk block.

Management on Forest Service lands in Red Knight and in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest. In the short term, the projects retain large trees and existing LOS stand acreage but add to the area that provides at least some early seral characteristics where under- and mid- story trees are removed, and as meadows and aspen stands are treated, providing improved

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 foraging opportunities for martens. Each of the projects also retains untreated areas that martens may utilize for denning, resting or foraging.

All of the acreage within the Red Knight project periphery is in Forest Service management. There are no private inholdings. Non-Forest Service lands in the surrounding area include the township-wide Long Bell tract and other privately held acreages that are heavily managed “industrial” forest lands, ranches along the Williamson River, and the Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge. All of these areas are primarily providing early seral forest habitats, meadows or marsh, and are not expected to change their habitat status in either the short or long term. The Refuge has a narrow perimeter of encroached old growth ponderosa pine, but does not typically do any active management within their forest stands. Habitat for martens is rare on non-Forest lands and is not expected to be reduced or expanded over time.

Viability Conclusion The overall direct, indirect and cumulative effects for Alternative 2 would result in maintaining habitat short term and improving habitat long term for martens. The Red Knight Project is consistent with the Winema LRMP as amended by the Eastside Screens for marten, old growth ecosystems and riparian management, and thus continued viability of the marten is expected on the Fremont-Winema National Forests. In the long term, species viability at both the project and forest level would be improved to a small degree and the risk of habitat loss from catastrophic wildfire or insect/disease outbreaks would be reduced across the entire band of marten habitat in the Red Knight project and surrounding area.

Northern Goshawk Goshawk surveys were conducted to protocol (USFS 1992) in appropriate habitats within the project area in 1992 and again in 1999. Other partial goshawk surveys in the area were done in 1991, 1993, 1997, and 1998. A pair of nesting goshawks was detected in Long Prairie in the Red Knight area. Another nesting pair was detected along the Jackson Creek gorge in the roadless area just outside the Red Knight boundary. Fledged young were detected near Buckskin Butte, but no nest was found.

There are approximately 175,189 acres of goshawk habitat on the Winema National Forest and 4,317 acres within the Red Knight project. As with the other MIS species, VEMG was used to develop a Winema goshawk habitat model. Goshawk nest sites around the District and field assessments of habitat conditions in the Red Knight area were used to refine the Winema Goshawk Habitat Model and make site specific habitat calls for the Red Knight area. Based on typical home range sizes, the Winema National Forest supports about 32 nesting pairs of goshawks. The Red Knight area should and does support 1 nesting pair.

Goshawk habitat in the Chemult area appears to be driven by prey sources more than large tree structure. The lodgepole community provides the most abundant food sources (bitterbrush seeds, lodgepole pine cones and the periodic high insect populations) for prey including 4 species of chipmunks, golden mantle ground squirrels, and chickarees. Cone seed production in ponderosa

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 habitat is far less than lodgepole and likely supports less prey for goshawks. Meadows are good habitat for voles and periodic high gopher populations that goshawks prey on, also.

There are several MA7s that may function as goshawk habitat well distributed across Red Knight, in particular a large area at the head of Jackson Creek, another on Fire Butte in the center of the project, and also on an unnamed butte in the northwest corner.

There are three management requirements for goshawk in the LRMP (pg.4-133): 1) A minimum of 60 acres of contiguous old growth and/or mature mixed conifer, ponderosa pine and associated species, ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine plant communities shall be provided as primary breeding and foraging habitat for one pair of goshawks (hereafter referred to as a Goshawk MA7). 2) Goshawk areas shall be dispersed throughout suitable habitat, not more than 5 miles apart from the center of one area to the center of another area. 3) Per the LRMP Disturbing human activities within a quarter mile of any active goshawk nest shall be discouraged or minimized from March 1 through August 31 (refer to forestwide standards and guides). The Eastside Screens also has three requirements for goshawk site management: 1) Protect every known active or historic (active within the past 5 years) nest from disturbance. 2) 30 acres of the most suitable nesting habitat surround all active and historical nest tree(s) will be deferred from harvest. 3) A 400 acre “post fledging area” will be established around every known active nest site. While harvest activities can occur within this area, retain the LOS stands and enhance younger stands towards LOS condition, as possible.

The desired future condition for goshawks is mature and old growth ecosystems available for nesting/foraging in the ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, ponderosa pine associated species and lodgepole pine plant communities. The characteristics of these communities include multistoried canopies comprised of mature tree crowns with subcanopies of shade-tolerant conifer species of various ages and heights. Included within the nesting/forging areas are north-facing talus slopes or cliffs, water sources, and all downed logs potentially used as goshawk plucking/feeding sites (LRMP pg. 4-132).

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Goshawk As with the other MIS associated with mature/old growth habitat, current trends impacting goshawk habitat would continue resulting in a loss of large diameter trees, an expansion of mixed conifer into ponderosa pine stands and a reduction in ground cover shrubs and forbs with increased canopy closure in the Red Knight area. This trend increases decadence and multistory canopy closure that generally favors goshawks. In the short term, forage habitat conditions are both positively and negatively impacted because the increased decadence contributes desirable dead wood structure while increased tree canopies decrease understory habitat diversity that 105

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 supports prey species. In the long term, loss of the large tree structure and slowed development of future large tree structure will negatively impact desirable goshawk nesting structure which could result in a decline in species viability at the project and forest level by the loss of one nesting pair in the Red Knight area.

The goshawk habitat in the Red Knight area is in CC II and CC III. The entire area is already at increased risk from catastrophic wildfire compared to historic conditions. This will only get worse under the no action alternative. The increased fire risk could result in a decline in species viability at the project and forest level by the loss of one nesting pair.

Cumulative Effects of No Action on Goshawk Goshawks utilize many different habitat types from open ponderosa forest to dense mixed conifer and lodgepole pine stands. Therefore, the effect of No Action within Red Knight and the surrounding untreated areas such as Yamsay Mountain, with density reduction activities occurring in the surrounding Forest that are not connected through actions in this project area, would have mixed cumulative positive and negative results that are difficult to quantify.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Goshawk

Much of the old-growth goshawk habitat acres are proposed for commercial thinning from below, and aspen stands would be treated to reduce conifers while retaining large ponderosa pine. This would benefit goshawk foraging habitat. Small tree thinning in the mixed conifer and ponderosa pine habitat would reduce ladder fuels and competition in the understory and maintain large trees into the future. All treatments leave the desirable large tree and large dead wood structure that goshawks use for nesting and foraging. The forest around the known goshawk nest site by Long Prairie is included in one of the large scale, landscape retention No Treatment areas, meeting the protection requirements in the LRMP and the Eastside Screens.

Goshawks need a variety of habitats for different stages of their life cycle, including dense forest patches utilized for cover by fledglings. Alternative 2 would leave about 35-40 percent of the project area in cover after all activities are completed (including commercial harvest, under burning, post-harvest small tree thinning, and small tree thinning in past harvest units). The open areas would be primarily in the ponderosa units. The goshawk post fledgling area, most past harvest units, steep slopes, small and large scale retention patches, limited treatment areas, and the pileated woodpecker area would maintain dense, small tree structure that provides cover well distributed in the timber stands across the project area.

Cumulative Effects of the Proposed Action on Goshawk The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to goshawks. The trends in the Red Knight area that are contributing to the increased severe fire risk and likelihood of insect or disease outbreaks are common to all of the Yamsay Mountain area and much of the forested habitats in the surrounding area. Lack of action in Red Knight would contribute toward the likelihood of a stand replacing event from fire or other disturbance factors in the areas that are not treated. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Modoc and similar projects on adjacent Districts would help to reduce the risks over 106

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 a large area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River and into Lake County adjacent to Red Knight. Red Knight is central to connecting the treated areas.

Management on Forest Service lands in Red Knight and in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest. In the short term, the projects retain large trees and existing LOS stand acreage but add to the area that provides at least some early seral characteristics where under- and mid- story trees are removed, and as meadows and aspen stands are treated.

All of the acreage within the Red Knight project periphery is in Forest Service management. There are no private inholdings. Non-Forest Service lands in the surrounding area include the township-wide Long Bell tract and other privately held acreages that are heavily managed “industrial” forest lands, ranches along the Williamson River, and the Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge. All of these areas are primarily providing early seral forest habitats, meadows or marsh, and are not expected to change their habitat status in either the short or long term. The Refuge has a narrow perimeter of encroached old growth ponderosa pine, but does not typically do any active management within their forest stands. Non-Forest lands are not expected to provide nesting habitat for goshawks, though foraging may occur there.

As a result of the extensive area of thinned forest, in the long term, goshawks are expected to benefit from development and retention of the old growth throughout the Forest Service owned lands. In the short term, goshawks may also benefit from the small openings and meadow treatments. Each of the projects also retains dense untreated areas that would provide the mosaic of habitat types that goshawks utilize.

Viability Conclusion for Goshawk All proposed actions are consistent with Forest Plan (as amended by the Eastside Screens) standards and guides for goshawks, old growth ecosystems and riparian management. Impacts to species viability at both the project and forest level are mixed. In the short term, forage habitat conditions are both positively and negatively impacted because the decreased lodgepole decadence lowers desirable dead wood structure while decreased tree canopies increase under story habitat diversity that supports prey species. Long term development of large tree structure would be improved and the risk of habitat loss from catastrophic wildfire or other large scale disturbance reduced across the entire band of goshawk habitat in the Red Knight area. There should be no overall change to forest viability of goshawks.

Northern Three-toed Woodpecker

Northern three toed woodpeckers are a Winema Forest Plan MIS for mature and old-growth subalpine fir/mountain hemlock and lodgepole forests. Source habitat is old forests in subalpine and montane forest (lodgepole pine, grand fir-white fir, Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir, whitebark pine and mountain hemlock), specifically mature and over-mature stands with bark beetles, disease, and heart rot or recent stand-replacing burns with abundant bark beetles (Wisdom et al. 2000).

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High elevation habitat types occur on the upper elevations of Yamsay Mountain and east of the Red Knight area. Within Red Knight, it is assumed that three-toed woodpecker habitat exists in the lodgepole pine riparian areas, particularly where infested with bark beetles. Though the area is not considered high elevation by local standards, it is in the same elevation band as a known population of three-toed woodpeckers on the neighboring Deschutes National Forest. No surveys were specifically done for northern three-toed woodpeckers in the Red Knight area. However pileated woodpecker and black-backed woodpecker surveys were completed and there were no incidental northern three toed woodpecker detections.

Three-toed woodpeckers are associated with locally abundant insect outbreaks, and their populations are irruptive as they follow the outbreaks across the landscape. They specialize on bark beetles (Scolytidae) versus the black-backed woodpecker which specializes on wood-boring beetles (Cerambycidae) (Leonard 2001).

The VEMG model estimates that there are 224,550 acres of three-toed woodpecker habitat on the Winema-side of the Fremont-Winema National Forests. There are approximately 13,060 acres of three-toed woodpecker habitat within the Red Knight Project, or roughly 6 percent of the habitat available on the Forest. The three-toed woodpecker habitat on the Forest and within the project is generally split between the lodgepole pine and mixed conifer forest types, with some habitat found in dense ponderosa pine.

The Winema FP S&G’s require a minimum of 75 acres of contiguous old-growth and/or mature lodgepole pine or subalpine fir be provided as primary breeding and foraging habitat for one pair of three-toed woodpeckers, and that a grid of habitat patches be designated in suitable habitat across the forest. There are no designated northern three –toed woodpecker patches in the Red Knight area.

The Fremont-Winema National Forests are currently experiencing an extensive bark beetle outbreak that originated near Paisley on the Fremont-side of the Forest in Lake County and spread west into Klamath County and the Winema Forest, heavily affecting lodgepole pine and also impacting ponderosa pine when it is in close proximity to an infested stand. Several hundred thousand acres (including on Yamsay Mountain) are currently affected by this stand- replacing outbreak, which is creating habitat for species such as three-toed woodpeckers which are irruptive following such events.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action and the Proposed Action on Northern Three-toed Woodpecker A lodgepole and fir understory encroaching in portions of the historical ponderosa habitat would increase that area’s potential for three-toed woodpeckers over time if left untreated. The overstocking is a benefit to three-toed woodpeckers, as they are associated with beetle outbreaks that often occur in such dense conditions.

Three-toed woodpeckers, if present, likely would prefer the stressed conditions within the existing stands, as they are associated with the presence of bark and wood-boring beetles that are often found in such conditions (Marshall, 2003). Small and large scale retention patches would retain limited connectivity through the project for three-toed woodpeckers and similar species.

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The untreated forest surrounding the project area would continue to provide habitat for three- toed woodpeckers. Underburning kills lower branches and pockets of small trees that in turn provide habitat for insect prey that some desired focal species such as three-toed woodpeckers may use.

Cumulative Effects of All Alternatives on Northern Three-toed Woodpecker

The list of cumulative past, present and foreseeable actions was reviewed to determine potential effects to three-toed woodpeckers. The combined treatments of the Middle Jack, Lower Jack, Red Knight and other connected projects such as Bluejay, Bridge-Buck, and Oatman would help to reverse long term habitat trends and reduce severe fire and insect outbreak risks over a large area in the southeast corner of the Chemult District, across the Williamson River and into Lake County adjacent to Red Knight. Red Knight is central to connecting the treated areas.

Management on Forest Service lands in Red Knight and in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest, and expansion of aspen stands. These actions would generally decrease potential three-toed woodpecker habitat in the treated areas through thinning of dense lodgepole pine that are the tree species most likely to be infected by bark beetles.

All of the acreage within the Red Knight project periphery is in Forest Service management. There are no private inholdings. Non-Forest Service lands in the surrounding area include the township-wide Long Bell tract and other privately held acreages that are heavily managed “industrial” forest lands, ranches along the Williamson River, and the Klamath Marsh National Wildlife Refuge. All of these areas are primarily providing early seral forest habitats, meadows or marsh, and are not expected to change their habitat status in either the short or long term. The Refuge has a narrow perimeter of encroached old growth ponderosa pine, but does not typically do any active management within their forest stands. Habitat for three-toed woodpeckers is not expected to occur on non-Forest lands except in limited locations where older riparian lodgepole pine has not been removed, and it is not expected to be expanded or reduced there over time.

Several hundred thousand acres of lodgepole pine forest has been infected and killed by bark beetles, which continue to spread across the Forests including on Yamsay Mountain. Therefore, three-toed woodpeckers and any other wildlife associated with small diameter snags that may not develop as a result of the Fremont-Winema’s forest health treatments would continue to have habitat throughout the landscape.

Northern Spotted Owl The Red Knight area is well outside the range of the northern spotted owl (USFWS 2011). Red Knight proposed actions would not impact spotted owls or their habitat, nor have any impact on species viability at the forest or project levels.

3.3.3 -Landbirds

Birds of Conservation Concern

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The 1988 amendment to the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act mandated the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) to “identify species, subspecies, and populations of all migratory non-game birds that, without additional conservation actions, are likely to become candidates for listing under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.” The USFWS developed the document Birds of Conservation Concern 2008 (BCC 2008) as the most recent effort to carry out this requirement. BCC 2008 is primarily derived from assessment scores from three major bird conservation plans: Partners in Flight, the United States Shorebird Conservation Plan, and the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan. Part of the process was delineating Bird Conservation Regions (BCRs). The regional list relevant for the Red Knight area is BCR 9 (Great Basin), which is shown below.

USFWS BCR 9 (Great Basin) Birds of Conservation Concern Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present Bald eagle See Sensitive Animals discussion. Yes (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) American peregrine See Klamath Tribes Wildlife list. No falcon (Falco peregrinus anatum)

Black-chinned sparrow Casual in Oregon. Oregon is north end of its range. No (Spizella atrogularis) Most records are from ceanothus-and oak-covered hillsides in sw Oregon. Closest known sighting at Stukel Mountain near Klamath Falls. Black rosy-finch Breeds on Steen’s Mountain and may breed in the No (Leucosticte arctoa) Wallowa Mountains. Not known west of Lake County. Use bare rock outcroppings, cliffs and talus for breeding and mainly open ground and snowfields for feeding. Black swift Shaded cliffs or caves near waterfalls or coastal areas No (Cypseloides niger) Brewer’s sparrow Big sagebrush and other shrublands where average No (Spizella breweri) canopy height is less than 5 feet.

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USFWS BCR 9 (Great Basin) Birds of Conservation Concern Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present Calliope hummingbird Common summer resident east of the Cascade summit Yes (Stellula calliope) in open mountain meadows with abundant wildflowers, open forest and meadow edges, and riparian areas. Regularly use ceanothus, snowbrush, currant and manzanita, and other tubular flowers. Eared grebe Usually nests in large colonies on freshwater lakes. No (Podiceps nigricollis) Ferruginous hawk See Klamath Tribes Wildlife list No (Buteo regalis) Flammulated owl Neotropical migrant. Preys almost exclusively on Yes (Otus flammeolus) insects, especially crickets, moths and beetles. Cavity nester, often utilizing cavities excavated by pileated woodpeckers or flickers. Most closely associated with open ponderosa pine forest with large (>21 in dbh) snags, but also nest in mixed conifer stands dominated by ponderosa pine, and occasionally aspen. Golden eagle Shrub-steppe, grassland, juniper, open ponderosa pine Yes (Aquila chrysaetos) and mixed conifer/deciduous habitats. Nest trees are typically large, live ponderosa pine with sturdy open branching and a trunk greater than 30” dbh. Nests may also occur on ledges along rims and cliffs. They forage in a variety of habitat types and successional stages, preferring areas with an open shrub component. Greater sage grouse There are limited locations of sage grouse in Klamath No (Centrocercus County, generally east of Klamath Falls. Sage grouse urophasianus) are best known for their elaborate spring courtship displays on traditional strutting grounds known as leks. They are sage brush obligates, relying on the plant for both food and cover throughout the year, but also often utilize high grass for cover and also forage on forbs and insects in spring. May use low or high sage habitat types.

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USFWS BCR 9 (Great Basin) Birds of Conservation Concern Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present Green-tailed towhee Locally uncommon to common throughout Klamath Yes (Pipilo chlorurus) Basin. Prefer vigorous shrub stands with high shrub species diversity, especially intermingled juniper, aspen, mountain mahogany and snowbrush, and also ponderosa pine-sagebrush, or sometimes ocean spray and willows. Partial to canyons and rims. Forage on fruit, weed seeds and insects. Fire suppression may reduce breeding habitat through decrease in forest openings with brushy regrowth. May benefit from logging. Lewis’ woodpecker Migrates in large flocks along the Cascades with Yes (Melanerpes lewis) sightings in Klamath Falls. Breeds in open white oak, ponderosa pine and cottonwoods near water and in post-fire areas. Locally known to nest in the Klamath River Canyon and near Chiloquin and Silver Lake in 3-15 year old fire areas. Nest in existing cavities made by other woodpeckers; usually in large snags in advanced state of decay. Flycatches or gleans insects in spring and summer. Dependent on fruits and acorns in fall and winter. Winters in oak savannahs, location varying by amount and location of acorn crops. Loggerhead shrike Sagebrush with scattered juniper, black greasewood, No (Lanius ludovicianus) and cold desert shrub communities. Long-billed curlew Short-grass or mixed-prairie; agricultural fields; No (Numenius americanus) marsh; usually near perennial water (Ehrlich, et al., 1988). Marbled godwit Nests in grassy meadows, near lakes and ponds. No (Limosa fedoa) Pinyon jay Common in pinyon-juniper woodlands. No (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus) Sage thrasher Breeds principally in big sagebrush-dominated No (Oreoscoptes deserts. montanus) Sage sparrow Fairly common in alkaline flats in sagebrush and No (Amphispiza belli) saltbush: open arid desert in inter.

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USFWS BCR 9 (Great Basin) Birds of Conservation Concern Species Species and Habitat Attributes Species and/or Habitat Present Snowy plover Semi-colonial shorebird with world-wide distribution. No (Charadrius East of the Cascades, summer resident breeding on alexandrinus) sparsely vegetated alkaline flats and salt pans. Reported intermittently from Klamath County. Tricolored blackbird See Klamath Tribes Wildlife list. No (Agelaius tricolor) Virginia’s warbler Individuals observed on Stukel Mtn. near Klamath No (Vermivora virginiae) Falls in 1980; no breeding pairs currently confirmed in Oregon. Associated with mountain mahogany groves. White-headed See Klamath Tribes Wildlife List. Yes woodpecker (Picoides albolarvatus) Williamson’s sapsucker Mid- to high-elevation mature or old-growth conifer Yes (Sphyrapicus forests with fairly open canopy cover and large dead thyroideus) trees; ponderosa pine Willow flycatcher Most widely distributed flycatcher in North America. Yes (Empidonax traillii) In eastern Oregon, almost exclusively associated with riparian zones, typically willows. Nests are within a few feet of the ground in continuous shrub thickets. Common in mountain meadows, along streams; dry brushy upland pastures. Yellow rail See Klamath Tribes Wildlife list No (Coturnicops noveboracensis)

Yellow-billed cuckoo Yellow-billed cuckoos require dense, closed canopy No riparian woodlands dominated by cottonwood and/ or (Coccyzus americanus) willow, greater than 25 acres in size and wider than 110 yards in width, which generally occur at lower than 4200 feet in elevation (cited in Littlefield, 1988). The closest breeding population is in the Sacramento Valley (Marshall, et. al. 2003).

The North American Landbird Conservation Plan (2008) provides a continental synthesis of priorities and objectives that will guide landbird conservation actions at national and

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Partners in Flight The Forest Service has an agreement with Partners in Flight (PIF) to develop a strategy for achieving functioning ecosystems for landbirds. Ponderosa pine and dry mixed conifer are considered “Priority Habitats”. Old growth lodgepole pine and aspen are considered “Unique Habitats”. Each is found in the Red Knight area. The focal species for each are described in Partners in Flight’s (PIF) East-Slope Cascade Mountains Bird Conservation Plan (2000).

The conservation strategy does not directly address all landbird species, but instead uses numerous "focal species" to describe the conservation objectives for the avian community. Although conservation is directed towards focal species, establishment of conditions favorable to focal species also will likely benefit a wider group of species with similar habitat requirements.

The PIF Plan considered approximately 85 native landbird species to be regularly associated breeding species in ponderosa pine habitats. Several species are obligate or near obligate to this habitat type such that they are rarely found in other forest types in Oregon and Washington. These include pygmy nuthatch and white-headed woodpecker. Other regularly associated species that may be in the Red Knight area include flammulated owl, Williamson's sapsucker, Lewis' woodpecker, Townsend's solitaire, chipping sparrow, and white-breasted nuthatch.

PIF considered approximately 85 native landbird species to be regularly associated breeding species in Mixed Conifer (late-successional) habitats. Principal species associated with this habitat type that may be in the area include pileated woodpecker, northern goshawk, brown creeper, olive-sided flycatcher, Hammond's flycatcher, Vaux's swift, blue grouse, golden- crowned kinglet, and varied thrush.

Many of the birds mentioned above are addressed elsewhere in this document or in other reports within the project record. The following list of focal species not already addressed in other locations is relevant for the Red Knight area.

PIF East-Slope Cascades Focal Landbirds Focal Species Habitat and Habitat Features/Conservation Focus Species and/or Habitat Present

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PIF East-Slope Cascades Focal Landbirds Focal Species Habitat and Habitat Features/Conservation Focus Species and/or Habitat Present Brown creeper Mixed conifer habitat with large trees and snags, Yes (Certhia Americana) multi-layered, dense canopy, edges and openings created by fire. Only North American birds that rely on both the trunk and bark of trees for both nesting and foraging. Usually nest under loose, sloughing bark of relatively large-diameter dead trees. Chipping sparrow Uncommon to common summer resident in open Yes (Spizella passerina) forests and drier woodland edges throughout Oregon. In central and eastern Oregon, found in juniper, ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine forests and mountain mahogany but not in sagebrush. Ground forages on insects and seeds. Golden-crowned kinglet Year-round resident insectivore. East of the Cascades Yes (Regulus satrapa) breeds primarily in montane spruce and fir zones but may be found in almost any habitat with trees at other times of year. Strongly associated with conifer canopy cover, density and basal area during breeding season, but niche breadth widens in winter. Declines in breeding abundance follow most disturbances that decrease canopy cover, including logging and fire. Feet are uniquely adapted for hanging onto tips of conifer branches where much time is spent foraging. Gleans small arthropods from tree and shrub foliage, limbs, twigs, dead leaves and lichens on trees and shrubs. Hammond's flycatcher Aerial insectivore that spends most of its time in tall Yes (Empidonax conifer canopies. Often reaches highest abundance in hammondii) late-seral conifer forest but also affiliated with aspen. Avoids clearcuts and young second growth prior to canopy closure. Gaps in and beneath canopy provide necessary space for aerial foraging but selects nest sites with large overstory trees that have well- developed canopies. Hermit thrush Mature to old-growth, mixed-conifer forests with Yes (Catharus guttatus) semi-open canopies but shaded understory of scattered brush and small trees. Nests on or near ground in dense mountain mahogany, aspen, juniper, spruce/fir. Forage on primarily on insects and berries.

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PIF East-Slope Cascades Focal Landbirds Focal Species Habitat and Habitat Features/Conservation Focus Species and/or Habitat Present Olive-sided flycatcher Late successional mixed conifer with edges and Yes (Contopus cooperi) openings caused by wildfire or logging; often near water. Red-naped sapsucker Forage in riparian habitats with aspen, cottonwoods, Yes (Sphyrapicus nuchalis) alders and pine, sometimes mixed conifer forests. Nest cavities usually in aspen, both live and dead trees, and cavities situated according to heart-rot progression up trees. Nests are located in the interior of riparian areas, avoiding the edges. Townsend’s solitaire Breeds in and near open coniferous forest stands, Yes (Myadestes townsendii) natural forest openings, burned areas, shelterwood cuts and clearcuts to timberline. Common in juniper woodlands in winter. Nests on the ground near or on logs, stumps, in tree roots or among rocks, but nests are rarely exposed from above. Local nest habitat selection models in lodgepole pine indicate positive relationships with snags and down logs and negative relationships with percent ground cover and saplings. Varied thrush Transient statewide during migrations. Breeds Yes (Ixoreus naevius) throughout the coast ranges and in the Cascades. Rare breeder in dry pine forests east of the Cascade crest. Reach their highest breeding abundance in mature or old-growth Douglas-fir forests, also in hemlock and spruce forests. Nests in shrub or sapling, occasionally on ground in second- or old-growth forests. Diet of berries and insects. May avoid forest edges and small forest stands during the breeding season but during winter occupies broader range of habitats including suburban areas, orchards. chaparral, juniper and oak woodlands. Vaux's swift Nest and roost in hollow, live or dead, large-diameter Yes (Chaetura vauxi) trees and brick chimneys. All known nests in NE Oregon are in white/grand fir. Transient and summer resident in older forests statewide except SE Oregon where only present during migration. Access interior of hollow trees through broken-off tops or through large woodpecker excavations. Forages primarily on aerial insects but also eats ants, aphids, spiders and bark beetles.

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PIF East-Slope Cascades Focal Landbirds Focal Species Habitat and Habitat Features/Conservation Focus Species and/or Habitat Present White-breasted Occurs in 2 main habitat types in Oregon: oak and Yes nuthatch ponderosa pine. Use cavities excavated by (Sitta carolinensis) woodpeckers or formed by decay in live or dead trees for nesting and roosting. Forage mainly on large tree limbs and trunks by gleaning from bark surface or probing into crevices. Not known to migrate.

Landbird Existing and Desired Condition The Winema Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) identifies standards for pileated woodpeckers, goshawks, northern spotted owls and northern three-toed woodpeckers as MIS. These species are discussed in detail within the separate MIS analysis. The sensitive bird species known to occur or have habitat within the Red Knight area are Lewis’ woodpecker, white- headed woodpecker and bald eagle. These sensitive bird species are discussed in the animal biological evaluation prepared for the Red Knight area. There are no Forest Plan standards and guides identified for the remaining birds. However, the Forest Plan does identify several unique wildlife habitat features these species may use. These unique habitats are discussed separately. In general, dry forests east of the Cascades were formerly under a fire regime that controlled extensive understory development. Currently eastside stands, including those in this project area, have dense understories. These dense understories tend to favor hermit thrushes, red- breasted nuthatches, Cassin’s vireos, American robins, and spotted towhees. The amount of open old-growth ponderosa pine forest that has been maintained by frequent, low-severity fires has declined by approximately 85% from historical conditions to present across the Pacific Northwest, and the Klamath Plateau and the eastern slopes of the Cascade have less than 5% remaining. In contrast, the mixed conifer habitat has expanded as the fir encroached into ponderosa habitat. Species associated with the ponderosa community, such as the white-headed woodpecker and flammulated owl, and those linked strongly with fire affected forests such as Lewis’s woodpecker, northern three-toed and black-backed woodpeckers, mountain and western bluebirds have likely declined in abundance. Species associated with the mixed conifer habitats such as brown creeper, Williamson’s sapsucker, flammulated owl, hermit thrush, and olive-sided flycatcher have likely increased with the habitat expansion. The East Slope Cascades PIF Plan identifies the following desirable habitat attributes for bird species associated with “priority” ponderosa pine habitat; large patches of old forest with large trees, large snags, open understories with regenerating pines, and patches of burned old forest. It also identifies the following desirable habitat attributes for bird species associated with “priority” mixed conifer habitat; large patches of old forest with large trees, large snags, multi-layers, dense canopy and openings created by fire.

Table 7. Plant Associations grouped by forest type Forest Type Plant Associations Acres % of Red Knight

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Ponderosa CPS211, CPS212 24,178 75% Pine Lodgepole CLM211, CLS211, CLS212, 4,341 13% Pine CLS311 Mixed Conifer CWS112 3,046 9% Meadow MW, MD(includes McCarty 702 2% Flat) Non-forest cinder pits, rocks 35 <1% (Plant associations from Plant Associations of the Central Oregon Pumice Zone, Volland and Hopkins, 1988)

Direct and Indirect Effect of No Action Landbirds Bird species of concern that would inhabit or use large trees and snags and that are associated with open, mature and old-growth forest stands within the Red Knight area include bald and golden eagles; flammulated and great gray owls; Hammond’s flycatcher; hermit thrush; northern goshawks; pileated woodpeckers; pygmy nuthatches; brown creepers; Williamson’s sapsucker; Lewis’ woodpecker; white-headed woodpeckers; olive-sided flycatcher; Vaux’s swift; white- breasted nuthatch; chipping sparrows and mountain bluebirds. With the No Action Alternative, these species would decline long term due to continued loss and retarded replacement of old- growth structures from unnaturally dense understories.

Pileated and white-headed woodpeckers and other species associated with large snags may benefit in the short term as large trees die, until there reaches a point where there is not enough large-tree, late-successional habitat to sustain appropriate breeding sites. This would have especial impact on pileated woodpeckers which prefer closed canopy, late successional forest dominated by large trees.

The trend toward increased understory density threatens the remaining old-growth habitat with high fuel loading that contributes to increasing wildfire hazard. The dense, untreated stands will cause slower attainment of other important old growth characteristics such as large limbs, thick bark and spreading canopies and the creation of large snags and logs than in treated stands.

The more generalist bird species or those that thrive in dense conditions such as varied thrush, towhees, ruffed or blue grouse, golden-crowned kinglet, and olive-sided flycatcher may experience a positive effect from no action because continued development of dense understories provides desirable habitat conditions. A lodgepole and fir understory is encroaching in portions of the historical ponderosa habitat that would increase that area’s potential for black-backed and three-toed woodpeckers over time. The overstocking may be a benefit to black-backed and three-toed woodpeckers, as they are associated with beetle outbreaks that often occur in such conditions.

The no action alternative has a negative impact from conifer encroachment in meadows and forest openings, and loss of aspens in riparian habitats on birds such as chipping sparrows; great grey owls; mountain bluebirds; goshawks; Hammond’s flycatcher; hermit thrushes; ruffed and

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 blue grouse; mountain quail; mourning doves; red-naped sapsuckers; western tanagers; calliope hummingbirds; willow flycatchers; green-tailed towhees; Western tanagers and Townsend’s solitaire. The red-naped sapsuckers are aspen specialists that would most decline under the no action alternative because they do not adapt to other habitats.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Landbirds There are nesting goshawks and great gray owls (shared nest site) in the goshawk post fledgling area around Long Prairie that is included in one of the large scale retention patches. Other raptor or woodpecker nests may be found during the course of project implementation. Nest sites would be protected from disturbance during breeding season according to the direction found in the LRMP (page 4-48). There is potential to disturb other breeding birds during operations that occur during the nesting season. The level of disturbance may vary greatly and may not disrupt normal nesting behavior on the one extreme, or may cause nesting failure on the other extreme. Disturbance will be short in duration with the potential to disrupt one nest season at any given nest site. The bird species associated with open, old ponderosa pine or mixed conifer structure would benefit from mechanical treatments and underburns in the long-term. These include bald and golden eagles, white-headed woodpecker, pygmy and white-breasted nuthatches, Williamson’s sapsucker, Lewis’s woodpecker, brown creeper, flammulated owl, olive-sided and Hammond’s flycatchers, Townsend’s solitaire, chipping sparrow, great grey owls, bluebirds, doves, goshawks, pileated woodpeckers, tanagers, Vaux’s swift, and Calliope hummingbirds. The action alternative leaves the desirable large tree structure, large dead wood, and tree species composition for the birds that are large tree specialists in their habitat needs, such as bald and golden eagles, flammulated and great grey owls, goshawks, pileated and white-headed woodpeckers, and Vaux’s swift. Mechanical thinning and underburning lengthens sight distance ability to detect predators for the species with behavioral adaptations associated with open stands. Inter-specific species competition decreases as those species associated with dense multi-layered structure move out. Underburning kills lower branches and pockets of small trees that in turn provide habitat for insect prey that some desired focal species such as black-backed or three-toed woodpeckers may use. Insectivorous birds such as Lewis’s and white-headed woodpeckers, bluebirds, flammulated owls, flycatchers, tanagers, thrushes, Townsend’s solitaire and Vaux’s swift, or hummingbirds which directly utilize flowering plants, may also increase, at least temporarily, due to increases in grasses and forbs that support insects in the treated meadows and in openings created from tree removal and exposure of mineral soil from prescribed burning. Species such as doves, grouse and quail that forage on seeds and berries would also benefit from increases of forage plants in the created openings. In addition to large tree structure, species such as the chipping sparrows and flammulated owls require thickets for roosting and/or nesting, and open areas for foraging. Stands proposed for commercial harvest currently have habitat that is 10-25% open with 75-90% in thickets (personal observation). Treatments would create habitat conditions that are 10-25% thickets with 75-90% open. It is likely that chipping sparrows and flammulated owls would continue to use this

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 habitat. Alternative 2 reduces understory and mid-story forest layers. The multi-layers associated with fir and lodgepole in particular would be gone except in residual multi-tree clumps, untreated large and small scale retention patches, riparian corridors and within the limited treatment units. Bird species such as hermit and varied thrushes, golden-crowned kinglet, blue and ruffed grouse, green-tailed towhees and quail require medium to high concentrations of thickets such as in the current conditions for hiding and thermal cover. Mechanical thinning and underburning may negatively affect these species in Alternative 2 as treatments would reduce the amount of dense thicket habitat available. Small and large scale retention patches and the limited treatment areas would retain connectivity through the project for those birds that require dense cover, and it is likely that they will persist in the project area. Reducing stocking levels of trees in treatment units for forest health purposes would reduce future recruitment of snags by decreasing the natural insect and disease agents that cause snags to form. In particular, this would have a detrimental effect on habitat for black-backed woodpeckers, as they prefer patches of small diameter snags that would be reduced in number as a side-effect of the fuels reduction treatments. Three-toed woodpeckers, if present, may also prefer the stressed conditions within the existing stands, as they are associated with the presence of bark and wood-boring beetles that are often found in such conditions (Marshall, 2003). Small and large scale retention patches would retain limited connectivity through the project for black- backed and three-toed woodpeckers and similar species. Several hundred thousand acres of lodgepole pine forest has been infected and killed by bark beetles, which continue to spread across the Forests including on Yamsay Mountain. Therefore, black-backed and three-toed woodpeckers and any others associated with small diameter snags that may not develop as a result of the forest health treatments would continue to have habitat throughout the landscape.

Large trees and snags would be retained as habitat for white-headed and pileated woodpeckers. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post- treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat for white-headed and pileated woodpeckers. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

Large trees and snags would be retained as habitat for white-headed and pileated woodpeckers. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post-

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat for white-headed and pileated woodpeckers. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

Thinning densely stocked young ponderosa pine plantations and understories would negatively affect those species which need thickets for portions of their life history. Variable density thinning would mitigate this effect somewhat by leaving residual trees in clumps rather than evenly spaced. The small tree thinning would create more openings for forbs and grasses, and eventually shrubs which would benefit insectivorous or fructiferous birds. Thinning will leave more water and nutrients available for remaining trees, promoting the potential for faster growth and development of large tree structures in the long term. Many bird species are found in aspen for either breeding or foraging opportunities. These include chipping sparrows; great grey owls; mountain bluebirds; goshawks; Hammond’s flycatcher; hermit thrushes; ruffed and blue grouse; mountain quail; mourning doves; red-naped sapsuckers; western tanagers; calliope hummingbirds; willow flycatchers; green-tailed towhees; Western tanagers and Townsend’s solitaire. All of these species, in particular red-naped sapsuckers, would benefit from treatments that focus on removing conifers from riparian aspen stands and the incidental release of upland aspen that may be found within other treatment areas.

Cumulative Effects Proposed Action on Landbirds

Current and foreseeable Forest Service actions in the surrounding area that are contiguous with Red Knight or each other include Modoc, Bluejay, Bridge-Buck, and Oatman projects. The project boundaries cumulatively cover an oval area of very roughly 36 miles of Forest land stretching from the southwest to the northeast on either side of the Williamson River, and 18 miles west to east across the Klamath-Lake County line on the Chemult, Chiloquin and Silver Lake Ranger Districts. Modoc and Bridge-Buck have completed Environmental Analyses available on the Forest’s webpage. Bluejay and Oatman are still in planning. All of these projects have, or are expected to have, similar design and effects to animals and to wildlife habitat as described for Red Knight.

Management on Forest Service lands in Red Knight and in the surrounding projects is intended to enhance maintenance and long term development of old growth ponderosa pine and mixed conifer forest. In the short term, the projects retain large trees and existing LOS stand acreage but add to the area that provides at least some early seral characteristics where under- and mid- story trees are removed, and as meadows and aspen stands are treated.

As a result of the extensive area of thinned forest, in the long term, birds such as bald and golden eagles; flammulated and great gray owls; Hammond’s flycatcher; hermit thrush; northern goshawks; pileated woodpeckers; pygmy nuthatches; brown creepers; Williamson’s sapsucker; Lewis’ woodpecker; white-headed woodpeckers; olive-sided flycatcher; Vaux’s swift; white- breasted nuthatch; chipping sparrows and mountain bluebirds are expected to benefit from development and retention of the old growth throughout the Forest Service owned lands.

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In the short term, birds such as chipping sparrows; great grey owls; mountain bluebirds; goshawks; Hammond’s flycatcher; hermit thrushes; ruffed and blue grouse; mountain quail; mourning doves; red-naped sapsuckers; western tanagers; calliope hummingbirds; willow flycatchers; green-tailed towhees; Western tanagers and Townsend’s solitaire may benefit from the small openings and meadow treatments.

Birds such as varied thrush, towhees, ruffed or blue grouse, golden-crowned kinglet, and olive- sided flycatcher may experience at least some negative effects in the treated areas due to removal of brush and dense understory across such a broad area. However, the privately held forest lands provide, and will likely continue to provide, extensive dense shrub and small tree habitat for those birds which are negatively affected by the thinning activities on Forest Service lands.

Several hundred thousand acres of lodgepole pine forest has been infected and killed by bark beetles, which continue to spread across the Forests including on Yamsay Mountain. Therefore, black-backed and three-toed woodpeckers and any others associated with small diameter snags that may not develop as a result of the forest health treatments would continue to have habitat throughout the landscape.

3.3.4 – Klamath Tribes’ Wildlife Species of Interest The Chemult Ranger District encompasses lands that were formally Klamath Indian Reservation lands. The District and the Klamath Tribes are working toward a collaborative effort in land management, whenever actions are proposed on lands within the former reservation boundary. As part of this process, a list of wildlife species that the Tribes consider important as part of their heritage and as treaty resources was developed. Appendix C displays the wildlife species known by the Forest Service to be of interest to the Klamath Tribes. The appendix displays the effects on the species analyzed, and what page of the EA those effects can be found. All of the animals of concern to the Tribes with habitat within the project area are either included on other lists already discussed, or are analyzed in the following sections. 3.3.5- Small and Large Mammals The Winema LRMP (aka Forest Plan) identified standards for marten, elk, and deer. These species are discussed in the big game sections of this document or the MIS document. The sensitive mammal species known to occur or have habitat within the Red Knight area are pallid bats and fringe-tailed bats. These sensitive bat species are discussed in the animal biological evaluation prepared for the Red Knight area. There are no Forest Plan standards and guides identified for the remaining mammals. However, the Forest Plan does identify several unique wildlife habitat features that are discussed in the Special Wildlife Features section of this report.

Most mammals in this area are considered generalist species because they use a wide variety of habitat types including both young and old stands of many different tree species, meadows, forest openings and thickets, and they tend to forage on a variety of common food sources making them well suited to a wide range of habitat conditions. These species include bears, lions, bobcats, coyotes, squirrels, chipmunks, porcupines, and a variety of rodents. Snowshoe hares are not generalists, but rather most often associated with dense seedling/sapling thickets in close proximity to riparian areas that support more forbs than the uplands typically do.

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Chipmunks, ground squirrels, mice, hares and other small animals are the primary prey of a variety of predators such as hawks, owls, lions, bobcats, and coyotes (Verts and Carraway, 1998). Research on the Deschutes National Forest has illustrated that golden-mantled ground squirrel survival and density are higher in areas with high versus low down wood volume. There is also a positive correlation between the number of chipmunks and ground squirrels present in a stand, and the amount of bitterbrush cover. This occurs both because the chipmunks and ground squirrels use the bitterbrush plants for hiding cover, and because they are the primary bitterbrush seed cachers. Seed caches often remain untouched and become the next generation of bitterbrush plants (Smith, 2002). The exact status of the small mammal population within the Red Knight area is unknown, but anecdotal evidence suggests that mice, golden mantled ground squirrels, and chipmunks are widespread. Given that all plant communities are above the historic conditions for decadence and tree stocking levels that provide small mammal food and cover, it is likely that current population levels of small mammals are above historic levels.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Mammals The no action alternative continues to favor generalist mammal species over the specialists. The amount of small diameter down wood in particular is going to increase in the short term and provide more homes and hiding cover for small mammals. The bitterbrush component that provides an important food source will continue to decline reducing that food source for small mammals. The bitterbrush seed is being replaced with cone seeds that many of the same small mammals feed on. Small mammals are likely to do well under the no action alternative despite the shift in seed source. When the small mammals do well, those predators dependent on them such as mountain lions, bobcats, martens and coyotes are likely to do well also.

Martens and bats are associated with large diameter trees, snags and down wood for denning structure. With the No Action Alternative, although in the short term there may be benefits to these species and others as large trees die, over time their denning and resting or roosting habitat would decline due to continued loss and retarded replacement of old-growth structures from unnaturally dense understories. Gray squirrels would also be negatively affected long term by the No Action Alternative as they are largely arboreal requiring large interlocking tree limbs for travel, and den in cavities within large trees or snags. The dense, untreated stands will cause slower attainment of important old growth characteristics such as large limbs and spreading canopies and eventual creation of large diameter snags and logs than in treated stands.

With the no action alternative, snags and down wood would increase. As recruitment of young trees would continue, competition for finite site resources would increase for older trees, resulting in the death of individual trees of all sizes from insects and disease. This will provide nesting and foraging habitat for the woodpeckers, and roosting/denning habitat for bats, squirrels, martens and others, particularly in the medium and large size classes of snags. Epidemic levels of bark beetles would eventually develop in second growth trees as well and would kill 50 to 90 percent of entire stands or groups of stands. The snags would eventually fall over and provide additional down woody habitat. This structure would provide denning, resting, breeding, hiding, and/or foraging habitat for species such as black bears, marten, fisher, pileated woodpeckers, slugs, and snails.

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 include bats, western gray squirrels, bobcats, elk, deer, black bear, coyotes, porcupines, martens and mountain lions. Conifer encroachment would continue to negatively impact herbivory in the meadows, small openings and aspen, which affects the predators in the food chain as well. Conifer encroachment limits the forb and grass component that supports insects preyed upon by bats. Aspen is rare on the landscape and will continue to decline under the no action alternative. The generalist mammal species may switch to other habitats as the aspen decline continues and there may be no measurable impact to them.

Under the no action alternative, the risk of large stand replacement fires that are likely to set back all mammals of the area will increase, should large fires occur.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Mammals

The character of food sources and cover for all mammals would change in the area as a result of salvaging some of the dead and down lodgepole, removing undesirable understory trees and fuels treatments. The action alternative would reduce the amount of bitterbrush in the short term but increase its quality and possibly quantity in the long term. The lodgepole cone seed food sources for small mammals would be reduced in the short and long term. The understory tree used for cover would be reduced. The reduction in cover favors the predator species over the prey. The reduction of seed sources and cover is likely to temporarily reduce population sizes for small mammals such as chipmunks in the Red Knight area. However, based on observations made in open habitat conditions similar to what is expected in Red Knight after all treatments are complete, it is likely that the current small mammal species will persist well distributed across the area. Large trees, snags, and logs would be retained as denning or resting habitat for bats, martens, bears, bobcats, porcupines, mountain lions and coyotes. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post-treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat over time. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

Although current amounts of mistletoe within the project would be reduced post-treatment, large trees (> 21” dbh) with mistletoe would be retained, and mistletoe pockets would be selected for inclusion in the small scale retention patches to maintain wildlife habitat across the treated areas. This is of particular importance to species like marten that frequently use mistletoe as a resting location. Treating aspen and meadows within the project will promote habitat diversity and is expected to increase prey populations for an indirect benefit to the predators such as coyotes, bobcats, martens and mountain lions, and improve direct foraging opportunities for bears and porcupines, as well as big game. In the short term, predators such as hawks, owls, lions, bobcats, and coyotes and martens may have fewer prey species available to them in the more open forest as prey animals shift species variety, density and locations in response to the thinning. However, Alternative 2 still provides

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 for cover and unthinned habitat that would support use distributed throughout the area, particularly along the creek corridors. The open understories with tree clumps and retention patches should result in an increase in grass or forb and brush forage with proximity to cover for big game and small prey animals such as rabbits and quail, therefore their numbers are expected to increase for the next decade or slightly longer. It is likely that predators will persist in the Red Knight area, although they may temporarily increase their home ranges in response to the initial shift in prey densities and varieties.

Cumulative Effects of the Proposed Action on Mammals Most mammals in this area are considered generalist species because they use a wide variety of habitat types including both young and old stands of many different tree species, meadows, forest openings and thickets, and they tend to forage on a variety of common food sources making them well suited to a wide range of habitat conditions. As generalists, bears, lions, bobcats, coyotes, squirrels, and porcupines are likely to persist well distributed across the landscape regardless of the cumulative effects associated with treatment. All of the projects preserve large snags and trees, so martens and bats are also expected to persist across the landscape.

3.3.6 – Big Game Early historical photos of the local area show forests that were predominately open stands of old growth ponderosa pine with an understory dominated by bunchgrass (Peek, et al., 2001), little shrub cover and not much understory, due to frequent, low-intensity fires. There was not much available food or cover for mule deer in these stands, before the advent of fire suppression, and deer were not abundant (cited in Verts and Carraway, 1998).

Mule deer numbers began to increase as logging began in this area in the 1920’s. Reductions in predators through hunting (cited in Peek, et al., 2001) also contributed to an increase in deer survival rates. Fire suppression in the region became effective in the 1920s, which also led to increased quantities of palatable shrubs and cover.

Locally, the summering deer herd peaked in the mid-1960s and has declined substantially since then, initially due both to heavy hunting pressure and occasional large winter die-offs (Frazier, 1995). Other causes for the decline have been identified as low-quality diets in spring and early summer that are negatively influencing fawn survival (Peek, et al., 2001). The Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW) noted in a 2005 letter to the Forest Service that in addition to the low quality diets, “A change in the predator component is likely negatively influencing overall survival (adults and juveniles)” (Collom, 2005). As mule deer winter range habitat is generally in the valley bottoms below 4500 feet, a lot of the prime winter range, both locally and across the western United States, has been converted to ranch and farm land or housing subdivisions (Verts and Carraway, 1998).

At the time of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, elk were reportedly abundant in Oregon. But, because of market hunting and little regulation, by 1880 elk were getting scarce, and by 1899 only a few small herds remained in the Coast and Cascade Ranges and in the Blue and Wallowa Mountains. The elk population has increased as logging in the mountains created openings in the

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 forest, allowing forage plants to grow. Harvest of elk on both sides of the Cascades has returned to an upward trend in the last 4.5 decades, but the ratio of adult male elk in the population has declined as a result (Verts and Carraway, 1998).

The Red Knight area is part of the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife’s state Silver Lake Big Game Management Unit (BGU). Deer numbers have been steady over recent years at 70- 80% of the management objective in the Silver Lake unit. Elk numbers appear to be declining over recent years but no good estimates are available in part because of heavy timber in this BGU limits visibility for population counts.

Several years of radio tracking deer in the Silver Lake unit indicate that they overwinter in the Fort Rock to Silver Lake area. They migrate in a northeast to southwest pattern, with no well- defined migration corridors, but rather moving from cover clump to cover clump while avoiding higher elevation (Milburn, personal communication, April, 2008). Yamsay Mountain and the Antelope Mountains to the northeast of the Yamsay area are high elevation and likely migrating deer would avoid these higher elevations. Deer migrating to the winter grounds through the Red Knight area are likely to divert around either side of Yamsay Mountain before heading east to Fort Rock and Silver Lake.

Deer and elk do not typically use the Red Knight area in the winter, but the area is considered summer range. However, during exceptionally mild winters signs of a few elk have been observed near the Williamson River on the western edge of the Red Knight area. The Red Knight area is used extensively by both species as transition range in the spring and fall, as the animals move to and from their winter ranges.

Currently, the area contains about 93% cover with a few small scattered open areas primarily associated with past harvest in the ponderosa community and quarry areas. The Forest Plan states that the Forest shall provide a minimum of 30% of the area in cover (page4-49). The project area currently exceeds the minimum cover requirements in the Forest Plan.

The brush, grass, and forbs ground cover forage plants are being shaded out by tree canopy. Riparian areas generally have higher forage production than uplands. Where present, most of the upland forage is decadent and woody bitterbrush, which is not as palatable or as nutritious as younger bitterbrush plants. Estimates made during studies of the local area show that approximately two thirds of the forage quantity that was present in 1953 was present in 1988 (Peek, et al., 2001). In other words, forage declined by about 33% over that 35 year period, and has continued to decline since.

The most extensive community types are ponderosa pine with bitterbrush and needlegrass understories. The current forage production in areas proposed for commercial thinning is estimated to be <50 # per acre (walk through ocular estimates) on about 66% of the Red Knight area. Given ideal growing conditions and 20 year intervals between under burns, the ponderosa/bitterbrush/needlegrass community produces moderate to high amounts of shrub and grass/forb forage (50-300# per acre) with open overstory canopies such as found in the past harvest units in the area. The understory tends to go to grasses rather than bitterbrush when tree canopy is opened up. The 20 year interval between burns allows for bitterbrush to become re- established.

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Deer are more likely to use brush as a forage base and elk forage more on grasses and forbs. The area is better suited to elk than deer given the shrub production potential in this plant community type is not as high as the grass and forb production potential.

The Forest Plan says that deer habitat shall be managed considering such factors as roads, cover, forage, water distribution and livestock competition so that habitat capability to support deer is maintained or improved. There are no traditional elk calving areas identified. To provide for adequate diversity of forage structure for deer, activities shall be planned to achieve multiple brush age classes. Wildlife forage will be allocated first to meet the needs of big game and secondly to meet the needs of other animals.

There are few perennial water sources for big game in the Red Knight area. Jackson Creek is perennial along the southern boundary of the project area. The other streams in the area are intermittent or ephemeral providing only seasonal water. There are a few small, perennial springs along Dillon, Bear, Deely Creeks and an unnamed tributary of Rock Creek. There are seven dug water chances that also provide seasonal water.

Sheep are permitted through most of the Red Knight area as part of the Jack Creek Range Allotment, and do compete with big game for forage. The level of forage competition is unknown. Although cattle use is not permitted, some use is occurring, particularly at Boundary Springs.

It is desirable to open forest canopies to allow more sunlight and moisture to the forest floor for forage species. It is desirable to have a diversity of forage species with cover clumps well dispersed through the Red Knight area. Desired future habitat conditions for big game would contain about 60% good forage to 40% cover well-distributed across the area (Ward, 1979).

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Big Game With the no action alternative, tree canopy cover will continue to increase and understory forage production to decrease. The long term consequences of continuing to exclude disturbance to the ground cover community are the loss of quantity and quality forage from the aging process and from tree competition. Grasses and forbs will continue to be absent or present at much lower levels than with regular fire disturbance. Overall, habit conditions will continue to decline. The area would support fewer big game animals in the future.

Wholesale loss of cover and tree canopy will likely occur in the event of a wildfire burning through the area, reducing the majority of the habitat to early seral conditions with no cover and few seed source for regenerating browse species.

Under the No Action Alternative road densities would remain as current (see Road Managers report for additional details). While the Motor Vehicle Use Map (MVUM) has curtailed use of many system roads, law enforcement presence is quite limited and any roads that are physically open can still be driven by both the public and Klamath Tribal members. Habitat fragmentation and disturbance caused by road access would remain unchanged.

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Cumulative Effects of No Action on Big Game Increasing tree canopy closure and decreasing understory forage is currently a trend common to all of the Red Knight area and the Winema Forest. The no action alternative would continue to contribute to declining forage production for big game at the project and Forest scales.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Big Game Proposed activities including commercial harvest, haul, small tree thinning, and under burning have the potential to disturb big game during the fawning and calving season. To minimize this disturbance, seasonal fawning and calving restrictions will apply to all activities from May 1- June 30 within a quarter mile of aspen habitat.

The current Forest road density is 5.2 miles per square mile throughout the Red Knight area. This is considered quite high for big game disturbance and hunter access (Thomas et al., 1979) (Thomas et al., 1988) (Heffelfinger et al., 2006). The proposed road decommissioning down to 1.6 miles of road per square mile would be an improvement in preventing disturbance to big game during breeding season, while still allowing hunter access within the project.

Big Game Species Restriction Dates Protection Zone Deer and elk May1 – June 30 440 yards of all aspen habitat and designated meadow units

Alternative 2 increases forage production by opening up forest canopies in the Restoration, Thinning and Encroachment Removal treatments, and reduces cover available for big game to about 13,000 acres. In the short term, grasses and forbs will respond quicker than the bitterbrush, favoring elk or antelope forage over deer. The ponderosa/bitterbrush/needlegrass community should produce moderate to high amounts of shrub and grass/forb forage (50-300# per acre) with the open overstory canopies which would occur post-treatment, improvement in forage quantity over the current condition. Long term, bitterbrush will become re-established, favoring deer more than antelope or elk.

Alternative 2 would leave about 35-40 percent of the area in hiding cover after all activities are completed (including commercial harvest, under burning, post-harvest small tree thinning, and small tree thinning in past harvest units). The open areas would be primarily in the ponderosa units. The goshawk post fledgling area, most past harvest units, steep slopes, small and large scale retention patches, limited treatment areas, and the pileated woodpecker area would maintain dense, small tree structure that provides cover well distributed in the timber stands across the area. This exceeds LRMP direction to provide 30% of the area as cover, and approaches the optimum cover to forage ratios described by Thomas (1979).

Alternative 2 proposes underburning of the ponderosa pine restoration areas, and jackpot burning of accumulated slash within the limited treatment areas. Exact acreage is yet to be determined dependent on post-treatment fuel conditions. A typical underburn leaves about 30-40% of the bitterbrush in a mosaic pattern. Burning reduces bitterbrush forage in the short term (<10 years)

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 and improves bitterbrush forage in the long term (>10 years). Based on monitoring results of District burns, estimates are that approximately 25% of the burned brush would resprout within a year of burning. Enough parent plants would be left to provide seed for remaining areas. Within 10 years, there would be a mix of parent brush plants, resprouted brush, and new brush in increased quantities to the existing condition. Young plants provide higher quality forage than existing old plants, so there would be improvement in quality of brush forage. Grasses and forbs would come up immediately following burns and quickly provide improved forage. This meets LRMP direction to manage for multiple age classes in the brush component (pg. 4-49). Within twenty years after all treatments are completed, much of the treated ponderosa community would remain large blocks of open habitat with small thickets, shrubs and topography for hiding cover within units and hiding cover in adjacent past harvest units. The ponderosa community would also be the best forage areas in 10-20 years as the understory responds to more light and growing space.

This alternative moves closest to the optimum cover/ forage potential for the area. More big game may concentrate in the proposed treatment areas where forage is improved. However, they would probably move into the dense cover areas that provide more security during state hunting seasons.

The improvement in forage, which currently is the most limiting habitat for big game, should lead to an increase in the local population that uses the Red Knight area summer range. This response should be sustained, all else equal, for at least 20 years after all treatments are complete.

Cumulative Effects from the Proposed Action on Big Game Because the project area by itself is so small in comparison to the Silver Lake Game Management Unit, the cumulative effects of restoring more open habitat across the National Forest portion of the Game Management Unit would improve forage over a very small area. The contributions of adjacent Forest Service projects such as Modoc, Bluejay, Bridge-Buck, and Oatman are expected to be similar to the effects of Red Knight, and would be positive for production of forage while maintaining sufficient cover across the landscape (Thomas, 1979). Restoring more open habitat would help reverse the declining habitat trend of increased canopy closure and reduced forage production. Forage improvement would support larger deer, elk and antelope populations. Conditions on private forest land provide substantial foraging opportunities for big game, though the ranches are generally heavily grazed by domestic livestock and not as conducive to providing additional forage for big game. Elk and deer are often seen at the edges of the Refuge and are expected to continue to utilize that area.

3.3.7 – Special Wildlife Features

Snags and Down Wood

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

The Winema LRMP identifies standards for several wildlife features that include snags, coarse woody debris, rock outcrops, and hardwood habitat known to occur in the Red Knight area. All wildlife species in the Red Knight area will use woody debris to some degree. However, of the species on the lists above that are likely to be in the project area, black bear; brown creeper; flammulated owl; goshawks; great gray owls; mountain bluebirds; fringed-tailed and pallid bats; pileated, white-headed and black-backed woodpeckers; pygmy nuthatches; red-naped and Williamson’s sapsuckers; ruffed and blue grouse and small mammals depend on snags and/or down logs for nesting, denning or foraging.

Snags and down wood criteria were developed using the LRMP guidance as modified by the Eastside Screens for ponderosa pine, lodgepole and mixed conifer habitats, and information in the DecAID program. The DecAID program was compared to the dead wood analysis process used in Red Knight area. Current Vegetation Survey (CVS) plots were used for both methods. One difference was in sample size. Only plots for ponderosa habitat on the Chemult District were used in this assessment compared to all of Oregon and Washington in DecAID. Structural stage and species composition were more specific to local conditions in this assessment than DecAID. Stand exam data on every stand was used to determine species composition and age class. A similar philosophy was used to that in the section of DecAID under considerations for developing, creating and retaining decayed wood elements. This philosophy is reflected in the cover clump selection, marking prescriptions and fuels treatments for each unit. It should be noted that much of the information used for the ponderosa community in the DecAID program comes from white-headed woodpecker research conducted on this forest. District personnel were involved with the collection of data for this research since its inception in the early 1990’s. The process used to identify, protect, mitigate and enhance snags and down wood in the Red Knight analysis is consist with the philosophy and information presented in DecAID.

Wildlife, forestry and fuels specialists also visited stands to assess conditions. Mortality across the entire ponderosa community was found in the large (+21” dbh) ponderosa pine size classes, and especially in the +30 dbh size classes. High mortality in the encroaching young fir (less than 80 years old) was also found. Mortality was higher than expected in the white pine in the higher elevations as well. Aerial flights to detect insect outbreaks recorded several events in and near the Red Knight area over the past several years. The largest outbreak detected is occurring in the high elevation lodgepole across the top of Yamsay Mountain adjacent to the Red Knight area.

Past salvage activities left the area with few large snags (about one large snag per two acres +21” dbh in size) and 3-10 per acre for snags less than 21” dbh prior to 1990. However, the large tree mortality since 1990 associated with drought stress, overstocking and disease/insect outbreaks has increased large tree snag numbers, often with 3-5 large snags per acre (this is based primarily on CVS plot data). Snags in the largest size classes far exceed the 100% population levels in the Eastside Screens for primary cavity excavators in ponderosa habitat and in mixed conifer habitats (14 per 100 acres). Large down ponderosa wood is common. Large down white fir left as cull logs in decks during past harvest operations is also common in the higher elevations.

The establishment of a lodgepole and fir understory has contributed a high level of snags and down wood typically less than 21” dbh in the ponderosa habitat. Snag levels in the smaller size classes far exceed the 100% population levels. Lodgepole and white fir down wood smaller than

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

21” in diameter far exceed LRMP and Eastside Screens down wood standards for ponderosa pine and create pockets of unacceptable high fuel loads.

Decadence is high in the aspen stands, in large part due to encroachment from conifers. Light incidental firewood harvest associated with campers is the primary impact to dead wood in aspen habitat. Large ponderosa and fir are a scattered component of aspen stands. As with other habitats in the Red Knight area, past salvage of the large dead ponderosa snags commonly occurred until the early 1990’s. Sizes and numbers of snags currently exceed 100% population levels for primary cavity excavators in aspen habitat.

Current Vegetation Survey Plots (CVS) in the Red Knight and adjacent Yamsay area were reviewed for snag data. All were in the ponderosa habitats. Seven plots taken from 2000-2006 showed snag densities from 0-14.2 snags/acre in the less than 20” dbh size class with an average of 7.4 snags/acre of the less than 20” size class. Snags 20” dbh and greater ranged from 0- 4.3/ acre with an average of 1.6 snags/acre 20” dbh or greater in size. Bark beetles and other impacts from drought and overstocking have increased the amount of decadence within the forest in the intervening years. In particular, higher levels of snags and “cull” trees are in mixed conifer stands due to decadence components present in the white fir.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Snags and Down Wood

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Snags and Down Wood

Commercial harvest, thinning and fuel treatments within the ponderosa, mixed conifer and aspen habitats will continue to exceed the LRMP (as modified by the Eastside Screens) snag 100% management recommendations and for LRMP down wood standards for each habitat type after actions are complete. No ponderosa pine, white pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, aspen or white fir snags or down wood > 10 inches in diameter that are present would be salvaged.

Pockets of merchantable (at least 60% sound wood) dead lodgepole under 21” dbh may be salvaged in the restoration treatments, where levels exceed the requirements in the LRMP as modified by the Eastside Screens. Although the LRMP/Eastside Screens snag retention amounts are less than DecAID’s 30% tolerance level recommendation for lodgepole pine snag management, they only refer to retention of decay class 1 and 2 snags and logs, and do not account for the pieces in further states of decomposition that would also remain to provide habitat. Retention patches within the units would focus on protecting groups of snags and logs, and the No Treatment areas include riparian zones that are dense with lodgepole pines, including snags. The amount of lodgepole pine snags that are actually retained within the project would exceed the minimum requirements. Outside of the project, Yamsay Mountain in particular has a large stand of dead lodgepole pine that has succumbed to bark beetles, and other pockets of dead lodgepole are frequently found in the vicinity. Habitat will persist across the landscape for those

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 wildlife species which key in on lodgepole snags.

Underburning and jackpot burning would lower the small (<10” dbh) diameter natural down wood fuels where it occurs (see Fuels report for more details). About 30-40% of each unit will remain unburned. Most of the down wood tonnage in under burn units will be large diameter logs that are not burned, and to a lesser degree the natural slash piles in the unburned areas. This is consistent with the needs of wildlife species associated with ponderosa pine and mixed conifer habitats, as discussed above.

Those aspen units proposed for commercial treatment would leave large down wood to help protect regenerating aspen from big game browse. Additional conifers may be dropped to also provide aspen sprout protection, which would contribute to persistence of logs on the landscape.

Concentrations of thinning slash within 200’ of roads within the mixed conifer habitat will be hand piled and burned. Hand piles next to roads are undesirable for wildlife and will not be retained to meet the LRMP pile standard. All other natural fuels will be left on site in the mixed conifer habitats. Away from the roads, at least one pile of slash or natural piles of limbs shall be retained per acre as described in the PDF section, to provide habitat for small animals (LRMP pg. 4-52).

Reducing stocking levels of trees in treatment units for forest health purposes would reduce future recruitment of snags by decreasing the natural insect and disease agents that cause snags to form. In particular, future small diameter snags would be reduced in number as a side-effect of the fuels reduction treatments. Small and large scale retention patches would retain connectivity through the project for wildlife associated with snags, as discussed above. The untreated forest surrounding the project area would continue to provide ample habitat for snag associated species.

Large trees and snags would be retained. Current snag data (2002-2006 CVS plots) compares to the recommendation for the 50% tolerance level in Ponderosa Pine, Larger Tree Vegetation Condition. Although it is possible that development of future large snags may be somewhat retarded post-treatment as inter-tree competition is reduced, many of the large trees present already have decay components such as mistletoe or broken tops and fungi infections that would continue to provide habitat for white-headed and pileated woodpeckers. Thinning in the ponderosa pine and mixed conifer is expected to have a long-term salutary effect on retention of large trees and future large snags.

Cumulative Effects on Snags and Down Wood Salvage of large snags, harvest of large green trees that would eventually become snags and coarse woody debris, and yarding unmerchantible large coarse wood have all contributed to loss of desirable snags and down wood in the past. During the early 1990’s, the area was considered below the Forest Plan standards for dead coarse wood and snags were created in the area. However, policy changes that eliminated salvage of large dead snags and harvest of live green trees greater than 21”dbh, and nearly 100% fire suppression in the area have contributed to highly overstocked stands over much of the area, and recruitment from bugs and diseases have

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 reversed this deficiency. The desirable large coarse wood is being maintained above forest plan standards and is expected to remain so through the foreseeable future.

Rock Outcrops Species of concern that may inhabit or use rock outcrops include eagles, pallid and fringe-tailed bats, black bears, coyotes, bobcats, and mountain lions. Rock outcrops along some of the ridges or draws can also provide topographic hiding cover, especially in occasions where the rocks interrupt the landscape view from the roadside. Rocks or topological formations may provide improved microclimates for big game, as well (Parker and Gillingham, 1990). According to the LRMP, the project shall be designed to protect cliffs (including rimrock), caves, and talus habitat. Protection shall include vegetative protection zones of at least 200 feet adjacent to these habitats that are being used by mammals or birds for denning, roosting, or nesting. Foot travel over the rocks will be discouraged in layout and implementation plans to protect bat and other species’ habitats from disturbance, and for safety.

Effects of No Action, the Proposed Action, and Cumulative Effects to Rock Outcrops

There are no anticipated direct or indirect effects of no action on rock outcrops. Project design features should guarantee that there will be no indirect effects from the proposed action. Since there will be no direct or indirect effects, there will be no cumulative effects from no action or the proposed action.

Riparian Hardwoods Existing and Desired Future Conditions

Riparian hardwoods are used by every wildlife species in this area. The red-naped sapsucker is identified as a focal bird species for large aspen. It is desirable to maintain or enhance riparian hardwoods on the forest and to maintain a variety of age classes (LRMP pg. 4-52).

Walk through surveys were conducted in riparian zones within the Red Knight area. Aspen, alder and willow were the most common hardwood species found along many reaches of Jackson Creek. These hardwoods were also found associated with springs and seeps in a few locations along the intermittent streams. Fire disturbance is a primary successional driving force in riparian hardwoods. The lack of fire has allowed fir and lodgepole to encroach more than would occur naturally. The conifers are shading out the hardwoods resulting in poor recruitment of new aspen.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Riparian Hardwoods

There would be no direct actions taken to improve existing vegetation and forest fuels conditions and move them in the direction of more fire-adapted ecosystems. Current fire risk would be retained in the short-term, and would increase in the longer-term.

No action would retain current levels of conifer encroachment within riparian areas, resulting in 133

Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 no improvement to the vitality of aspen stands. No direct efforts would be made to improve functionality and sustainability of riparian areas or aquatic habitat directly influenced by them.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Riparian Hardwoods

About 100 acres of clearly delineated aspen stands would have the conifer encroachment cut down to stimulate aspen sprouting. Another 950 acres of forested or meadow riparian areas with widely distributed aspen and willows would be treated to reduce conifers and restore heterogeneity of the area. Some of the conifers close to Jackson Creek would be directionally felled into the creek to provide large wood for creek habitat.

Riparian hardwood zones provide important big game cover corridors in the Red Knight area. The LRMP requires that shrubs and trees be managed to maintain at least 50% of the riparian area in hiding cover for big game. Proposed aspen treatments make up almost half of the riparian acres in the Red Knight area. Proposed treatments in aspen would create openings in small patches within each aspen unit. The overall aspen hiding cover characteristics of shrubs, down wood, and aspen stem density would be retained after treatment. The net short term loss of hiding cover in aspen riparian habitat would be very small. Within 10 years, the anticipated aspen re-sprouting effects associated with conifer removal would fill in the openings with aspen stems that would provide both food and cover for big game.

In addition to re-establishing a healthy age class distribution at each stand, the aspen is expected to push out from its current perimeter in some cases up to a couple hundred feet, particularly in the areas where adjacent units are thinned and underburned, allowing more sunlight and moisture to reach into the aspen stands.

While under burns may creep from adjacent ponderosa units into aspen patches, aspen would not be intentionally under burned, in part due to the increased concentrations of large down wood used to protect sprouts. Small areas away in openings away from existing trees or large down wood and snags within the perimeter of an aspen stand may be jackpot burned to reduce accumulations of small diameter wood or brush. Burned areas would likely stimulate “suckering” or sprouting from adjacent aspen.

Post-treatment, aspen stands are expected to expand and remain on the landscape longer than would occur without treatment, as aspen are shade intolerant. Jackpot burning in and around the aspen is expected to promote “suckering” that would add another cohort to the age classes of the aspen. This meets the LRMP management direction (pg. 4-52) to “Maintain or enhance hardwood (aspen and cottonwood) production on the Forest. Maintain a variety of hardwood age classes on the forest.”

Almost all of the wildlife species of concern found in the project area may use aspen for some part of their lifecycle, as discussed above. This project would be a benefit to these animals as it is expected to increase both the quantity and the longevity of aspen in the local landscape.

Cumulative Effects on Riparian Hardwoods

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013

Removing conifer encroachment from aspen stands is a forest wide effort being undertaken, and part of all of the foreseeable projects in the surrounding area. Mechanical treatments mimic some of the natural maintenance features that low intensity underburns would provide such as killing conifers, but not all, such as nutrient recycling. Mechanical treatments are more precise than underburns for removing non-desirable encroaching trees and maintaining the rest. However, underburns would stimulate more sprouting than mechanical treatments. While costly and not as effective for sprouting as fire, mechanical treatments will help to maintain aspen across Red Knight and in the surrounding projects.

3.3.8 – Aquatic Species and Habitat Jackson Creek is only fish-bearing stream in the Red Knight project area. While Jackson Creek is potentially the largest tributary stream of the upper Williamson River, it is no longer directly tributary to the upper Williamson River. Extensive development for water diversion and power generation on private lands between the national forest and the upper Williamson River has effectively disconnected the surface flow historically reaching the Williamson River.

Jackson Creek is fish bearing and is subject to high natural fine sediment loads. There is a need to maintain current spawning/rearing habitat capability in Jackson Creek as it is used recreationally for fishing by the general public, as well as by a number of tribal family groups for much of each summer. ODFW conducted a stream survey for Jackson Creek in October/November of 1991 and recorded the data in GIS format (ODFW 1999). The ODFW stream survey data was compared to ODFW habitat benchmarks (ODFW benchmarks provided in Appendix C of the fisheries report). Relative to the ODFW benchmarks for healthy streams, most reaches of Jackson Creek rated as moderate. Two out of five reaches contained an equal number of benchmarks rated as undesirable and desirable. Another two reaches had more desirable benchmarks than undesirable benchmarks. Only one reach contained more undesirable benchmarks than desirable. The benchmark most commonly identified as rating as undesirable was the percent sand, silt, and organics in riffle complexes. Interestingly, the benchmark most commonly identified as desirable was the percent gravel content of riffle complexes. As with elsewhere in the basin, the erodible pumice soils of the basin may be the cause for the high percentage of sand and silt found in Jackson Creek. It is uncertain how much of this is a result of natural erosion processes and how much is a result of past land management practices (i.e., logging, road development, grazing, etc.). Benchmarks generally rated as desirable included shading and the quantity and volume of large woody debris.

Guidance for the management of fish bearing streams comes from the Inland Native Fish Strategy Environmental Assessment (INFISH). INFISH amends the management direction established in Regional Guides and all existing land and resource management plans covered by the assessment. Therefore, the existing Winema LRPM is amended by the adoption of the Inland Native Fish Strategy Environmental Assessment Decision Notice and Finding of No Significant Impact (USDA Forest Service, 1995).

INFISH is intended to provide interim direction to protect habitat and populations of native fish outside the range of anadromous fish habitat in eastern Oregon. Inland native fish species within the scope of this document have been identified by state, private, and federal agencies as being at

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 risk due primarily to habitat degradation, introduction of exotic species, over-fishing, and loss of migratory forms. The interim direction is in the form of riparian objectives, standards and guidelines, and monitoring requirements.

Since the quality of water and fish habitat in aquatic systems is inseparably related to the integrity of upland and riparian areas within watersheds, the strategy identifies several goals for watershed, riparian, and stream channel conditions. The goals contained in this document established an expectation of the characteristics of healthy, functioning watersheds, riparian areas, and associated fish habitats. They are:

1) Water quality, to a degree that provides for stable and productive riparian and aquatic ecosystems.

2) Stream channel integrity, channel processes, and the sediment regime (including the elements of timing, volume, and character of sediment input and transport) under which the riparian and aquatic ecosystems developed.

3) Instream flows to support healthy riparian and aquatic habitats, the stability and effective function of stream channels, and the ability to route flood discharges.

4) Natural timing and variability of the water table elevation in meadows and wetlands.

5) Diversity and productivity of native and desired non-native plant communities in riparian zones.

6) Riparian vegetation to:

a) provide and amount and distribution of large wood debris characteristic of natural aquatic and riparian ecosystems b) provide adequate summer and winter thermal regulation within the riparian and aquatic zones; and c) help achieve rates of surface erosion, bank erosion, and channel migration characteristic of those under which communities developed.

7) Riparian and aquatic habitats necessary to foster the unique genetic fish stocks that evolved within the specific geo-climatic region.

8) Habitat to support populations of well-distributed native and desired non-native plant, vertebrate, and invertebrate populations that contribute to the viability of riparian dependent communities.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Aquatic Species and Habitat

The no action alternative would not remove the cabin and associated pit toilet at Jackson Creek restoration of the adjacent riparian area and decrease in pollution of the water table would not be

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 realized. The recommended road decommissioning and maintenance would not occur and current sources of fine sediment would continue to degrade fish habitat in Jackson Creek. The no action alternative would maintain and allow current fire risk to continue to rise.

Aspen release activities in the Jackson Creek Corridor would result in some very low numbers of conifer being felled to the stream channel. If this did not occur additional wood pool creators would not be used to increase pool numbers and fish habitat complexity. Aspen leaf fall is known to improve primary productivity of stream channels as the leave decompose. Minor benefits resulting from an improved hardwood community would not be realized.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Aquatic Species and Habitat Within the Red Knight planning area there is only one perennial and fish-bearing stream, Jackson Creek. Due to the lack of hydrologic connectivity from the planning area to other streams, only fish habitat within Jackson Creek is potentially affected by proposed actions. The potential for impacts from the proposed actions would be 1-10 years.

Proposed actions will improve conditions and maintain the potential for the return of some of these species, most notably redband trout, to return to Jackson Creek. Treatment units in the vicinity of Jackson Creek have been designed to assure that the potential for sediment delivery is minimized or eliminated. No mechanized entry or commercial thinning for aspen restoration is planned within Class 1 INFISH RHCAs within a distance equivalent to one site-potential tree length. Use of best management practice and applicable forest plan standards and guidelines will minimize impacts from use of the existing road system.

Two unnamed, intermittent stream channels in the NE corner of the planning area are tributary to Jackson Creek. All treatment units adjacent to these tributaries will receive the full INFISH buffer widths, assuring that any potential for sediment delivery to these channels is minimized. Use of best management practice and applicable forest plan standards and guidelines will minimize impacts from use of the existing road system.

Road System

Both in-sloped and out-sloped roads benefit from proper road maintenance in order to prevent runoff concentrating on the running surface. On in-sloped roads, concentrated road surface runoff may result in bypassed relief culverts, while on out-sloped roads road runoff will drain off the road prism as concentrated flow rather than dispersed sheet flow. Runoff can detach and transport the fine material available on unpaved road surfaces. Without vehicle traffic, the sediment concentration in the road runoff decreases over time. However, with vehicle traffic, especially heavy trucks, road surface aggregate material is crushed by use generating more fine particles for transport by runoff. Road erosion rates generally increase with increased traffic, and heavy vehicles tend to cause more erosion than light vehicles. Higher use also is associated with the requirement for more frequent maintenance operations. Repeated road grading increases the amount of available sediment and road erosion rates.

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The impacts of traffic on sediment production can be mitigated through the use of Best Management Practices (BMPs), such as rocking the road surface and ditch armoring (Burroughs and King 1989; Megahan and others 1992). Interim results from the Spencer Creek Road Inventory indicate that sediment production from surfaced roads is on the order of 0.2 pounds per 100 ft2 of road surface, while unsurfaced roads may produce an order of magnitude more sediment (USDI 2004a).

Forest road impacts to hydrology and sediment yield are often correlated with road density and the number of stream crossings. Additionally, the connectivity between roads and streams can be affected by soil conditions, slope steepness, and road standards (USDA and USDI 2003).

Roads account for most of the sediment problems in a watershed because they are a link between sediment source areas (skid trails, landings, and cutslopes, etc.) and stream channels. A study of eroded material travel distances below fill slopes shows that more than 95 percent of relief culverts can be prevented from contributing sediment to streams if the travel distance is 300 feet or more. Roads with broad-based dips have nearly 100 percent of the contributing eroded material stopped within a travel distance of 100 feet (Burroughs and King, 1989). In addition, maintaining a buffer between the road and stream channel provides a filter that minimizes the introduction of fine sediment into the stream channel.

On many miles of low-use forest roads, vegetation has been allowed to grow on the running surface to reduce road-generated sediment. Although no formal assessment has been done, observations of these ‘brushed-in’ roads indicate that sediment production rates are a fraction of the rates for bare roads with traffic. Forest access for fuel management activities will likely require that these brushed-in roads be reopened by scraping the vegetation off the running surface and, to some degree, the cut and fill slopes. In many cases, reopening roads for fuel management activities also will attract additional recreational traffic.

Road Decommissioning The principal objective of road decommissioning is to prepare the location the road occupies so that the site has drainage restored to pre-road conditions or very near pre-road conditions. This results in the site hydrologically functioning as if no road was, or is present, and reduces further displacement and erosion of soils. Most of this work is done with a bulldozer, backhoe, and/or excavator. This may or not include obliteration of all evidence of the roadway, road cuts, fillslopes, and drainage ways associated with the former road. Actions routinely associated with road decommissioning are: removal of all culverts, out-sloping or other drainage methods to prevent un-natural concentration of water, ripping of compacted surfaces to facilitate vegetation growth, seeding, mulching, removing, or repairing precarious fills or portions of the road prism not secure and other actions to drain the site in a more natural manner. It will also improve hydrologic function of existing springs by removing compacted road surface in direct proximity to springs which improves groundwater supplies and refugia for aquatic species (e.g. amphibians, mollusks). Detrimental soil conditions within riparian reserves will be improved.

Effects to Fish Habitat from Road Generated Sediments Fine sediment depositing in stream channels can cause hydrologic alterations affecting fish habitat in a variety of ways. Increases in sedimentation resulting from increased erosion may

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 significantly affect fish habitat effectiveness. The accumulation of fine sediment can affect winter rearing habitat capabilities by decreasing the availability of interstitial spaces among rocks, roots, and large woody debris. It can affect summer rearing habitat capability by decreasing the amount of resting and holding pool habitat available to fish. Increased sediment can also affect the quality and quantity of spawning habitat available and subsequent egg survival.

Prescribed Burning Prescribed burning is increasingly being used to reduce fuel loads in forests. The major factor that determines the effects of burning on runoff and erosion is the amount of disturbance to the forest floor (surface organic material commonly referred to as duff) that protects the underlying mineral soil. The effects of burning can vary from merely removing some of the litter (a low burn severity) to totally consuming the duff layer and the organic matter in the upper soil layers (a high burn severity). Prescribed fires are generally designed to leave some level if residual duff in order to protect the mineral soil and maintain high water infiltration rates.

The hydrologic effects of prescribed burning are generally less severe than those of unmanaged wildfire. Because prescribed fires are typically intentionally set during times when flame lengths are expected to be low, fire residence times are expected to be short, and soil heating is expected to be low, the effects on soil are limited in severity and extent. The percent exposed mineral soil following low severity prescribed burns is generally between 5 and 30%, whereas values ranging from 35 to 95% have been reported following high severity prescribed burns or wildfires (Cooper, 1961; Van Lear and Danielovich, 1988; Van Lear and Kapeluck, 1989; Robichaud et al. 1993; Swift et al., 1993; Robichaud and Waldrop, 1994; Benavides and MacDonald, 2001; 2005). High severity burns that consume protective litter and expose mineral soil generally increase runoff and sediment yields, whereas low severity burns that only consume the upper litter layers have much less hydrologic impact (Wells et al., 1979).

Cumulative Effects on Aquatic Species and Habitat

There are no known past, present, or future actions considered that would result in any further cumulative effects when added to the proposed action.

3.3.9 – Threatened, Endangered, Sensitive, and MIS Aquatic Species Threatened and Endangered Fish Species and Proposed and Designated Critical Habitat The Red Knight area was reviewed for presence of listed fish species. A pre-field review for the presence of sensitive fish species in the project planning area and potentially affected fish bearing streams in the immediate vicinity was conducted. This revealed that there are no sensitive fish species in Jackson Creek.

Jackson Creek is occupied by a small population of non-native brook trout. No other fish species are currently present. Historically, Jackson Creek is believed to have been occupied by a number

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 of native fish species which are found in the upper Williamson River. Most notable of these is redband trout.

Jackson Creek and the upper Williamson River, (the upper Williamson River is outside of the project area) are perennial, fish-bearing streams. Table 8 discloses all fish species present in Jackson Creek and the Upper Williamson River, including identification of those which are Region 6 sensitive species,

Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects on Region 6 Sensitive Fish Species

Table 8. Fish Bearing Streams Adjacent to Red Knight Planning Area

Region 6 Stream Name Common Name Scientific Name Sensitive (Y or N)

Jackson Creek Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis N

Redband trout Oncorhynchus mykiss Y

Miller Lake lamprey Lampetra minima Y

Lamprey Lampetra spp N

Blue chub Gila coerulea N Upper Williamson River Tui chub Gila bicolor N Rhinichthys osculus Speckled dace N klamathensis Klamath largescale sucker Catostomus snyderi N

Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis N

Redband trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

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Interior redband trout are non-anadromous rainbow trout that occur in several basins throughout southeast Oregon, south-central Oregon, and northeast California. These basins are Malheur, Catlow Valley, Fort Rock, Chewaucan, Goose Lake, Upper Klamath and Warner Lakes (Behnke 1992). The redband trout is a USDA Forest Service Region 6 sensitive species.

Redband trout require four basic habitat types to accommodate life history requirements: spawning, rearing, adult, and overwintering (Behnke 1992). Adults require habitat for resting and feeding and thus are generally found in areas of abundant cover associated with deep pools, large organic material, undercut stream banks, and overhanging vegetation. Gravels free of sediments are optimum for spawning since sediment can smother eggs by impeding the free flow of oxygenated water and can trap alevins (Willers 1991). Intermittent streams can be effective for spawning when flow continues through juvenile emergence and downstream migration into perennial tributaries (Behnke 1992). After young trout emerge from the spawning gravel, they often rear in low velocity areas associated with stream margin habitats, high cover areas, and interstitial spaces. Within forested systems, large wood provides storage of sediment in the tributaries and contributes to the maintenance of water quality and productive fish habitat by both slowing water velocity upstream and trapping transported sediment. In lower gradient systems, sediment is trapped on active floodplains during high flow events. Over-winter sites, characterized by low velocity areas with cover, including large woody debris, are important to all age classes (Bjornn and Reiser 1991).

Redband trout are present in the Upper Williamson River. While numbers are higher from the Klamath Marsh upstream to Wickiup Springs where spawning is known to occur, they are found in the headwaters to Head of the River on the Yamsi Ranch (John Hyde, personal communication). During development of the Upper Williamson River OWEB assessment, field trips to the mouth of Irving and Jackson Creek revealed the potential for redband passage into a short section of the existing irrigation ditch system at the confluence with the Williamson River. None of the other project area streams are perennial, or seasonally fish bearing and there is no known presence of redband trout within the project area boundary.

The Upper Williamson River between the Klamath Marsh and the project area is less functional than in the past due to a combination of irrigation diversions and thermal blockages (high stream temperatures in the summer). Historically, redband trout would have migrated freely from rearing habitat in Upper Klamath Marsh to springs in the headwaters via a superior hydrologic connection due to the lack of water diversions and elevated water temperatures.

The redband trout's ability to adapt to a variety of habitat conditions and flexibility in behavior and life history characteristics is well known. Their diverse and adaptive tenancies, which result in local populations having distinctive characteristics, are typified in the Klamath Basin. Behnke (1992) states that redband possess a hereditary basis to persist at higher water temperatures, greater than 21°C (70°F) than other species of trout. Redband populations are known to tolerate temperatures ranging from 0º to 28º Celsius, as long as temperature changes are not abrupt and oxygen concentrations remain close to saturation at the upper and lower limits. Optimal temperature for growth and resistance to disease or parasitic infection is between 13º and 21º

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 degrees Celsius. Even in the face of these obstacles, redband populations appear to be capable of sustaining their presence in available habitat in most areas.

Diverse, well-established riparian communities provide important constituent elements needed for invertebrate production, shade, cover, and bank stability. In general, redband populations prefer streams and rivers of cool, clear, swift waters where riffles are the dominant habitat type. Riffles with suitable-sized gravel substrates are the preferred spawning habitat. The availability of suitable spawning gravels is also known to limit redband production in the upper Williamson River. In recent years a number of project involving the Klamath County Flycasters, Yamsi Ranch and ODFW have increased spawning gravel through placement in locations such as Wickiup Springs. While most redband populations spawn in the spring (February to June), spawn timing remains water temperature and flow related and may occur at most anytime of the year.

Miller Lake Lamprey (Lampetra minima) Miller lake lamprey is unique in being the world’s smallest known predatory lamprey, reaching an adult length of 3 to 6 inches and is endemic to the Klamath Basin (ODFW 2005). Miller Lake lampreys currently occupy relatively cool, clear streams (Gunckel and Reid 2004, Lorion et al. 2000). Adults are generally associated with structural cover, including loose rocks and woody debris. Miller Lake lamprey spawn in shallow redds in clean gravels and sand, which are moved out of the way by lamprey sucking onto small rocks and actively moving them out of the way (ODFW 2005). In streams, redds are generally made in shallow water, often at the tail of a pool or run, and are roughly 10 cm in diameter and a few centimeters deep. Adults die shortly after spawning.

Miller Lake lampreys are parasitic and feed only as adults. Adults feed primarily on flesh that is gouged and rasped out of a small wound (<11 mm) under the sucking disk (Cochran and Jenkings 1994, Kan and Bond 1981). Adults apparently show little selectivity for prey. The adult lampreys in Miller Lake historically fed on both tui chubs and available salmonids (rainbow, brook, and juvenile brown trout) in Miller Lake (Kan and Bond 1981). They also scavenged dead tui chubs and trout, as well as cannibalizing other lampreys. In Miller Creek, most recent observations found occasional lamprey wounds on brook trout, which were the most abundant species in the creek, but it is probable that lampreys also feed on both rainbows and young brown trout in the creek (S. Reid pers. obs. 1998). In Jack Creek lampreys feed on speckled dace, which is the only other fish present in the stream. In the Upper Sycan river they feed on both trout and dace. Unlike other predatory lampreys, but similar to non-feeding brook lampreys, adult Miller Lake Lampreys loose body length and mass between the time they transform and actual spawning, indicating that energetic needs and gonadal development are not compensated for by the amount of food they consume (Hubbs 1971, Kan and Bond 1981, Lorion et al. 2000).

Time to hatching is not known, but is probably on the order of a few weeks. Larvae (ammocoetes) emerge at about 8 mm and move directly into fine sediments. Ammocoetes (the larval stage lasting about 5 years) live in the substrate and are generally associated with depositional environments. In streams, ammocoetes are frequently found in silty backwater

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 areas, low energy stream edges, and in pool eddies where leaf litter and other organics (including adult lamprey carcasses) tend to accumulate. Ammocoetes have no eyes or teeth and are purely filter feeders, burrowing in fine sediments and feeding on suspended microorganisms and algae. The ammocoete phase lasts about five years, during which time the ammocoetes grow to around 150 mm. After transformation, adults enter a predatory phase before spawning that generally lasts for less than a year (transformation in the summer/fall to spawning in summer of the following year).

Species Presence Relative to the Project Area The Miller Lake lamprey (Photo 8) is endemic to the Klamath Basin. It has been documented in the upper Williamson River both upstream and downstream of the planning area.

Photo 8. Miller Lake Lamprey (Lampetra minima)

The results of the pre-field and field reviews for Region 6 sensitive species are summarized in Table 9.

Table 9. Sensitive Aquatic Species - Potential to Affect (Alternative 2) Potential to Potential to Potential to Potential to Present in Directly Directly Indirectly Indirectly Common Name Project Affect Affect Affect Affect Area Species Habitat Species Habitat Fish

Interior redband trout N N N N N

Miller Lake lamprey N N N N N

Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects on Region 6 Sensitive Aquatic Invertebrate Species

Western Ridge Mussel

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(The following description is taken from Nedeau et al. 2005). Western ridge mussel is also known as the Rocky Mountain ridge mussel. It is widely distributed west of the Continental Divide from California to British Columbia. In the northern part of their range they are mainly distributed east of the Cascades. Little is known about the life history of this species; fish hosts are unknown, but habitat preference suggests that it parasitizes coldwater stream fish such as trout and salmon. It is a relatively slow-growing, long-lived species. Western ridge mussels occur in streams of all sizes and are rarely found in lakes or reservoirs. They are found mainly in low to mid-elevation watersheds, and do not often inhabit high elevation headwater streams where western pearlshells (Margaritifera falcata) can be found. Although western ridge mussels often share habitat with the western pearlshell, western ridge mussels are more tolerant of fine sediments and occupy depositional habitats and banks, but are usually absent from habitats with unstable or very soft substrates. This species can tolerate some water pollution, but not heavy nutrient enhancement or similar problems (Frest and Johannes 1995).

Jackson Creek has been surveyed during electrofishing for fish presence as well as during fish habitat surveys. As individuals and colonies of this species are easily observed there is high confidence in the determination that western ridge mussel does not occur in Jackson Creek.

Montane Peaclam This taxon is a Great Basin endemic with very limited distribution. This species is found in streams, lakes, or ponds that are spring-influenced, preferring sand and gravel substrates. Best remaining populations are in Upper Klamath Lake, however, much of the lake habitat suitable for this endemic is eutrophic, has soft substrate, or both. The species is absent from such areas as well as from modified springs. Even in lake areas adjacent to best remaining spring pools and spring-fed creeks feeding into the lake, the species seems to be confined to areas with the best water quality (Frest and Johannes 1995). Populations from Tule Lake and Lower Klamath Lake have gone extinct. The status of Montane peaclam in the project area is uncertain as no specific surveys were conducted. Based on its preferred habitat, it is unlikely to occur in Jackson Creek. In addition, all potential adverse impacts to Jackson Creek and spring habitats favored by Montana peaclam are avoided by project design (avoidance or non-mechanized).

Turban Pebblesnail This taxon was once probably common in portions of the Oregon Interior Basin, in Lake and Malheur counties. The preferred habitat is small to large oligotrophic springs, in semi-arid sage scrub, having substrates of mud, sand, gravel, and cobbles. This species still survives in very few sites in its original range. Frest and Johannes (2000) report finding this species from four locations in the upper Chewaucan River watershed. Frest and Johannes describe this species as occupying about 30 sites total along a narrow belt of territory east of the Upper Klamath Lake drainage to Roaring Springs and south along the northern California Great Basin border into northwest Nevada. Existing surveys reveal that Turban pebblesnail does not exist within the project area.

Great Basin Ramshorn This Great Basin regional endemic has its best populations in the Upper Klamath Lake drainage. This is an unusual pulmonate that prefers soft substrate and lives primarily in well-oxygenated muds and clear, very cold, slowly flowing water (Frest and Johannes 1998); typically, very large

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 spring pools or strongly spring influenced areas in larger streams or lakes. The status of Great Basin Ramshorn in the project area is uncertain as no specific surveys were conducted. Based on its preferred habitat, it is unlikely to occur in the perennial reaches within the project area. In addition, all potential adverse impacts to its preferred habitat is avoided by project design (avoidance or non-mechanized).

Highcap Lanx Found in areas with stable cobble-boulder substrate and excellent water quality. This species respires through a system unique for pulmonates: a heavily vascularized mantle and enlarged heart. The lack of gills or lungs typical of other pulmonates limits the habitat to areas not subject to hypoxia or anoxia, and generally to cold, clear, flowing water especially oligotrophic streams, and areas with spring influence (Frest and Johannes 1995; 1998). Warm, slow, nutrient- enriched, or turbid water lack this species, and much of Klamath River is now unsuitable. The status of Highcap Lanx in the project area is uncertain as no specific surveys were conducted. Based on its preferred habitat, it is unlikely to occur in the perennial reaches within the project area as substrates are much finer than cobble-boulder particles. In addition, all potential adverse impacts to its preferred habitat is avoided by project design (avoidance or non-mechanized).

Scale Lanx The scale lanx is a strict endemic, found at approximately 18 spring-buffered sites in and around Upper Klamath Lake and Link River. This species lacks either lungs or gills and has modified the shell shape into a limpet-like from. Respiration is entirely through the mantle, limiting the habitat of the lancids generally to areas not subject to hypoxia or anoxia, and generally to cold, clear, flowing waters, especially oligotrophic streams and areas with considerable spring influence. Lake-living species of Lanx appear to have been relatively widespread in some of the Oregon Interior Basin Pliocene-Pleistocene lakes, but most such lakes are either now dry or are alkaline, conditions hostile to this species. This taxon, the only surviving lake Lanx, needs clear cold water and solid substrate. Existing surveys indicate that the Scale Lanx is a local endemic confined to Upper Klamath Lake and the Link River. It does not occur in the project area.

Archimedes Springsnail This taxon is known from about 11 spring and spring-influenced sites surrounding and in Upper Klamath Lake. This taxon prefers hard substrate and does best in areas with higher dissolved oxygen and some flow. It occurs mostly in areas of high water quality within the lake and in subaqueous, heavily spring influenced areas, rather than in springs or spring pools. Existing surveys indicate that the Scale Lanx is a local endemic confined to Upper Klamath Lake and the Link River. It does not occur in the project area.

Lined Ramshorn These snails lives in spring-fed lakes or ponds, as well as in exceptionally large spring-fed creeks and are restricted to hard substrate. Most sites have abundant woody debris. Based on its preferred habitat of lakes and ponds, Lined Ramshorn is unlikely to occur in the perennial reaches within the project area. In addition, all potential adverse impacts to its preferred habitat is avoided by project design (avoidance or non-mechanized) or restoration of spring habitat (beneficial).

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Summary of Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects on Region 6 Sensitive Aquatic Invertebrate Species The Region 6 sensitive aquatic mollusk species are listed above. None of these species occur in the project area, and project design features avoid impacting potential habitat. The determination of effects for both no action and the proposed action for Region 6 Sensitive Aquatic Invertebrate Species is “no impact” or environmental effects from the project on habitat, individuals, a population, or species. Therefore, there will be no cumulative effects on sensitive aquatic species.

Management Indicator Aquatic Species

Resident trout are used as management indicator species on the Winema National Forest (LRMP FEIS 3-137). Resident trout were selected by their value as sport fish species. Trout are present in most aquatic ecosystems on the Forest and are economically important to Klamath County. Klamath Lake, the Klamath River, and the Williamson River are the primary Klamath Basin trout fisheries. This fishery has been recognized statewide and nationwide for both the numbers and the size of these fish.

Direct, Indirect, and Cumulative Effects of the Proposed Action on Region 6 Sensitive and MIS Aquatic Species

Because their habitat can be significantly influenced by management practices, trout are indicator species for riparian and aquatic ecosystems. Trout habitat requirements are narrow enough to represent nearly all other fish species. In this role, trout (as a group) are moderately reliable in representing favorable habitat for other fish species and the presence or potential of other species. However, non-habitat dependent variables such as excessive sport harvest could make trout have low reliability in representing population trends in other fish species.

There are zero miles of occupied redband trout and bull trout habitat within the planning area. Jackson Creek is suitable habitat for redband trout, but isolated hydrologically from the Upper Williamson River. No occupied habitat for redband trout or bull trout will be affected by proposed actions. No critical habitat for bull trout will be affected by proposed actions. Forestwide, redband trout occupy nearly all of 60 miles of Class 1 streams. Bull trout occupy only one mile of stream on the Winema National Forest.

Determination of effect is made for Winema LRMP management indicator fish species. Those selected are redband trout and bull trout, as their habitat needs cover the range of conditions for other fish species on the forest. Because this project impacts 0% of current redband trout and 0% of current bull trout suitable habitat across the Forest, the overall direct, indirect, and cumulative effects will result in no additional effect to MIS aquatic fish species or habitats.

Based on the lack of species presence, implementation of the proposed action will have no effect on federally listed Lost River and shortnose suckers and bull trout. Based on an absence of any habitat, it is determined that implementation of the proposed action is not likely to adversely modify proposed critical habitat (NLAM) for federally listed Lost River and shortnose suckers and bull trout.

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Cumulative Effects on MIS Aquatic Species There are no direct and indirect effects on MIS Aquatic Species, therefore there will be no cumulative effects.

3.3.10 – Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive Plants Federally Listed Threatened, Endangered, or Candidate Plant Species Documented or suspected habitat for federally listed Threatened or Endangered plant species does not occur on the Fremont-Winema National Forest. Applegate’s milkvetch, Astragalus applegatei is listed as Endangered in Klamath County. This plant is known from six sites in the Lower Klamath Basin near the city of Klamath Falls. It is restricted to flat-lying, seasonally moist habitats with strongly alkaline soils, which were historically characterized by sparse, native bunch grasses and patches of bare soil (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1998). This habitat type does not occur on the Forest. One plant species with documented habitat on the Forest is currently a Candidate for listing in Klamath and Lake Counties, Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine).

R6 Sensitive Vascular Plants, Bryophytes, Lichens and Fungi Sensitive Species known or suspected to occur on the Fremont-Winema National Forest are listed in Appendix D. Species that have not been located in previous surveys and/or have no suitable habitat in the project area are given a determination of ‘No Impact’ and are not considered further. Five vascular plant species and two fungi have habitat in the project area. Those findings are summarized in the table below and are part of the effects analysis that follows.

Table 10. Summary of Species Determinations

Known Risk (likelihood Occur- of effects from Habitat in Habitat rences proposed Deter- Name Status project Description in harvest, mination area Project thinning, or Area burning) Yes – Basalt Northern basalt boulders and None – habitat Spleenwort outcrops outcrops in protected by Sensitive No are NI Asplenium areas with project design common in septentriona heavy snow features the project le pack area

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Openings in Yes – lodgepole, lodgepole Low - the ponderosa and Peck’s majority of pine, or ponderosa milkvetch activities juniper Sensitive No pine stands MIIH would likely Astragalus communities. with improve peckii Pumice, ash, pumice habitat or alluvial soils are soils present Yes – Low – Pumice Alpine peaks lodgepole individuals Grapefern and lodgepole basins with could be lost, Sensitive No MIIH Botrychium basins in pumice soil but habitat pumicola pumice zone occur in would be project area improved Openings in mid-high elev. pine, fir, and Yes – all of Low – the Blue-leaved mt hemlock the habitat majority of Penstemon stands. Well- features are activities Sensitive No MIIH Penstemon drained present in would likely glaucinus volcanic soils the project improve along rocky area habitat peaks and ridges This species Yes - The Low – grows in high project is activities Whitebark elevation mostly would improve Pine Pinus forests, Candidate Yes below the habitat; MIIH albicaulis generally elevation mitigation above 7,000 for this should prevent feet species direct impacts White fir Yes – a Moderate – mixed conifer portion of activities Hygrophoru forest at 5000- Sensitive No the project would occur in MIIH s caeruleus 5800’ Fruiting area is habitat for this bodies found white fir species in June mixed

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conifer

White fir, mixed conifer and lodgepole Yes – the Umbrella Moderate – stands with correct False Morel activities variable stand types Pseudorhizi Sensitive No would occur in MIIH canopy, moist are found na habitat for this to dry mineral in the californica species soil. 4300- project area 5300’ Fruits April-Sept.

Sensitive Species Information Species known to occur in the project area One candidate species Pinus albicaulis (whitebark pine), is known to occur within the project area. There is one record from the southeast portion of the project area. This is likely an extension of the known populations on the upper slopes of Yamsay Mountain, within the semi- primitive non-motorized recreation area. The elevations found on the upper slopes of the project area are below the typical elevation range for whitebark pine (usually begins to appear around 6500 ft). At the lower end of the elevational limit, this tree is found as a minor component of mixed conifer stands (Shoal et al., 2008). At these lower elevations; whitebark pine is often outcompeted by more shade-tolerant trees. Not all suitable habitat has been surveyed to date. Silviculturist Faith Brown visited the majority of the stands within the project area, but never documented a mature whitebark pine tree. Many of the whitebark pine trees above the project area on Yamsay Mountain were observed to have been killed or be infested with mountain pine beetle (Brown, personal communication, 2013).

The future of whitebark pine is of substantial concern throughout its range due to vulnerability to infection by the white pine blister rust, and susceptibility to infestation by mountain pine beetle. The species is also at risk of being destroyed in large and intense wildfires, and the likelihood of it being replaced in some subalpine mixed conifer forests by more shade-tolerant tree species. This trend is attributed to fire exclusion (Tomback et al., 2001). There are also important concerns about the impacts of climate change, particularly warming, on this high-elevation, cold- adapted species (Shoal et al., 2008).

Environmental Effects on Plants

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For the Red Knight Project, bounds used for direct effects analysis were as follows: the spatial extent of the project area boundary, in particular the treatment units and haul routes during the implementation of actions (3-10 years after sale). For indirect effects, the same spatial extent was used with a time period that is species-dependent according to the response/recovery time for each species. Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Plants For this analysis, it is assumed that no action would result in stand structure and composition continuing toward multi-layer stands with an understory dominated by small understory trees. White fir and lodgepole pine stocking would continue to increase in ponderosa pine stands. Mortality of individual large and medium diameter conifers would continue from resource competition and insect and disease activity, including bark beetle and dwarf mistletoe.

Plant diversity would remain the same or decrease given no active management. Understory shrubs, forbs and grasses would decline as litter layers deepen and conifers continue to utilize limited site resources and shade out understory vegetation. Plant species that require openings in the canopy or that require frequent fire or other disturbance might persist, but in lower numbers and in fewer areas. Conifers would continue dominance throughout the project area and hardwoods like aspen, willows and other riparian vegetation would decline. Many woody species that do not tolerate shade well, like bitterbrush and aspen, would become decadent and without conditions needed for recruitment or renewal, could be less useful as browse and/or eventually decline across the landscape.

Of the many different plant and fungi species that currently or historically were present in the project area, a very small number are shade tolerant or associate with white fir or lodgepole pine. These species may benefit from the trend that is expected in the project area under a no treatment alternative.

Fire hazard would increase with continued fuel accumulation as a result of increased stand density with a larger component of dead trees, deepening litter layers, and a decadent shrub component. In the event of a stand replacement fire, wildlife habitat would be greatly changed from loss of vegetation, and sensitive/cultural plant habitat could be temporarily lost. Sheet and gully erosion could be accelerated, reducing soil productivity and increasing impacts to aquatic species and streams.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Plants Candidate Species Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) The project area includes less than 1% of the total whitebark pine habitat on the Fremont- Winema. The occupied habitat within the project area is in the 1,630 acres slated for treatment to improve habitat for pileated woodpeckers, and is lower in elevation than most of the other whitebark pine habitat on the Forest. The proposed action does not include underburning in the pileated habitat treatment units. During proposed harvest and thinning activities, damage to seedlings and saplings from equipment has the potential to negatively impact individuals if they are present and are not marked for avoidance. Any occupied habitat discovered would have all live whitebark pine protected from cutting or damage during harvest and thinning. Temporary

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 road construction through occupied habitat would be avoided and should have no impact. Indirectly, opening the stand will improve habitat by reducing forest canopy and competition from other species, and the treatments as prescribed should be beneficial. Reducing competition may improve vigor in any remaining trees, making them less susceptible to bark beetle attack. Reduction of fuels would be expected to lower fire severity should a wildfire occur in this area. This would increase prospects of survival for any whitebark pine trees that might be present.

Sensitive Species Peck’s milkvetch (Astragalus peckii) No direct impacts are expected, as there are no known sites of this plant in the project area. Indirectly, underburning and canopy thinning could improve the habitat in the project area for Peck’s milkvetch, a species that typically grows in open conditions and responds well to fire. Some areas may be negatively impacted by litter accumulation as a result of activities; research indicates Peck’s milkvetch habitat is correlated with reduced litter (Martin & Meinke, 2012). Road creation, maintenance, closure and decommissioning activities will likely have a neutral effect on this species as loss of open areas is balanced by less ground disturbance.

Pumice grapefern (Botychium pumicola) If present, ground disturbance from both commercial harvest and fuels activities are likely to be detrimental to individual plants. Indirectly, habitat conditions may improve as a result of reduced canopy cover and debris. Road closure/decommissioning would benefit this species over the short term with reduced vehicle traffic, but that would end if roads became closed in with continuous cover from trees/shrubs. The habitat for this species is usually in areas with lodgepole pine and some areas could be negatively impacted by litter accumulation as a result of thinning without piling, firewood cutting and post and pole removal. Fuel accumulations, litter buildup, competition, and shade may be detrimental to the habitat for this species (ODA, 2013).

Blue-leaved penstemon (Penstemon glaucinus) No direct impacts are expected, as there are no known sites of this plant in the project area. Habitat for this species overlaps with pileated woodpecker treatment units as described above. Indirectly habitat would likely benefit from reduction in canopy cover and removal of litter from the forest floor, where it occurs. The best habitat would be created by exposing soil and reducing shade, provided vigorous shrub re-growth is not promoted. Road creation, maintenance, closure and decommissioning activities will likely have a neutral effect on this species as loss of open areas is balanced by less ground disturbance.

Fungi - Hygrophorus caeruleus and Pseudorhizina californica The proposed action may directly or indirectly impact Hygrophorus caeruleus if this fungus is present in any of the units. The best habitat for this species overlaps with the pileated woodpecker habitat, which has higher soil moisture and greater abundance of large fir trees. If present in units, there could be detrimental effects from the loss of host trees, removal of potential host trees, removal of large woody debris and ground disturbance. The proposed action will remove mature white fir (actual or potential hosts) and immature white fir (future potential hosts) from the unit stands. Ground disturbance from harvest activity can reduce mycorrhizal abundance (McIver et al., 2003). Underburning, pile burning, and jackpot burning where the

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 organic layer is consumed may reduce fungal mycelia activity or species richness (Smith et al., 2005). Since the habitat is mostly in areas that will not have underburning or jackpot burning, this is less of a concern. Activities that increase litter or canopy cover without removing large trees, as would be expected with road closure/decommissioning, firewood cutting, and post and pole operations, are likely to be beneficial to fungi. Over the long term, the project will reduce risk of stand-replacing wildfire and help maintain large diameter trees.

The proposed action may directly or indirectly impact Pseudorhizina californica if this species is present in any of the treatment units. Ground disturbance, underburning, and reduction of duff, litter, and woody debris in treatment units may be detrimental to saprophytic species. Many of the impacts described above would apply to this species as well, since fungi require the same microclimates. Saprophytes are not impacted by loss of host trees in the same way as mycorrhizal fungi and have a greater dependence on woody debris. Down woody material will be maintained in the portions of the project area that are the best potential habitat for this species.

Cumulative Effects on Plants The primary past, ongoing, and foreseeable future activities with potential to affect sensitive plant species in the project area include, timber harvest and other vegetation management activities (including prescribed fire), mountain pine beetle, livestock grazing, recreation, road construction and travel management. The residual impacts of past actions have, in combination with natural events, resulted in the distribution of individuals or habitat described in the existing condition.

Candidate Species Whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) The Forest has thousands of acres of suitable habitat for this tree species, but the analysis area for cumulative effects includes the area of potentially occupied habitat in the project area and the occupied habitat above the project area on Yamsay Mountain. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following: vegetation management, mountain pine beetle, road construction and travel management.

Since exact occupied acres are unknown due to incomplete survey on the forest, the amount of acres that may have been impacted is unknown as well. Whitebark pine occupies high elevation forest, which for the purposed of this analysis is in a non-motorized area where the natural disturbance regime prevails. Over the past 30 years the combination of lack of fire, climate change and mountain pine beetle activity has caused extensive mortality in mature trees. The mortality has created openings in the forest canopies that are serving as nurseries for various tree species, including whitebark pine.

On-going and future foreseeable activities may have effects on whitebark pine habitat that overlap with the effects of the Proposed Action. The Modoc vegetation project has similar habitat and activities as the Red Knight project, except whitebark pine was not part of any biological evaluation for Modoc because it was not a candidate for listing at the time of that analysis. Although there are no mitigations specified in the EA, any individuals located during

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 implementation would be protected and treated according to the recommendations in the current conservation strategy. The combined impact of the vegetation projects in the analysis area should be beneficial in the long-term. Many roads into occupied and suitable habitat have been closed to access. This will help minimize disturbance from vehicles and the potential for noxious weed introduction into occupied and suitable habitat.

Impact Determination for whitebark pine The number of affected individuals would likely be few or none, the habitat affected is marginal for this tree species and would be improved by the proposed treatment. Alternative 2 may impact individuals or habitat of whitebark pine, but will not likely cause a loss of viability of the population, or the species as a whole, or cause a trend toward Federal listing (MIIH). Compared to no action, Alternative 2 provides some opportunity to improve and protect habitat for whitebark pine.

Sensitive Species Peck’s milkvetch (Astragalus peckii) The analysis area for cumulative effects on Peck’s milkvetch habitat includes upland forest openings and meadow edges. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following. Vegetation management, grazing, dispersed recreation, road construction and travel management.

On-going and future foreseeable activities may have effects on Peck’s milkvetch habitat that overlap with the effects of the Proposed Action. Activities include the Modoc vegetation project, Blue Jay vegetation project, continued grazing, recreation use, and firewood cutting. Vegetation treatments may cause short-term disturbance to habitat, but over the long-term, could improve habitat suitability by reducing tree cover. Road maintenance, dispersed recreation, and firewood cutting may continue to have minor impacts on habitat in some areas.

Grazing has a mixed impact. Removal of competing vegetation is beneficial, while soil compaction found in heavy use areas is not. Although results of the study were inconclusive, Carr et al. (2007) stated that Peck’s milkvetch may be somewhat resistant to occasional disturbance, but that repeated disturbance as would occur in heavy or frequent use areas could be detrimental. Activities that cause additional ground disturbance in these already disturbed areas could cause habitat to be unsuitable for this species.

The Proposed Action may combine with impacts of past actions to result in a cumulative effect on Peck’s milkvetch habitat. Habitat for this species has not benefited from past management actions, including fire suppression and the removal of larger trees, which contributed to a condition of overstocked stands with a continuous litter layer. Alternative 2 may reverse some of those impacts by moving stands with potential habitat toward a condition that this species would respond to – an open stand that could be burned periodically without damage to the soil or mature trees. Areas within the project that already experience frequent disturbance will not benefit from the proposed action unless in the future the disturbance becomes less frequent.

Impact Determination for Peck’s milkvetch

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Impact determinations are displayed in Table 2. No known sites occur in the project area and there is suitable habitat for this species elsewhere on the Forest. The majority of activities that may have effects on Peck’s milkvetch habitat would likely improve habitat conditions for this species. Activities that result in a net accumulation of litter are expected to occur on fewer acres than activities that would reduce litter in the habitat for this plant. With all direct, indirect, and cumulative effects discussed above, Alternative 2 may impact individuals or habitat of Peck’s milkvetch, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause a loss of viability to the population or species (MIIH). As compared to no action, Alternative 2 has greater potential to improve habitat for Peck’s milkvetch.

Pumice grapefern (Botychium pumicola) The analysis area for cumulative effects on pumice grapefern includes lodgepole pine basins in the Red Knight, Modoc and Bluejay project areas. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following. Vegetation management, grazing, dispersed recreation, road construction and travel management.

On-going and future foreseeable activities may have effects on the pumice grapefern that overlap with the effects of the Proposed Action. Activities include the Modoc vegetation project, Blue Jay vegetation project, continued grazing, recreation use, and firewood cutting. Vegetation treatments may cause short-term disturbance to habitat, but over the long-term, could improve habitat suitability by reducing tree cover. Road maintenance, dispersed recreation, and firewood cutting may continue to have minor impacts on habitat in some areas.

The Proposed Action may combine with impacts of past actions to result in a cumulative effect on the pumice grapefern. Vegetation management and fire suppression have resulted in an increase in smaller trees in parts of the analysis area. Alternative 2 and treatments proposed in other project areas may move stands with potential habitat toward a condition that this species would respond to – an open stand with lower fuel levels. Some activities such as post and pole operations, may reduce canopy cover, but increase ground disturbance, fuel and woody debris. These instances would be limited to a small portion of the habitat in the analysis area.

Impact Determination for pumice grapefern If present, individuals could be lost as a result of project activities, but in the long-term habitat would be improved. The Proposed Action may impact individuals or habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause a loss of viability to the population or species (MIIH).

Blue-leaved penstemon (Penstemon glaucinus) The analysis area for cumulative effects on blue-leaved penstemon habitat includes openings in higher elevation forest in the Red Knight, Modoc and Bluejay project areas, as well as occupied habitat up higher on Yamsay Mountain. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following. Vegetation management, mountain pine beetle, grazing, road construction and travel management.

The mountain pine beetle has been active within the vicinity of the project area. This has caused a high mortality in mature pine trees. As these trees die, openings in the forest canopy are being

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 created. These openings now have more direct sunlight, creating additional habitat for blue- leaved penstemon in the long term.

Livestock grazing has occurred for decades in blue-leaved penstemon habitat. Grazing has likely had a minor impact on the species. Blue-leaved penstemon generally grows in sparsely vegetated areas where either no grazing or light grazing occurs and does not appear to be palatable to ungulates (Wooley, 1993).

Road construction bisected populations and removed a small percent of the habitat. Any opening and “edge” effect created by road construction was likely not detrimental to this species, which prefers open habitats.

On-going and future foreseeable activities may have effects on blue-leaved penstemon habitat that overlap with the effects of the Proposed Action. Activities include the Modoc vegetation project, Blue Jay vegetation project, and road maintenance. Vegetation treatments may cause short-term disturbance to habitat, but over the long-term, could improve habitat suitability by reducing tree cover. Road maintenance may continue to have minor impacts on habitat in some areas. With the implementation of travel management, roads into occupied and suitable habitat have been closed to access. This will help minimize ground disturbance and the potential for noxious weed introduction into occupied and suitable habitat.

Impact Determination for blue-leaved penstemon Habitat would likely be improved by planned treatments; most of the habitat for this species is outside the Red Knight project area. The Proposed Action may impact individuals or habitat for blue-leaved penstemon, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause a loss of viability to the population or species (MIIH).

Fungi - Hygrophorus caeruleus and Pseudorhizina californica The analysis area for cumulative effects on these two fungi includes Yamsayi Mt and project areas planned on the lower slopes within mixed conifer forest. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following: vegetation management, mountain pine beetle, road construction and travel management.

Vegetation management projects, including timber sales and fuels treatments, and the roads associated with these projects may have impacted habitat for these fungi. The ground disturbance caused by these activities would likely have had a negative effect. Canopy opening and reduction of fuels caused by these activities may also have negatively impacted habitat for Hygrophorus caeruleus or Pseudorhizina californica. However, the majority of the habitat in the analysis area has likely benefitted from the increase that has occurred over time in canopy closure and in white fir as a component of mixed conifer stands.

The mountain pine beetle has been active within the vicinity of the project area. The mortality within the pine tree species could reduce suitable habitat through the loss of available host trees, adequate shade, and mesic site conditions.

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With the implementation of travel management, roads into occupied and suitable habitat have been closed to access. This will help minimize ground disturbance and may increase available habitat as closed roads re-vegetate.

Impact Determination for Hygrophorus caeruleus Because the best habitat within the project area is in the units where the goal is to maintain large white fir, and there is suitable habitat for this species outside the analysis area, the Proposed Action may impact individuals or habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause a loss of viability to the population (MIIH) for this species.

Impact Determination for Pseudorhizina californica The risk of impact to this fungus is low because it is unlikely the species is present. Only a single site has been previously located on Chemult District, several miles from the project area. The Proposed Action may impact individuals or habitat, but will not likely contribute to a trend towards Federal listing or cause a loss of viability to the population or species (MIIH).

3.3.11- Invasive Plants Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Invasive Plants The proposed action would increase the potential for noxious weed spread and introduction in the short term. The increase in activity and traffic in the area would increase the chance for introduction of noxious weed seeds from vehicles and off-road equipment as compared to no action. In addition, ground disturbing treatment activities, such as harvest, thinning, and prescribed broadcast and pile burning, would increase the amount of open disturbed habitat available for infestation. However, because invasive plants are uncommon in the vicinity of the project area and a large seed source is not present, the risk is still relatively low. Over the long term, the activities proposed in Alternative 2 however, would reduce the future risk for a high severity fire. Decreasing the risk of high severity fire would reduce the potential to create noxious weed habitat. This project is proposing to close 4.3 miles and decommission 233.8 miles of roads. This would reduce the opportunity for noxious weed introduction and spread throughout the project area. Proposed construction of temporary roads, road maintenance, and repair would increase the amount of open disturbed habitat available for infestation.

Cumulative Effects on Invasive Plants The current, ongoing, and foreseeable future activities in the project area with potential to affect noxious weeds include timber harvest and other vegetation management activities (including prescribed fire), livestock grazing, recreation, road construction and travel management. Any project or activity that would increase the amount of open disturbed habitat available for infestation and heighten the chance for introduction of noxious weed seeds from vehicles, equipment, people and animals increases the probability of infestation. Over the long-term, vegetation management projects would reduce the probability of a future high severity fire, which has the potential to create noxious weed habitat on a large scale.

Continuation of the Forest Service road maintenance program is expected to occur. Maintenance of existing roads could create noxious weed habitat. However, coordination between the road

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With all the direct, indirect, and cumulative effects discussed above, the proposed action would have a higher risk of introducing and spreading weeds within the project area than no action. However, due to the absence of weeds in the project area at present, the risk is low. Required Forest Plan invasive species prevention standards and recommended Fremont-Winema Prevention Practices apply to the proposed actions, and would be used where applicable to reduce the risk even further.

3.3.12 Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes There are numerous plant, fungi and lichen species present in the project area that are of interest to the Klamath Tribes for cultural or other reasons. Appendix E contains information for the 34 botany species listed regarding the habitat, presence/abundance in the project area, mode of reproduction, preferred successional stage, palatability to livestock, value to big game, and response to disturbance including soil compaction and fire.

Most species of interest to the Klamath Tribes are probably under-represented in their current distribution relative to the historic occurrence of these species within the project boundary. The majority of the species of interest in the table are early to mid-successional. Some of these species may occur in lesser numbers than historically because of the dominance of dense conifer stands in parts of the planning area and the lack of fire as a disturbance.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes

The direct and indirect effects of no action on plant species of interest to the Klamath Tribes would be the same as the direct and indirect effects of no action on plant species, listed on page 144.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes The Proposed Action may have direct effects on cultural plants in the project area, if present in the treatment areas. Ground disturbance and soil compaction by machinery could result in reduced vigor or mortality of plants or fungi. Removal of supporting trees could be detrimental to lichen. There are no actions planned that could result in permanent loss of habitat for any of the cultural plants. More than 80% of the cultural plants known to be present in the project area are early to mid-successional or do not tolerate shade. Therefore, the proposed action should improve habitat for these plants by opening stands, reducing the depth of litter on the forest floor and removing encroachment from riparian areas. A number of the cultural plant species like strawberry, yarrow and horsetail are known to occupy disturbed ground. Others respond positively to disturbance, taking advantage of openings or exposed mineral soil - conditions that are created by thinning or low-moderate intensity fire. Letharia spp. may also respond positively to canopy-opening as are typically found on exposed parts of trees and not in shaded, closed

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Some species like camas, bearberry and mountain mahogany are found in specialized habitats within the project area. These species may be little impacted as those areas will likely experience less ground disturbance as a result of project activities.

The remaining species of cultural plants need mid-late successional stands or prefer shady areas. Prince’s pine and elephant ear fungus would be most common in the higher elevation mixed conifer stands within the project area. Although both species would disappear with canopy opening and could be killed by fire, thinning would be less and underburning will not occur in the areas with the best habitat. Bryoria spp. would likely decline in biomass with a reduction in canopy complexity and moisture, although some species of this genus do appear to have a positive response to this change (Lehmkuhl, 2004). Valerian is found in wet habitats and would have some protection from the added mitigations required in areas with wet soil, but would not respond well to loss of canopy cover.

Cumulative Effects on Plant Species of Interest to the Klamath Tribes The analysis area for cumulative effects includes riparian, upland forest, and habitats with rocky slopes. Actions that occurred during the past 30 years that may have affected the species include the following: timber harvest and other vegetation management activities (including prescribed fire), livestock grazing, road construction and travel management.

Vegetation management has impacted cultural plants in different ways. The proposed treatments may be able to offset some of the detrimental effects that fire suppression may have had on the many cultural plant species that are favored by early to mid-successional habitats. Many of these plants are expected to respond to treatments that reduce canopy cover and/or reduce litter depth. The proposed treatments should improve growing conditions and survivability of large trees in the project area, some of which are species of interest, such as sugar and ponderosa pine. Preservation of these large trees would improve habitat for lichens as well. A few cultural species have likely benefitted from fire suppression. Increased stand density and canopy closure may have improved habitat for species like prince’s pine and elephant ear fungus; the proposed treatments will not benefit these species.

Livestock grazing has likely contributed to an altered the species composition in some parts of the project area. Grazing impacts combined with other factors such as climate change and fire suppression may have resulted in a drying trend in places like Long Prairie. Other areas, despite being heavily grazed 15-20 years ago, appear recovered. Removal of encroachment would improve habitat for riparian species (56% of the cultural species in Red Knight), however if those species are no longer present in the seedbank or the surrounding area, further restoration may be needed.

Road construction has resulted in loss of habitat for some cultural plants. Travel management, along with the travel analysis for this project, could result in closure of roads, and a return to a more natural state. This may provide additional habitat for some plants, and would be beneficial. Overall, the impact of the proposed action on cultural plants is expected to be beneficial.

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3.3.13 – Cultural Resources Affected Environment As commodity extraction took a firm hold beginning in the early 20th century, the landscape has become permanently modified, from timber harvesting, railroad grades, converted to the current road system, grazing, mining, recreation, fire and the continued commercialization of additional forest resources (pine cones, huckleberries, boughs, etc.). Although enacted in 1966, the NHPA (National Historic Preservation Act) was not fully recognized or operational in the Forest Service until the mid-1970’s. Formal intensive cultural resource surveys were not conducted on the Winema National Forest until 1977.

Regulatory Framework National Historic Preservation Act of October 15, 1966 (16 USC, Section 470W(6)): This act declares a national policy of historic preservation (including identification, evaluation, recordation, documentation, curation, acquisition, protection, management rehabilitation, restoration, stabilization, maintenance, research, interpretation, conservation, and education and training) regarding the foregoing activities, or any combination of the foregoing activities (16 USC, Section 470W(8)). Section 106 of the NHPA provides procedures for federal agencies to follow in the event a proposal may affect a property on, or eligible for, the National Register of Historic Places. Section 106 requires government agencies to take into account the effects of their actions on historic properties and allow the Advisory Council of Historic Preservation (ACHP) a reasonable opportunity to comment on such actions.

With specific regard to Indian Tribes, the NHPA affords Tribal Members the opportunity to participate when an undertaking may affect properties of historic value to an Indian Tribe on non-Indian lands. In addition, agencies must seek information from Tribes likely to have knowledge or concerns about historic properties in the area.

Cultural Resource inventories were completed in the summers of 1982, 1985, 1989, 1998, 1999, 2009, 2010 and 2011. A total of 29,767 acres have been adequately surveyed, representing nearly 92 percent of the planning area. Surveys were conducted at the intensive (100 percent) level, consistent with SHPO standards for 100 percent coverage, for the area of potential project impact (where management activities will occur). A total of 40 cultural resources are located in the Area of Potential Effect of the project area. Recorded cultural resources include rock features, lithic scatters, and cambium peeled trees. Historic sites include can scatters, railroad grades and primarily reflect activities relating to historic logging. SHPO concurred on 10/10/2012 that the combined Red Knight undertakings would have no effect on cultural resources.

Finally, many of the cultural resources located in the Red-Knight Project Area are eligible as an archaeological site according to the National Historic Preservation Act, 16 U.S.C. 470 et seq., which authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to establish and maintain a National Register of districts, sites, buildings, structures and objects significant in American history, architecture, archeology, engineering and culture.

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Environmental Effects on Cultural Resources Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Cultural Resources

The no action alternative would have no direct or indirect effects to cultural resources, because there would be no implementation of harvest, fuel treatments, or temporary road construction.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Cultural Resources

Direct and indirect effects to cultural resources common to the action alternative harvest and fuel treatments and temporary road construction are confined to the Red-Knight Project Area for a period of 10 years. The action alternative specifies in the required mitigation measures that cultural resources are protected from impacts relating to timber harvest, thinning, road construction/maintenance and fuel treatments by project design, avoidance and protection in place, therefore no direct or indirect effects.

Cumulative Effects of All Actions on Cultural Resources

There will be no direct or indirect effects on Cultural Resources; therefore there will be no cumulative effects.

3.3.14 – Soil and Hydrology Hydrologic Location and Soil Type Soils in the project area were derived primarily in pumice and ash deposits from the eruption of Mt. Mazama. The soil map units present within the project area are referred to as riparian or upland ecological types. The dominant soils of the upland units are the Shukash and Lapine series. These soils consist of volcanic ash and pumice sands over buried loamy soils. Both soil types occur in various map units throughout the project, segregated by features such as slope, ecological type, and localized climate conditions. Most of the upland soils are found on slopes less than 12 percent. Within the Red Knight project, Management Area 12 (timber production) is composed primarily of terrestrial ecological units containing Shukash and Lapine soils.

Table 11 summarizes select features of the upland soil types stratified by slope ranges. Four map units collectively comprised less than 25 acres, and were grouped with similar soil types for the analysis. There were 28 acres that contained cinder/rock pits. Units 1054 and 3004 denote areas where no data (ND) is available. Information displayed for map unit 1060 is interim data subject to field verification and/or data quality review. 1060 is currently under revision, with provisional components as follows: 1. Major component; 75% composition = Lapine, fine sand substratum, 2-12% slopes (most of the unit) 2. Major component; 15% composition = Pickedup soil, 2-20% slopes (dune features)

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3. Minor component; 10% composition = Lapine soil, 12-35% slopes (narrow, steep, scarps)

“Paragravelly” refers to the presence of pumice in the surface layer; “Pumice Depth” is the depth of the pumice overburden in a typical soil profile.

Table 11: Red Knight Upland Terrestrial Ecological Units (TEU) TEU Soil & Slopes Pumice Compac- Rutting Infiltra- Erosion Acres (Potential Natural Vegetation)1 Depth tion Hazard tion Hazard Hazard Rate2 Slopes <12% 1016 Lapine paragravelly ashy coarse 80” Low Moderate High Slight 120 sandy loam, 2-12% (PIPO/PUTR/ACOC) 1053 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 25” Low Moderate High Slight 6,295 coarse sand, warm, 2-12% (PIPO/PUTR/CEVE) 1054 Bottlespring stony ashy sandy 0” ND ND ND ND 325 loam, 1-4% (ARAR/FEID) 1058 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 24” Low Moderate High Slight 7,090 coarse sand, high precip cool, 2- 12% (ABCO/CEVE-ARPA) 1060 Lapine, fine sand substratum- 67” Low- Moderate High Slight to 3,225 Pickedup complex, 2-20%* Mod Moderate (PIPO/PUTR/ACOC) 1316 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 34 Low Moderate High Slight 8,955 coarse sand, 2-12% (PIPO/PUTR/ACOC) 7001 Wanoga-Stopsign complex, 2- 20-23” Low Moderate High Moderate 1,140 12% Slopes 12-35% 1052 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 25” Low Moderate High Moderate 930 coarse sand, warm, 12-35% (PIPO/PUTR-CEVE/ACOC) 1059 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 24” Low Moderate High Moderate 1,370 coarse sand, high precip cool, 12- 35% (ABCO/CEVE-ARPA) 7002/ Shukash-Wanoga-Rock Outcrop 24” Low Moderate High Moderate 105 7005 association, 12-45% to Severe 3004 Denied Access: Shukash-type ND ND ND ND ND 1,280 soils, 12-35% Slopes> 35% 1076 Shukash paragravelly ashy loamy 24” Low Moderate High Severe 650 coarse sand, high precip cool, 35- 60% (ABCO/CEVE-ARPA)

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Sources: Soil Survey of Klamath County Oregon, Southern Part, 1977 ; Soil Survey of Upper Deschutes River Area, 1999; Soil Survey of Crater Lake National Park, 2002; Ecological Unit Inventory of the Winema Portion, Fremont- Winema National Forests, 2008; and Winema National Forest, Soil Resource Inventory”, 1979

(1) ABCO-white fir; ACOC-western needlegrass; ARAR-low sagebrush; ARPA-greenleaf manzanita; CEVE- snowbrush; FEID-Idaho fescue; PIPO-ponderosa pine; PUTR-bitterbrush. (2) The general infiltration and water movement ability of the soil and bedrock materials, based on hydrologic group.

With the exception of the riparian zones and scabrock flats, all of the upland soils in the project area contain variable depths of pumice in the surface horizons (Table 1). In about 80 percent of the units (close to 25,000 acres) the pumice overburden is 20 to 40 inches deep to a buried soil. These sites correspond to various terrestrial ecological units with Shukash as the major soil component. Approximately 10 percent of the units include the very deep pumice soils of the Lapine series. Pumice deposits that form the Lapine soils typically measure 60 inches or more to the buried soil horizons. Lapine-dominated units are concentrated in the western quadrant of the Red Knight area.

Riparian and Wetland Soils The riparian soils in the Red Knight project are represented in the 2000 and 7800-series map units. They comprise the meadows, wetlands, and stream corridors. These units are typically found in management area 8. Several of the wet soil types qualify as “hydric”, defined by the NRCS as soils “that formed under conditions of saturation, flooding or ponding long enough during the growing season to develop anaerobic conditions in the upper part”.

Riparian areas in general are sensitive to management actions by virtue of their poor drainage and/or shallow depth to permanent water tables. Soils of wetlands and meadows typically exhibit a low resistance to compaction and rutting. Resource damage can result from management activities such as mechanical thinning, fuels treatments, livestock grazing, and dispersed recreation activities. Not all riparian/wetland soils respond the same to management activities. They differ by surface texture, drainage characteristics, height and persistence of water tables, and other features. The NRCS-defined drainage classes used in the Winema National Forest TEUI are referenced in the following discussion of the riparian soils of the Red Knight project area. The extent, depth, and persistence of the water tables in concert with other soil features determine the sensitivity of the riparian soils to management activities, and the magnitude of impacts on the resource. It is important to note that all the riparian soil types are susceptible to damage when moist or wet.

About 20 acres of moderately well to somewhat poorly drained soils were identified in the project area. Included in units 2012 and 2021, these soils are wet for only a short time within the plant rooting depth during the growing season. They remain wet long enough to affect most mesophytic plants, defined as land plants that grow in an environment having a moderate amount of moisture. When dry, these soils have low compaction and rutting hazards. The 2012 and 2021 units, found in the southwest corner of Red Knight, were identified for lodgepole encroachment removal.

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In the somewhat poorly and poorly drained units 1090, 2000, 2001, and 7800-series, water is removed so slowly that the soil is wet at shallow depths periodically during the growing season or remains wet for long periods. Free water is commonly at or near the surface long enough during the growing season so that most mesophytic crops cannot be grown. Free water at shallow depth is usually present. Soils in these units generally dry out late in the season; some always remain moist. The compaction and rutting hazards of these poorly drained soils is high. The somewhat poorly and poorly drained units account for approximately 770 acres within the project boundary. These riparian soils are scattered throughout the project area. Most of the proposed meadow, creek, and spring restoration projects are present within or adjacent to these units.

Unit 2017 is very poorly drained, whereby water is removed from the soil so slowly that free water remains at or very near the ground surface during much of the growing season. The occurrence of internal free water is very shallow and persistent or permanent, precluding the growth of most mesophytic plants. Unless a prolonged drought cycle is occurring, these soils never completely dry out. About 15 acres of very poorly drained soils are present along the east boundary of the project area. The removal of encroaching lodgepole pine is planned in this unit.

The TEUI identified approximately 345 acres as riparian zones. An additional 450 acres were provisionally designated riparian units. Here again, the interim data is subject to field verification and/or data quality review. Irrespective of which figures are referenced, the riparian acreage equates to 1 or 2 percent of the total soil types in the project area. Table 12 displays select soil properties and approximate acres of the riparian terrestrial units. Provisional acres are denoted as “P”. Map 2 displays the riparian units that correspond to Table 12.

Table 12: Red Knight Riparian Terrestrial Ecological Units TEU Soil & Slope Surface Texture Rutting Compaction Hydric Acres (Potential Natural Veg*) Hazard Hazard Moderately Well Drained Soils 2012 Regcrust ashy coarse sandy Decomposing Moderate Low No 10 loam, 0-1 % plant material/ (PICO/ARUV) coarse sandy loam 2021 Hallet ashy loam, Decomposing Moderate Moderate No 10 0-2% plant material (Dry meadows) /loam Somewhat Poorly and Poorly Drained Soils 1090 Bigtop-Shortnap complex, Sandy clay loam Moderate Moderate No-No 160 0-2% & decomposing (Dry meadow-PICO/ARUV) plant material /loamy sand 2000 Chinchallo mucky Mucky silt/silt Severe High Yes 360 (P) diatomaceous silt loam, poorly drained, flooded, 0-1% (Moist meadows)

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2001 Mesquito mucky ashy sandy Mucky sandy Severe High Yes 85 (P) loam, 1-8% loam/sandy loam (PICO/SPDO/CAAN) 7800 Aquandic Cryaquepts, Mucky loam Moderate- Moderate- No-Yes 155 (P) series 0-4% Severe High Very Poorly Drained Soils 2017 Cosbie mucky diatomaceous Decomposing Severe High Yes 15 silt, 1-3% plant material / (PICO/CAAN) mucky Silt Total Acres, Riparian and Wetland Soils 795

* ARUV-kinnikinnick; CAAN-widefruit sedge; PICO-lodgepole pine; SPDO-rose spirea

Figure 2: Red Knight Riparian Soils

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Field Code Changed

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Springs

Springs provide for communities of plants, animals and other organisms whose extent and life processes depend on ground water. These plant communities provide habitat for a variety of terrestrial, aquatic, and marine animals, which by extension must also be considered ground water dependent. There are 3 named springs (Boundary, Deely, Trapper and Still) in the Red Knight project area and a couple unnamed springs along tributaries. The subsurface flows from the springs support narrow bands of riparian vegetation such as meadows, willows and aspen stands.

Overstocking of conifers in the uplands and their encroachment within the riparian areas is negatively affecting the quantity of water flowing from the springs. Conifer shading is outcompeting grasses, forbs and riparian hardwoods such as willows and aspen. A decrease in the number of springs and the flow of the springs has occurred as a result of this encroachment. This has also resulted in change in diversity of plant species.

Boundary Springs has a spring box piped to a redwood trough. The development is at best partially functional and does not provide a reliable water source at the trough. No other springs are developed. However, there are several developed water chances that consist of seasonal impoundments within riparian zones along the 4973-130 Rd on Knight Creek, the 7645-442 Rd near to Knight creek, along the Jackson diversion ditch on the 49-730 Rd, the end of the 49-740

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Rd on Jackson Creek, the 7645 RD north of the Long Prairie corral, along the 7650-310 Rd, the 7650-110 Rd, and in the wet meadow south of McCarty Flat. Most are dry by mid summer.

Streams

Bear Creek, Dillon Creek, Doeskin Creek, Doe Creek, Deely Creek, Rock Creek, Knight Creek and several unnamed creeks are intermittent, non-fish bearing (MA8B). Jackson Creek is perennial, fish bearing (MA8A). There are several roads that cross through or run along these creeks that are altering drainage patterns, dumping sediment into the creek and/or impacting hydrologic function. The majority of the Jackson Creek Campground is located within the Jackson Creek riparian corridor. Toilets near the creek are old and at some point will leak with the potential to impair water quality. The guard station is also near the creek and attracts heavy vehicle and foot traffic negatively impacting vegetation, runoff and sedimentation into the creek.

Live tree canopy cover has a direct influence over the amount of precipitation input available for stream flow because trees transpire water, intercept precipitation (some of which is then evaporated or sublimated directly back into the atmosphere), and modify the understory evapotranspiration environment (Kaufmann and others, 1987). Any factor that reduces basal area (BA) or leaf area index (LAI) of the forest will allow more precipitation to reach the ground more quickly, and increase runoff to some degree (Shepperd and others, 1991). Loss of ground cover or change in vegetation type as a result of fire or other disturbance can cause changes in infiltration and runoff. These in turn can cause changes to indicators of stream flow regime such as the timing and volume of peak flows. The degree to which stream flow may be affected depends on additional factors such as aspect, elevation, and natural variations in precipitation, snowpack, and rate of snowmelt, as well as the percent of a watershed affected by the disturbance. Understory vegetation such as shrubs and grasses increase the infiltration rate of soils by creating pathways for water infiltration along their roots. Increased infiltration of precipitation reduces the amount of overland flow. Loss of understory vegetation due to fire or other causes can reduce infiltration rates and increase overland flow, which has the potential to erode bare soil surfaces.

Dead and down material (trees, branches, limbs and duff) on the ground can slow the velocity of overland flow and increase infiltration, reducing the potential for erosion. Riparian and stream channel vegetation serve the same functions, and also slow the velocity of stream flow, particularly in high-flow events. Like loss of canopy cover, loss of understory vegetation, riparian vegetation, and down material can result in changes to indicators of stream flow regime such as the timing and volume of peak flows. Issues concerning water quality would be the presence of municipal watersheds, 303(d) listed water bodies, and the potential for turbidity. There are no municipal watersheds in the project area. Jackson Creek, a tributary to the Williamson River is on the Oregon Department of Water Quality (ODEQ) 303(d) list of impaired waters with respect to high water temperature.

Direct and Indirect Effect of No Action

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Under Alternative 1 none of the proposed management treatments would be implemented, consequently no additional acres of ground would be disturbed. Detrimental soil conditions from timber harvest and fuels treatment activities would not increase above existing levels. No additional land would be temporarily removed from production for temporary roads or logging facilities. Livestock grazing, dispersed recreation, wildfire suppression, and road maintenance would continue.

If no action is taken, road maintenance, closures, and decommissioning activities would not occur. Studies have shown that forest roads are a major source of sediment production with the road surface being the main source of erosion and sediment generation (Croke and Hairsine, 2001). Previous studies by Croke found that sediment concentrations in road runoff were much lower on abandoned roads than on well-used ones, and abandoned roads were minor sources of sediment. In the absence of road closures as described in the No Action alternative, the potential reduction of road-generated runoff, sedimentation and erosion would not be realized.

Aspen, willow and other riparian hardwoods are declining in this area due to drought and shading created by conifer encroachment. This trend will continue under the no action alternative. Most of the hardwoods have few or no young recruits. Once the existing hardwoods die out, this habitat type will be nearly gone. The grass/forb component is declining also due to conifer encroachment. All the meadows in the Red Knight area are being affected. This trend will continue and encroachment density will increase under the no action alternative.

In water scarce environments such as Red Knight the no action alternative further moves the area outside its historic condition. Encroachment has allowed for groundwater to be utilized through tree growth rather than for aquatic and terrestrial species. A direct effect of conifer encroachment is the loss of species diversity. An indirect effect is the loss of quantity and historic ecosystems that prevailed prior to management interaction (eg. fire prevention, road building).

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Soil Conditions and Hydrology

The use of heavy equipment in timber harvest operations is known to cause soil compaction, surface rutting, and topsoil displacement (Dumroese, 1996). Adverse surface conditions can influence soil function, resulting in diminished site productivity. Multiple passes of heavy machinery, maneuvering through small-radius turns by equipment, and operating on wet soils are known to cause soil disturbance. Displacement is often is the result of scraping with a blade, the turning of tracks or wheels, or the dragging of logs or whole trees. Soil compaction is apt to occur on skid trails and landings when tractors and skidders make multiple passes over a particular area numerous times. In studies, as few as 4 passes of equipment can compact the ground surface and greatly reduce the infiltration capability of the soil profile (Geist, 1991). The use of mechanical harvesters, although lighter than some traditional equipment, normally results in a greater area of ground disturbance since they are not confined to skid roads.

Soil disturbance can have long-term adverse effects on pumice soils such as those found in the Red Knight project. Since available nutrients and water are stored primarily in the top 8 to 10 inches of the soil profile, loss of topsoil diminishes nutrient capital and moisture storage

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 capacity. Seedling establishment and plant growth consequently suffer. Site productivity is also influenced by the presence (or absence) of ground cover, that includes living and dead plants, litter, woody debris, and rock fragments. Ground cover removal reduces soil thermal insulating ability, and renders a site more susceptible to wind erosion. Dryness and Young concluded the ponderosa pine/bitterbrush sites were more adversely impacted from management activities that created large open gaps and exposed the ground surface to broad variations in temperature and moisture, and potential loss of the organic layer.

In an attempt to quantify soil disturbance caused by mechanical harvester operations, Bureau of Land Management timber staff evaluated GIS and GPS data from various Klamath Falls Resource Area timber sales. Results of the analysis suggest the extent of soil disturbance from conventional ground-based logging methods typically ranges from 5 to 12 percent (KFRA staff, 2004). Other studies assert the total degree of residual detrimental soil disturbance remaining after all ground-based timber harvest activities varies from 15 to 21 percent (Megahan, 1986; Landsberg, 2003; Deschutes National Forest, 1995-1999). Discrepancies in data are presumably due to the fact that the KFRA analysis did not consider soil disturbance apart from skid trails, landings, and temporary road construction, whereby outside studies accounted for all disturbances from timber harvest activities. Monitoring of forest floor conditions within both the Red Knight and Blue Jay Project areas indicates a very low degree of existing detrimental soil disturbance. Additional ground disturbances from harvest and thinning activities are anticipated to occur within typical ranges, and remain well below the threshold limit of 20% as designated by the LRMP.

It is expected that effects of the Proposed Action on soil resources would be less, in both extent and magnitude, than the impacts of conventional vegetation management prescriptions. This is due in part to proposed treatment prescriptions that not only exclude patches of ground from harvest treatments, but also remove less volume of wood. Fewer acres disturbed and less volume extracted equates to less soil impacts. It is important to note that a smaller number of acres treated may not equate to an equal reduction in soil disturbance (e.g., 10 percent fewer acres retained in skips may not reduce total soil disturbance by 10 percent). There may not be a one-to- one reduction in soil impacts because the potential exists for additional maneuvering to avoid designated skips and retain older trees. Furthermore, soil disturbances would be compounded in a few units requiring a second entry.

The precise extent and magnitude of potential detrimental soil conditions resulting from vegetation treatments remains unknown. However, extensive areas of detrimental soil conditions are not likely to occur under implementation of the Proposed Action. Short-term minimal adverse effects would be alleviated by application of mitigation measures. Insofar as practical, project design features and best management practices recommend utilization of existing roads, skid trails, and landings. Soil moisture limits preclude operations when resource damage is apt to occur. To minimize soil impacts and ensure consistency with Forest Plan objectives and goals, a comprehensive list of BMPs is included in Appendix F. With properly implemented mitigation measures, detrimental soil conditions are expected to remain below limits established by Regional direction and the Winema LRMP.

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Removing lodgepole pine will allow more sunlight to reach the riparian hardwoods and grass/forbs layers. This will improve their growth and reproduction. Encroachment removal will maintain the size of riparian areas and allow for species diversity. Forest Plan riparian goals and standards (Winema LRMP, page 4-137, 138), and INFISH objectives and protection measures are met through the design criteria outlined in this report, the silvicultural, wildlife, and soils reports. The proposed treatments in riparian habitats would meet these goals, objectives, and standards through treatment design and prescription, and by use of best management practices and protection measures. The removal (harvest) of trees and the resulting changes in water yield and peak flows has been studied with varying results. The plot of annual water yield increase (mm) versus percent harvested for all studies suggests that approximately 20% of the catchment vegetation cover must be harvested for a measurable increase in annual water yield (Stednick 2008 a or b). The 20% value is from visual interpretation of the plot and not the regression intercept. This result confirms the measurable threshold suggested earlier (Bosch and Hewlett, 1982). Catchment studies with less harvested areas have had measurable increases in water yield; conversely, studies with 100% harvest have had no measurable increase in annual water yield. This variability may be the result of harvest location, harvest type, pretreatment vegetation cover or measurement error (Stednick 2008). The Rocky Mountain/Inland Intermountain region data suggest that a 15% harvest area results in a measurable annual water yield increase. When 50% of the catchment was harvested, annual water yield increases ranged from 25 to 250 mm and complete harvesting (100%) increased annual water yields from zero to over 350 mm. The results are variable especially above 30% harvested (Stednick 2008 a or b).

Streamflow responses to vegetation conversion depend both on the region’s annual precipitation and on the precipitation for the year under treatment. Yield changes are greatest in high rainfall areas, but shorter lived because of rapid revegetation. Stednick 2008 (b) states that timber harvesting on Needle Branch increased annual water yield up to 31% over pretreatment conditions. The increases in annual water yields were greater in the wet years, and the post- treatment period of record did not suggest a hydrologic recovery or return to pretreatment water yields. Patch cutting with streamside vegetation in Deer Creek increased water yield by 3%. Timber harvesting did not increase mean peak flows on either treated watershed when compared to Flynn Creek.

The Alsea Watershed Study results, especially the effect of timber harvesting on water resources in Needle Branch is often cited as typical of forest management practices. It must be remembered that it was part of a study designed to have measurable responses. The understanding of hydrological processes as affected by timber harvesting with this study better afforded the development of best management practices (BMPs) designed to prevent or minimize adverse water resource damage (Stednick 2008 a or b).

If the post treatment basal area is within HRV then there should be no increase in runoff, erosion or streamflow. Any ‘excess’ water or soil moisture as compared to pre-treatment conditions would be used by remaining trees and grass/forbs. There may be some isolated short term and localized increases in spring or stream flow. These may or may not be detectable due to annual variations in precipitation and the accuracy of stream gages. The proposed treatments are to maintain and protect large old lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine and sugar pines, reduce

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Cumulative Effects on Soil Conditions and Hydrology

The cumulative impacts that would result from project implementation are not anticipated to approach or exceed Forest Plan or regional standards for soil resources. This is due in part to several factors. With the exception of topsoil displacement, low incidences of detrimental soil conditions exist within the project area. This area experiences low rainfall events, most precipitation falls during the wintertime as snow. Project implementation is not expected to elevate detrimental conditions to levels above threshold limits of the Winema LRMP. If and where soil resource damage occurs, it would be in small isolated areas. Moreover, inherent soil features render the pumice-derived soils resistant to the impacts of management activities that frequently cause compaction and rutting. The gentle slopes present minor risks for soil erosion. Soil characteristics coupled with the geographic setting of the project area would likely alleviate cumulative effects of past and future management activities.

Management in riparian areas though-out the Red Knight area has been largely hands off. The past management activities in the area (since the 1960’s) have been focused on upland treatments. The proposed Red Knight riparian treatments, along with riparian treatments in the adjacent Modoc project area would remove encroachment and improve grass/forb production on the majority of riparian habitats on the north and west slopes of Yamsay Mountain. This is likely to result in an increase in the size and quantity of flow from spring systems due to reducing transpiration from conifers. This is anticipated to improve the quantity of water available hence improving the diversity of the riparian areas as plants and animals utilize the available water. Water quality is also expected to improve, as additional water flow would offset some of the factors currently affecting quality, such as temperature.

The proposed action is anticipated to have a positive effect on the aquatic resources and hydrologic function. Reducing road density will reduce sediment from roads traveling into water systems. The reduction of these negative effects of roads, especially within RHCA’s will be a benefit to the aquatic ecosystem. No flood plains or Jurisdictional wetlands will be affected as the result of this project, and the only 303d stream (Jackson Creek) will be protected as a result of the design criteria. Reasonably foreseeable future activities that could contribute to cumulative effects include tribal use of the area, firewood gathering, sheep grazing on the allotment, and watershed restoration.

All of the projects currently ongoing or planned in the future (see page 80) would impacts soils to some degree (compaction and displacement) and thus runoff and erosion. These projects would also alter the basal area of the forest to some degree. The proposed project is intended to return the area to within or close to an historic range of variability related to stand structure and composition. It is not anticipated that any of these activities along with the proposed project would result in any noticeable or detectable changes in water yield or runoff, erosion or water quality impacts.

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The proposed action provides a method by which the area can be brought back to its historic range of variability and provides the component pieces to allow restoration to start. There may be additional work required once this project is complete due to the length of time that this ecosystem has been out of its natural range. The action alternative is anticipated to have a positive effect on the aquatic resources. One key finding of the long term site productivity study in Central Oregon summarized by Matt Busse was that thinning plus repeated fire was an effective treatment for reducing wildfire hazard and maintaining site productivity in these ponderosa pine ecosystems (Busse, M.D., 2010).

3.3.15 – Smoke Management and Air Quality Smoke Management Smoke management is about minimizing the amount of smoke entering sensitive receptor areas, avoiding deterioration in air quality, and eliminating visibility impacts in Class I by human caused fire activities. The effects of smoke management from natural and activity created fuels on the surrounding area are described below and the procedures and guidelines followed when utilizing prescribed fire as a management tool. All Forest Wide Standards and Guidelines for Air Quality 1-1 through 1-7 (LRMP pg.4-40) will be followed to minimize problems of prescribed fire affecting air quality in local communities. The Fremont-Winema National Forests complies with all applicable air quality laws and regulations, and coordinates with appropriate air quality regulating agencies.

Currently, and in the future, all planned ignitions are and will be conducted according to the Operational Guidance for the Oregon Smoke Management Program (OSMP). The Operational Guidance contains the direction for meeting the terms of the OSMP. The Environmental Protection Agency has approved the OSMP as meeting the requirements of the Clean Air Act, as amended. The OSMP, which is administered by the Oregon State Forester, regulates the amount of forestry related burning that can be done at any one time. The amount of burning that can occur on any one day depends upon the specific type of burning, the tons of material to be burned, and the atmospheric conditions available to promote mixing and transportation of smoke away from sensitive areas. For each activity requiring prescribed fire, the Forest Service requires a written, site-specific prescribed burning plan approved by the Forest Service. The purpose of the plan is to ensure that resource management objectives are clearly defined and that the site, environment, or human health is not harmed. The plan contains a risk assessment to quantify the chance of fire escaping and develops a contingency plan for actions taken to prevent escape and if it does, quickly contain the escape. The plan will be implemented to minimize the possibility of the burn affecting Class I or other "smoke sensitive" areas in accordance with the OSMP.

Smoke sensitive areas near the Red Knight planning area include the Class I airshed of Crater Lake National Park, the communities around Chemult, Crescent, Bend and the city of Klamath Falls. Burning will only be conducted when actual and predicted atmospheric conditions will minimize the possibility of smoke affecting these areas. In compliance with the Clean Air Act, the Forest Service is operating under the Oregon Administrative Rule OAR 629-43-043. The Forest Service is complying and will continue to comply with the requirements of the OSMP, which is administered by the Oregon Department of Forestry.

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The public can obtain information about any proposed burns in the immediate area from local ranger districts, advertisements in local newspapers, radio, or television, and avoid areas being approved by the EPA. Because of preventative measures and compliance with OSMP, there will be no long-term effects from prescribed burning or smoke from the proposed fuels activities.

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Air Quality

Because of preventative measures and compliance with OSMP, there would be no long-term effects from prescribed burning or smoke associated with the proposed action. No activity created fuels would be burned, and no underburning would take place. There would be no risk of degradation of air quality from planned activities. No fuel hazard reduction would take place. Fuel hazards would remain at current levels and would increase over time. Wildfires would remain the main source of smoke within the Red Knight planning area in the future. There would be uncontrolled degradation of air quality should a wildfire occur. This could lead to firefighter and public health issues from extended exposure to particulate matter, carbon monoxide, and other gases associated with the smoke produced by large wildfires. A wildfire could burn very intensely, and exhibit extreme fire behavior where large amounts of ladder fuels and dead debris have accumulated, thus producing high amounts of particulates.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Air Quality Local, short-term effects on air quality will occur. These effects would include increases in carbon dioxide, carbon and particulates in the airshed. Cumulative Effects Cumulative effects of multiple burns in the same geographic area could contribute to a decrease in the air quality. Smoke from adjoining private, state and national forest lands could mix with smoke from the burning in the planning area and impact populated areas such as Bend and Klamath Falls. To avoid any detrimental impact to air quality, all prescribed fire would occur under low intensity burning conditions and operational guidance. All prescribed fire activities would be coordinated with Oregon Department of Environmental Quality(ODEQ).

3.3.16 – Climate Change A growing body of scientific evidence and climate modeling (IPCC, 2007) indicate that climate change is occurring. While there are no specific projections for the Red Knight project area, one scenario would likely be one where summers are drier and the snow melts earlier in the spring (Mote et al, 2010). This project was not specifically designed to mitigate or respond to potential climate change, but the actions were designed to move the forest towards conditions that are anticipated to make it more resilient under future climate change scenarios. This section addresses aspects of the project that may affect carbon emissions or sequestration and how the forest environment might respond to a changing climate.

The anticipated climate change direct effects in the region are that the area burned in wildfire would increase twofold by the year 2040 and threefold by the 2080s. With Pacific Decadal 173

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Oscillation (PDO) there is more variability in winter storms (Hessl, et al, 2004). More winter precipitation would come as rain and there would be an earlier spring snowmelt. There would be a water balance deficit from July to September during the growing season. Predictions are that there would be a two degree increase in temperatures by 2020 which would correlate to a 13% loss of snowpack. Most of the precipitation in the Red Knight area occurs as snow. There has been substantial declines in snow water equivalent in the area (Cascades) (Mote, 2003); and the surface water supply index (inputs include snowpack, streamflow, precipitation and reservoir storage) is trending downward since the early 1980s in the Klamath Basin (Oregon NRCS Website, 2013). These trends indicate less water available for vegetative growth and other processes. These trends are anticipated to continue into the future.

The Red Knight project is anticipated to have little effect on global climate change. Past projects similar to the proposed Red Knight activities have not been shown to have any measurable effect on climate change. The proposed underburning would generate smoke and emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, but it is anticipated to amount to less than during a wildfire in the area. The underburning would create blackened duff and tree bark which could melt snow faster and increase heat absorption of the soil.

There is risk and uncertainty in the analysis in respect to the changing climate. There is no specific information pertaining to the climate in the Red Knight area and how it might change in the future. Monitoring would be done to gauge whether the activities proposed had the anticipated effects of reducing stress on the residual trees which would make them more resistant and resilient to the anticipated drier climate in the area. Mortality of ponderosa pine from drought and bark beetle attacks has increased in the Red Knight area and interacts with fire damage. Climate change forecasts an increase in the frequency and severity of drought which may increase bark beetle attacks. There was a widespread western bark beetle (Dendroctonus brevicomis) outbreak in the Red Knight area in the 1920s (during a drought period) and many of the large diameter ponderosa pine died. During periods of extended drought, insect populations may increase rapidly, become aggressive and kill apparently vigorous host trees over large areas (USDA, 2006).

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action with Consideration of Climate Change No vegetative manipulation would occur and no underburning would take place, so the current carbon sequestration rates would remain unchanged and no additional carbon would be released into the atmosphere. The no action alternative would allow current high density stands and fuel loadings to increase over time which would increase the susceptibility and risk of the area to wildfire, which would release a considerable amount of carbon into the atmosphere.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action with Consideration of Climate Change

The Red Knight project is not likely to have direct effects on the local climate or on the global climate. Thinning to enhance the vigor and maintain fire resistant species of trees would result in trees that are better able to withstand stresses such as dry summer conditions. Variable density thinning with clumps, openings and retention patches would increase the heterogeneity of the patterns of forest and would result in forest stands that are resilient to future change.

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Fossil fuel would be used by equipment such as chainsaws, tractors, skidders, harvester forwarders, pick-up trucks and log trucks. It would be possible for some of this equipment to use biofuels if available. Logging debris at landings would be burned on site or transferred to a bio- energy facility to use in generating power. Residual and or natural fuel accumulations would be burned through underburning, pile burning or other methods. All of these activities would release carbon into the atmosphere. Utilizing trees to create long-lived wood products such as lumber would sequester carbon (IPCC, 2007).

Indirect effect on climate change of the Proposed Action would be the reduced potential green house gas emissions from an uncharacteristic wildfire. Residual trees would continue to grow and assimilate carbon dioxide. The machinery used during the harvest operations would emit carbon dioxide and other gasses. It is impossible to quantify the project’s direct effects on carbon or greenhouse gas emissions. Resilience to disturbance is important and provides continued carbon storage ability under adverse conditions such as drought. The proposed action would move the forest towards more resilient conditions and maintain the forest as forest.

The Pacific Northwest is highly vulnerable to projected changes in climate. Climate projections for eastern Oregon suggest that winter snow packs may decline and the duration and severity of the summer dry period may increase (Mote et al. 2010). Changes in climate by season may be more important than changes in annual mean temperatures. Warming is projected to be largest in summer with a decrease in precipitation whereas the prediction for winter is more precipitation and more rain rather than snow. Summer decreases in precipitation would have a direct effect on the vegetation increasing evaporative demand on the soil water. Warming rates of ½ degree F per decade could affect hydrology and the timing and amount of snowmelt. Earlier snowmelt would lengthen the dry season for fires. Littell et al. (2009) predicts that the area burned by fires within the Interior Columbia Basin may increase by two to three times by the end of the 2040s so there is the potential for increased wildfire activity with longer fire seasons and higher summer temperatures. The changing climate would likely exacerbate insects and disease outbreaks in forests.

Churchill et al. 2013 considered the effects of climate change by using “climate analog reference conditions” to assess the historical reference sites in their study in the context of projected future climate (up to year 2040). There is much uncertainty regarding future climate change and forest treatments based on historical reference conditions are a step towards making the stands more resilient in the future. Using a resilience strategy that conserves options for the future is recommended. Reintroducing heterogeneity based on the new science available would move the stands in the Red Knight area towards a more resilient dry forest landscape and provide wildlife habitat for indigenous species. Commercial harvest in the stands would need to generate adequate revenue to fund the non-commercial thinning of the smaller trees to fully realize the objectives of moving the stands towards a more resilient future.

3.3.17 – Transportation System The Winema National Forest Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP or Forest Plan) (USDA, 1990) provides direction regarding resource management activities and establishes management standards and guidelines. The LRMP goal for the transportation system is to 175

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“provide, operate and maintain a safe and economical transportation system that meets the access requirements of the public and the Forest resource programs in accordance with land and resource objectives.” (p. 4-4).

The Chemult District Ranger directed that a project level travel analysis be conducted for the Red Knight Restoration Project area. The following disciplines participated in this analysis: Engineering, Timber/Silviculture, Aquatics/Hydrology, Cultural/Historical Resources, Wildlife, Fire/Fuels and Recreation. The specific road management recommendations made by the travel analysis group are displayed in the Red Knight/Modoc Roads Analysis document found in the project record. The results of this analysis are recommendations to close 4.0 miles and decommission 202 miles of Forest system roads. The Travel Analysis Team also recommended maintenance level changes affecting approximately 5.6 miles of Forest roads within the Red Knight Restoration Project.

Road Closures are identified by an interdisciplinary team to reduce impacts to Forest resources by restricting vehicular use of certain system roads. If these roads are used under the timber sale as haul routes, they are closed following harvest/treatment activities. Road closure is performed by constructing barricades of rock, earth berms or logs, or a combination of any of these near the beginning of a road. Closure materials are usually acquired onsite, if possible. Drainage structures on these roads are maintained to properly functioning condition prior to closure. Closed roads are designated as “Operational Maintenance Level 1” in the Forest transportation system database following their implementation. Closing roads is dependent upon available funding and, therefore, is subject to prioritization typically based on resource impacts caused by the road.

Road decommissioning is another action recommended by the team. This would effectively remove the road from vehicular access and is meant to allow full revegetation and hydrologic function of the roadway’s footprint on the land. Road decommissioning can be a collection of actions ranging from surface scarification or subsoiling with the road prism left intact, to a complete recontouring of the road prism back to a natural slope. For all roads being decommissioned, drainage structures such as culverts are removed and their sites rehabilitated. Typically, revegetation is accomplished through natural seeding or tree seedling planting of the former roadway. Following implementation, decommissioned roads are designated as “Decommissioned” under the “Route Status” attribute for the subject road in the Forest transportation system database. Historical data for each road continues to reside within the database.

The Forest Service roads database indicated that approximately 261.1 miles of Forest system roads occur within the Red Knight Restoration Project boundary. Existing road surface types include 68.95 miles of aggregate and 192.14 miles of native material. Of the approximate 261.1 miles of National Forest System roads in the project area; 145.6 miles are Maintenance Level 1 roads and 115.5 miles are Maintenance Level 2. There are no Maintenance Level 3 roads within the project area.

The following definitions of operational maintenance levels (“Guidelines for Road Maintenance Levels” U.S. Forest Service, 2005) apply to forest system roads within the project area.

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Maintenance Level 2 Assigned to roads open for use by high-clearance vehicles. Passenger car traffic is not a consideration. Traffic is normally minor, usually consisting of one or a combination of administrative, permitted, dispersed recreation, or other specialized uses. Log haul may occur at this level.

These roads have the following attributes: • Roads have low traffic volume and low speed. • Typically local roads. • Typically connect collectors or other local roads. • Dips are the preferred drainage treatment. • Not subject to the requirements of the Highway Safety Act. • Surface smoothness is not a consideration. • Not suitable for passenger cars.

Maintenance Level 1

Assigned to intermittent service roads during the time they are closed to vehicular traffic. The closure period must exceed 1 year. Basic custodial maintenance is performed to keep damage to adjacent resources to an acceptable level and to perpetuate the road to facilitate future management activities. Emphasis is normally given to maintaining drainage facilities and runoff patterns. Planned road deterioration may occur at this level. Roads receiving level 1 maintenance may be of any type, class or construction standard, and may be managed at any other maintenance level during the time they are open for traffic. However, while being maintained at level 1, they are closed to vehicular traffic, but may be open and suitable for non- motorized uses.

These roads have the following attributes: • Vehicular traffic is eliminated, including administrative traffic. • Physically blocked or entrance is disguised. • Not subject to the requirements of the Highway Safety Act. • Maintenance is done only to minimize resource impacts. • No maintenance other than a condition survey may be required so long as no potential exists for resource damage.

Environmental Effects on the Transportation System

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on the Transportation System Under the No Action Alternative, there would be no comprehensive management activities to recondition and maintain ML 1 and 2 road systems within the Red Knight project area. As in the recent past, there would be occasional opportunities to replace or upgrade road/stream crossings and improve road surface drainage as funding allowed. The lack of road maintenance activity on project roads would likely contribute to deteriorating conditions on those roads. No new or temporary road construction would take place. None of the Red Knight/Modoc travel analysis

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 recommendations to change maintenance levels, close or decommission Forest roads would be authorized for implementation by this project. Since there would be no road management activities implemented under Alternative 1, there are no expected direct or indirect effects to road management objectives, road maintenance standards, or motorized vehicle use.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on the Transportation System No new permanent road construction is proposed in support of the Proposed Action. All road activities associated with the Red Knight Restoration Project would follow the Fremont-Winema Roads Best Management Practices (BMPs) to reduce or eliminate resource damage. The BMPs are found in Appendix F of this document. Road maintenance activities are designed to bring roads to safe haul standards. They are performed during three general timeframes within the life span of the sale: pre-haul, during haul, and post haul. Pre-haul road maintenance prepares the project road system for heavy truck traffic related to the sale. During haul maintenance sustains optimum road conditions favorable to continued haul activity to avoid road or resource damage. Post haul maintenance ensures that road elements within the sale area and on the haul routes within the National Forest are returned to their full operational maintenance level standards. Timber sale road maintenance activities generally consist of surface blading, ditch pulling, light to medium roadside brushing, culvert cleaning, small quantity cutbank slump removal, and maintenance of existing drainage structures (i.e. water bars, drain dips).

This may be the only opportunity, for a substantial period of time, to perform road maintenance on ML 1 and 2 roads within the project area. Timber sale road maintenance activities are designed to effectively drain storm waters from existing roadways, thus reducing or eliminating sediment delivery to streams and lowering the potential risk of culvert and fill failures both during, and for a number of years following, project treatments. As such, there are beneficial direct and indirect effects expected from maintenance of the potential 261 miles of road used for log haul under the Proposed Action.

While no permanent system roads would be constructed, temporary roads within or adjacent to individual units would be needed to access the treatment areas under Alternative 2. Temporary roads are built to facilitate ground-based harvest systems for the purpose of removing forest products from a treated stand more efficiently. While every effort is made to utilize old skid trails and landings, construction of new temporary roads is likely to be needed to implement the action alternative.

Decommissioning of temporary roads after completion of harvest activities would reduce the detrimental soil conditions over time. The cumulative detrimental soil impacts from the landings, temporary roads and skid trails would not exceed the standards and guidelines in the LRMP. From past experience on the Chemult District, temporary roads are needed at the rate of about one mile for every thousand acres accessed depending on the topography and volume harvested. Many old temporary roads, skid trails and landings from past harvests in the Red Knight area have shrubs and small trees growing in them and there is no evidence the past activities have

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Red Knight Restoration Project DRAFT EA June 19, 2013 reduced the growing potential of the soil resource or the long term site productivity. It is anticipated the harvest activities proposed under Red Knight would have less impact than past harvests in the area since less volume per acre and smaller sized trees would be harvested. These would then be decommissioned following treatments. For example, locating the landing off a major road to provide for public safety and a safe place for limbing and loading logs would require a 100 foot temporary road to access the landing. When feasible, existing logging facilities used during the previous harvesting entries would be reused. Road maintenance would be required to maintain acceptable conditions for hauling forest products.

There are no expected direct or indirect effects to road management objectives, road maintenance standards, or motorized vehicle use resulting from the construction of temporary roads. Temporary roads would be created for implementation of the proposed action and would be decommissioned after use. Therefore, temporary roads would not add to the long term road system density.

Cumulative Effects on the Transportation System The proposed action proposes no additional permanent road construction; therefore there would be no future or cumulative adverse impacts to the watershed from new roads. Other Fremont- Winema NF planning projects, such as Bluejay, Modoc, Bridge-Buck and Oatman recommend transportation changes through travel analysis. These combined project road closures, decommissioning and maintenance level changes will cumulatively effect the national forest road system by further reducing access for resource management and public recreation.

3.3.18 – Inventoried Roadless Areas, Undeveloped Areas, and Potential Wilderness

The identification of potential wilderness areas is not a land designation nor does it imply any particular level of management direction or protection. It is being completed for this project with the purpose of identifying lands that meet the criteria for being evaluated for wilderness suitability and what impacts this action would have on the potential wilderness area prior to any evaluation. The Forest generated its own mapping of undeveloped areas for this analysis and evaluated them for wilderness potential area using criteria found in FSH 1909.12 section 71.

Existing Condition of Inventoried Roadless Areas

In 1972, the Forest Service began identifying roadless areas for wilderness consideration through the Roadless Area Review and Evaluation (RARE I). In 1979 the agency completed RARE II, a more extensive national inventory of roadless areas for consideration of wilderness potential. The Winema Land and Resource Management Plan (USDA 1990) identified the Yamsay Mountain Roadless Area (6,699 acres).

In November 2000, the Forest Service issued the Final EIS for Roadless Area Conservation which identified Inventoried Roadless Area boundaries in a set of maps contained in the EIS. This analysis uses those Inventoried Roadless Areas boundaries. Throughout this document the term “Inventoried Roadless Area” or “IRA” refers to the areas on the set of maps from the November 2000 FEIS for the Roadless Area Conservation Rule.

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The Yamsay Mountain IRA forms a portion of the east boundary of the Red Knight Project Area. The Yamsay Mountain IRA falls within the 8485 acre Yamsay Mountain Semi-primitive Non- Motorized Recreation Area allocated as Management Area 1A (MA1A) in the Forest Plan. The Yamsay Mountain Semi-primitive Non-Motorized Recreation Area is designated for non motorized recreation. As a designated semi-primitive area, timber harvest is not programmed, new road construction would not occur unless needed to meet the management area objectives, and no effort will be made to control insect and disease outbreaks, except when pest or pathogen populations are a threat to adjacent lands. There is no overriding need to propose actions in the IRA so its boundary became the eastern boundary of the planning area.

The goal of MA1A is to provide semi-primitive non-motorized recreation opportunities in a predominantly natural landscape. Yamsay Mountain IRA provides a natural landscape unaffected by human influence, the opportunity to provide semi primitive recreation is moderate to high.

Environmental Effects on Yamsay Mountain IRA Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Yamsay Mountain IRA There would be no direct effects to the Yamsay Mountain IRA because no activities would occur. This alternative would allow stands adjacent to the IRAs to remain at risk of a stand replacing fire. As an indirect effect, if stand replacing fire were to occur, the natural integrity, special features, apparent naturalness, and scenic quality of the IRA could be altered, depending on fire severity in those areas.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Yamsay Mountain IRA There would be no direct effects to the Yamsay Mountain IRA because the project does not propose any road construction, reconstruction, or timber harvest in the Yamsay Mountain IRA. Management of the Yamsay Mountain IRA would remain unchanged providing semi-primitive non-motorized recreation. The area would continue to provide a predominantly natural appearing landscape where minor modifications to the natural environment are present. Current recreational activities such as hiking, sight-seeing, and hunting would continue.

Noise and traffic from timber harvest and follow-up fuel treatments would result in a short-term disruption of solitude in areas of close proximity to the treatment units.

Cumulative Effects on Yamsay Mountain IRA No activities are proposed in the Yamsay Mountain IRA; therefore the project will not contribute to cumulative effects on the opportunity for solitude and apparent naturalness within the IRA. The roadless character of the area would not be affected by implementation of the project.

Existing Condition of Undeveloped Areas Undeveloped areas for this analysis are defined as any area, without the presence of a classified road that is either 1000 acres in size, or is adjacent to an Inventoried Roadless Area and is not included in the map set for the Final EIS for Roadless Area Conservation (November 2000). Areas adjacent to the Yamsay Mountain IRA have seen numerous past timber harvest entries with associated road construction beginning in the early 1900s.

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Our analysis generated a map that contained four areas. Three of the areas are adjacent to the Yamsay Mountain IRA, and the remaining area follows the path of Jackson Creek and some of its tributaries. The undeveloped areas identified in this analysis may meet the criteria of potential wilderness, particularly where they are contiguous with IRAs or are large, greater than 1,000 acres or define a self contained ecosystem. Undeveloped areas that meet criteria for potential wilderness areas will be identified and included in the discussion of Potential Wilderness.

Method Used to Identify Undeveloped Areas This analysis was done solely for the purposes of the Red Knight Project and does not provide undeveloped area delineations suitable for any other application. The process used to locate undeveloped areas within the project area and adjacent to the Yamsay Mountain IRA identified contiguous areas without Forest Service system roads inside and around the project area. The existing National Forest System roads were identified and buffered by 300 feet. 300 feet was used because it is recognized for providing interior habitat for old growth habitat and it is used by the Eastside Screens.

The majority of the undeveloped areas generated by this process were outside the project area, not in treatment units, or not adjacent to the IRA. These areas were dropped from discussion and will not be considered further in this analysis. The process identified three undeveloped areas adjacent to the Yamsay Mountain IRA, and one area over 1000 acres that follows along Jackson Creek.

These undeveloped areas were assigned the letters A, B, C and D for ease of discussion and are shown on the map below. Table 13 summarizes their total size in acres, acres within proposed treatment units, stand identification numbers that fall within the undeveloped areas and the acres determined to meet potential wilderness criteria.

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Table 13. Undeveloped Area Size Summary

Identified Approximate Approximate Approximate Approximate Stand Unit Undeveloped Total Size Acres Within Acres of Acres Within Numbers Area (Acres) Red Knight Potential Proposed Vegetation Wilderness Treatment Project Units A 238 101 0 38 9021197 9021198 9021199 B 15 15 0 15 85050132 mc C 15 15 0 15 9021244 9021245 85050110 85050125 D 1692* 1692* 0 1062 9021185 9021186 *Includes past 9021183 harvest units 9021184 9021217 9021216 9021231 9000228 9021236 9021232 77010114 77010309 9021238 9021227 9021226 9221435 9221432 9021247 9021225 9221521 9221434 9221436 9221430 9021246 9221522 9221431 9221441

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9221440 9221429 9221516 9221442 9221520 9221519 9221517 9221518 pplant 85050125

Undeveloped Areas Description The majority of Areas A and B are located in a mixed conifer plant association group. These areas have been modified in the past through overstory removals. Available data identifies that three timber sales have taken place in Areas A and B. The three timber sales are Left Over 11, Little Skeeter 32, and Little Skeeter 33. All three timber sales are evident on the ground and in aerial photographs.

The majority of Area C is located in a mixed conifer/snowbrush-manzanita plant association group. This area has been modified in the past through overstory removals. Available data identifies that two timber sales have taken place in area C. The two timber sales are Little Skeeter 25, and Knight 10. Both timber sales are evident on the ground and in aerial photographs.

Area D is located along Jackson Creek and some of the tributary streams. Table14 identifies past timber treatments in this area. Stand number Acres Sale 9000187 44 past harvest 77010307 67 Lil Skeeter2 - 07a 77010114 102 Little Skeeter 14 (below road) and L Skeeter 07 77010309 100 LIL SKEETER 2- 09 no data 273 South Jackson 7. 8, 9, 11, 12 psthvst 105 Psthvst pplant 22 Ppplant 85050125 51 Little Skeeter 25

Of the 1692 acres identified by the first level analysis 763 of the acres are have seen timber treatments in recent history. With the previous timber treatment areas removed from the original area the contiguous area is reduced to 943 acres. This is due to many of the harvest units crossing undeveloped peninsulas created by the first level analysis.

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Plant associates in this area consist of ponderosa/bitterbrush/needlegrass, ponderosa/bitterbrush- manzanita, and mixed conifer (Ponderosa) snowbrush/manzanita. More in depth discussion of plant associations is available in the silvilculturists section.

Environmental Effects on Undeveloped Areas Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Undeveloped Areas The selection of the no action alternative would result in no change in the undeveloped areas. The landscape would continue on its current path. No treatment activities would occur so stand density would continue to increase, the likelihood of stand replacing wildfire would continue to increase in the same manner as described in the current condition section.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Undeveloped Areas The proposed action would treat all the west side of Area A and all of areas B and C with the Forest Restoration with Consideration of Pileated Habitat treatment. Evidence of the treatment will include stumps, downed vegetation, and evidence from the removal process. This evidence may be visible for a number of years. The effects to individual resource in these areas would be similar to the effects described in this document for similar treatments. The proposed action does not change the character of the area. The evidence of past logging is already visible in these areas. The area currently does not provide roadless quality.

The proposed action would treat Area D with the treatments listed in Table 15 Treatment Acres Jackson Creek Corridor and Boundary Springs 361 Forest Restoration in Ponderosa Pine and Lodgepole Pine 413 Forest Restoration with Consideration of Pileated Habitat 180 Small Tree Thinning 112 Limited Treatment 224 No Treatment 406

Evidence of the treatment will include stumps, downed vegetation, and evidence from the removal process. This evidence may be visible for a number of years. The effects to individual resource in these areas would be similar to the effects described in this document for similar treatments. The proposed action does not change the character of the area. The evidence of past logging is already visible in these areas. The area currently does not provide roadless quality.

Cumulative Effects on Undeveloped Areas There are no actions which would lead to cumulative effects to these undeveloped areas. Potential Wilderness Areas The following analysis uses inventory criteria from Forest Service Handbook 1909.12, Chapter 71, to determine which areas could qualify as potential wilderness areas, and then discloses potential impacts from the proposed alternatives on those areas in terms of potential wilderness criteria.

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Undeveloped areas A, B and C are contiguous with the Yamsay Mountain IRA. There is evidence of skid trails, landings, log piles and stumps in undeveloped areas A, B, and C which would preclude them from being included as potential wilderness and will not be discussed further. Undeveloped area D is 1692 acres which precludes it from being considered for potential wilderness under criteria 1 (areas 5000 acres or more). Area D does not meet criteria 2 and could not be preserved due to physical terrain/natural conditions, nor is it a self contained ecosystem.

The Yamsay Mountain IRA (6699 acres), Buck Creek IRA (9887 acres) and Antler IRA (5498 Acres) all share common boundaries and form one contiguous area. The proposed action does not have any actions being performed in the Yamsay Mountain IRA so it does not affect the potential of this area to be considered for wilderness.

Evaluation Criteria Used to Identify Potential Wilderness The identified potential wilderness area meets the criteria in FSH 1909.12 section 71. Yamsay Mountain IRA (6699 acres), Buck Creek IRA (9887 acres) and Antler IRA (5498 Acres) all share common boundaries and form one contiguous area of 22,084 acres. This area meets the potential wilderness criteria 1 (areas over 5,000 acres) and 3 (areas without roads).

Because of the strong evidence of past timber harvest in areas A, B, C are developed areas that do not provide wilderness potential and were not considered for addition to the Yamsay Mountain, Buck Creek, and Antler complex.

3.3.19 Scenery and Visual Resources

Resource indicators for visuals and scenic analysis are difficult to define. The effects to visuals are based on the perceptions of the individual making the observations. An effect can be seen as the deviation from what an individual expects to see when visiting the landscape. For most people if the individual is expecting to see a natural forest with only natural breaks and they see evidence of harvest activities this would be considered an impact to the visual resource. What individuals notice are deviations from the existing line, form, color, and texture. Indicators for line, form, color and texture include visible slash piles, stumps, roads, changes in bark color due to fire and soil changes from skidding activities.

Visual resources are important to the Klamath Tribes sense of place. A naturally appearing forest is important because it fits into the experience that tribal members expect to have, as they exercise their treaty rights, and maintain their living culture. The Yamsay Mountain viewshed is a very important resource to maintain with this in mind. For more information about the living culture, and sense of place of the Klamath Tribes, please see the Traditional Cultural Property section, pages 54-62.

In Management Area 3B, visuals were analyzed using GIS software. The visual route for each corridor was identified as the observer point from which to run the GIS model. The GIS model utilized digital elevation models along with the visual routes to identify what portion of the forest could be seen from the identified route. The models do not have the capability to consider the

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Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Scenery and Visual Resources Under the No Action Alternative no restoration actions would be taken and the stands would continue to grow, becoming denser in stocking. The visual characteristics would remain close to the condition described in the current conditions in the short term, in the long term the area would continue to become more dense and prone to fire and disease out breaks. If a fire or disease outbreak were to occur this could drastically change the visual characteristics of the area.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Scenery and Visual Resources The treatments will change the character of the landscape in the short term but in the long term the treatments will restore the area to visual characteristics closer to what was historically present within the area. The No Treatment areas (about 2,590 acres) would provide solitude and would not be affected by ground-based machinery. Many of the roads in and around Little Yamsay mountain are closed and vehicular traffic is very low in the surrounding area. The Little Yamsay no treatment area is contiguous with the Jackson Creek corridor no treatment area and the Jackson Creek Corridor special management area. These areas would contribute toward cover for big game since the forest is dense with shrubs (manzanita and ceanothus) and trees. These areas also would provide habitat for goshawk and great grey owl around Long Prairie.

The Limited Treatment areas would remove competing trees from around old trees for about two driplines or 20-30 foot radius in past treatment units within the Red Knight area. The goal would be to maintain and protect individual old trees, increase heterogeneity and provide cover for big game. The rest of these stands would not be thinned in order to provide cover into the future for big game and other animals that need dense forest habitat. Jackson Creek Corridor and Boundary Springs area treatments would be done to lessen competition near large trees and hardwoods. Small trees would be thinned (<7” DBH) and lopping and scattering of the slash or hand piling and pile burning would be the fuel reduction methods. The large individual trees would become more prominent across the landscape. Aspen, other hardwoods and riparian vegetation such as forbs would become more vigorous in the riparian systems which would make these traditional plants more available in the area.

Boundary Springs water development would be returned to its more natural state without the concrete spring head, black pipe or wooden trough. Forest restoration in the ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine areas would thin the stands making the large and old trees more prominent across the landscape. Slash from the harvest operations would be similar to the slash from the Lower Jack area.

The stands would be thinned to various densities, making the stands appear more variable with old and large trees more prominent. The view from the higher points in the area such as the top of Yamsay mountain would not change much, except the texture of the forest would not appear as dense compared to the no treatment alternative 1. In the Forest Restoration with consideration of Pileated Habitat area the stands would appear less dense and the larger trees more prominent. Retention clumps would break up the sight distance and make the stands appear heterogeneous. More white fir would be left in these stands, so there would be more of a mix of species of trees

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Lodgepole pine encroachment removal from around meadows would improve vegetation diversity, wildlife habitat, release riparian plants from competition with conifers and increase hardwood vigor. Many of the meadow and riparian areas have traditional plant populations that would benefit from a reduction in conifer competition and from disturbance such as pile burning and underburning. Burning would create blackened bark and scorched needles on the residual trees which would fall off with weathering and time. Piles could creep around in the duff creating a mosaic of burned and unburned areas near the riparian meadows and places where piles were burned. Growth and regeneration of the vegetation in the area is expected after the harvest and post treatment activities. Stumps would be evident in stands that had harvest operations as would skid trails and landings. In MA 3B stumps would be cut to shorter, and landings would be located away from main roads. Through out the project area, landings would be located away from main travelways where possible. About one ½ acre landing would be evident along haul routes for every 15-18 acres of harvest activity. Skid trails made on snow and frozen ground would be less evident than skid trails made during the summer.

The forest plan allows for “Management activities may be noticeable, but they remain subordinate to the natural landscape character.” The elevation changes and turns of the Silver Lake Road within the 3B management area provides for relatively short viewing distances. When coupled with the speed limit (55 MPH) of the road the duration of the views are also limited which reduces the amount of time most individuals will be observing the landscape and their ability to observe detailed features.

Winema LRMP Scenic Standard Amendment

The Winema LRMP Scenic Standard Amendment would allow a potential impact on visual resources for a period of more than 3 years. This amendment would allow charred bark to remain on trees along the Silver Lake Highway for more than 3 years. Prescribed fire is an important management tool in this fire adapted ecosystem, but effects from burning (blackened, scorched tree trunks) may be visible for more than 3 years. The visual impact from this amendment is reduced because of the short viewing durations along the road due to speed of travel and changes in elevation and curves in the road along the Silver Lake Highway.

Cumulative Effects of on Scenery and Visual Resources

The spatial bounds for cumulative effects analysis include the entire project area. Specific attention was paid to Management Area 3B as defined in the Forest Plan on both sides of the Silver Lake Road.

With the no action alternative no timber or fuel management activities will take place. The visual resources in the project area will continue to develop on its current path similar to what is described in the current conditions. The visual contrast created between the Lower Jack Restoration Project and the Red Knight restoration area would remain.

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There is a potential positive cumulative effect with the implementation of the vegetation and fuel treatments. The implementation of the vegetation and fuel treatments will reduce the contrast that currently exists between the project and the Lower Jack Restoration Project by creating a landscape that is more visually consistent.

3.3.20 – Recreation

Existing Condition

The project area contains one developed recreation site, Jackson Creek campground located near the south border of the project area. Jackson Creek is a lightly developed campground with 12 campsites available in a large ponderosa pine setting. The site has minimal constructed features including 1960’s era steel vault toilets, picnic tables and fire rings. The site is in a Roaded Natural setting of the Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS). Near the entrance to Jackson Creek Campground there is a small two room cabin used by cross country skiers in the winter. There is a single 1960’s vault north of the cabin, fire ring and picnic table in close vicinity to the cabin.

Statistically valid use figures are unavailable since there are no fees charged, or any other methods used to track use. Dispersed campsites have not been inventoried for this project, though it’s known that many dispersed camps exist throughout the planning area. Forest service staff observations indicate that the recreation use in the area is light, (see Recreation Report in the project record pgs 3-5) with the majority of use occurring during hunting seasons and on weekends.

The use of the ski trails is not well documented. Forest service staff has made contact recently with former members of the Alla Mage Ski club who originally identified the trails. The club has disbanded and the trails have not been maintained for a number of years. Outside of the snow season the High Desert Back Country Horsemen use the trails as pack and saddle trails. Statistically valid use numbers for the entire forest are available from the National Visitor Use Monitoring Survey; the last complete set of data available is 2008. There are two dispersed tribal camps within the project administered under special use permits.

Environmental Effects on Recreation

Direct and Indirect Effects of No Action on Recreation Under the No Action Alternative no restoration actions would be taken and the landscape would continue to develop on its current path. Recreational use of developed sites and the greater project area would continue as described in the current conditions. The number of visits to the project area would remain relatively the same and the quality of the experience would only change by natural causes (fire, downed trees). Recreational motorized access would remain the same per the current Motor Vehicle Use Map.

Direct and Indirect Effects of Proposed Action on Recreation

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During implementation there is the potential that some visitors will be displaced from the Jackson Creek Corridor area. This will be necessary for the safety of both crews and forest visitors. Vegetation treatments within Jackson creek will reduce the density of trees within the site, this will reduce the screening between sites and will also making some sites easier to access with larger vehicles. The recreation site will still provide a roaded natural ROS setting.

The removal of the three old vault toilets and replacement with a current vault toilet that meets current health, safety, and ADA standards will increase user comfort. Depending on a visitors location with in campground they will need to walk a farther distance to use the new facility. The cabin and associated outhouse at the entrance to Jackson Creek campground receive little to no use. The removal of these buildings is unlikely to displace any users. This is based on information gathered by Forest Service staff from the primary user of the cabin the Alla Mage Ski Club which was disbanded a number of years ago.

There is the potential that treatments outside of this area will have indirect effects on the recreation setting. These effects are likely to be short term and occur during implementation. The effects include minor inconvenience/ discomfort for the recreation user up to causing displacement due to the presence of noise (chain saws, skidding equipment) and smoke.

There are two traditional tribal dispersed campsites within the treatment area. It is possible that the camp’s occupants would be required to be displaced during the implementation harvest and fuels treatments.

Effects to recreation resources outside the Jackson Creek Corridor will be similar across all treatment types. The effects are similar because they occur primarily during implementation. There is the potential that some users will be displaced during the implementation due to closure or change in the recreation setting. Individuals would be displaced if a closure is needed for visitor and work crew safety.

Change to the recreation setting due to the presence of noise (chain saws, skidding equipment) and smoke has the potential to displace some users. The displacement is dependent on the season of implementation. Implementation during major hunting seasons is more likely to displace users than if implementation were to occur outside of these seasons. These effects are likely to be short term and users would likely accept short term inconveniences to their accustomed habits. For some recreation users it is possible that their recreation experience could be enhanced through viewing and observing project implementation of forest management.

The main long term effect which recreationists will observe is a slight change of character of vegetation within the project area. Currently a large portion of the project area is densely covered with trees both standing and down. Through the proposed action many of these areas would be opened up through removal of primarily small diameter trees. It is difficult to predict how users will react to this change of setting. Some users might find the treated areas more preferable due to larger sight distances, while other users prefer could prefer the more enclosed setting.

The proposed changes to the travel management plan will reduce overall motorized access to the project area; non-motorized access will not be affected. Currently based on the 2012 Motor

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Vehicle Use Map (MVUM) there are 134 miles of motorized routes within the project area (this number includes routes that establish the borders of the project). After implementation motorized access to the area will be reduced by 55.5 miles (55.1miles of open routes to be decommissioned and 0.4 miles to be closed to non authorized use).

Based on the 2012 MVUM 99% of the project area is within 0.5 miles of a road. With implementation of the proposed action 89% of the project area will be accessible within 0.5 miles of a road. While motorized access to the project area has been reduced it is expected that this will have little effect on recreation trends and experiences within the project area. Some users could potentially be displaced if they have a dispersed campsite located on one of the decommissioned or closed roads. Other users could experience a better recreation experience due to more opportunities for solitude.

Tribal members with camps in the area will still be able to access their campsites. It is likely that less intrusion into their campsites within the project area will occur due to the access route being closed on the MVUM.

The travel analysis proposes to decommission all of 4973010, 4975342, and the first 2.0 miles of 4975520. These routes are identified as cross country ski trails in the winter. Depending on the level of decommissioning applied to these routes there is the potential that some users could experience some inconvenience. Based on information received by Forest Service from the Alla Mage Ski club this potential inconvenience is unlikely due to the trails and their use being abandoned by the club.

Currently the High Desert Back Country Horsemen use these identified trails as horse trails outside of the snow season even though these routes are not identified as horseback trails. Depending on the level of decommissioning applied these users could be permanently displaced from these trails.

Cumulative Effects There will be no cumulative effects to recreation resources. With the implementation of strategies described in the design criteria, the effects to recreation resources would be properly mitigated.

3.3.21 – Irreversible and Irretrievable Effects

NEPA requires that the environmental analysis include identification of “…any irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources which would be involved in the proposed action should it be implemented.” The term “irreversible commitment of resources” describes the loss of future opportunities. It relates primarily to nonrenewable resources, such as minerals or cultural resources, or to measures such as soil productivity that are renewable over long periods. Measures described in Section 2.3 would provide resource protection. The term irretrievable applies to the loss of production, harvest, or use of natural resources for a period of time because of management decisions. Under active management, irretrievable resource commitments are often unavoidable, because managing resources for any given purpose necessarily precludes the opportunity to use those resources for other purposes. The analysis

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3.3.22 – Farmland, Rangeland, and Forestland Adverse effects on farmland, rangeland, and forestland are not expected from implementing any alternative. There is no farmland within the planning area.

3.3.23 – Floodplain and Wetlands No direct, indirect, or cumulative adverse effects to floodplains or wetlands as described in Executive Orders 11988 and 11990 would occur with implementation of the action alternatives. Adherence to INFISH (1995) direction provides the mechanism by which the Forest Service complies with Executive Orders 11988 and 11990.

Compliance with Other Laws, Regulations, and Polices

3.3.24 – Forest Plan Consistency Each resource has disclosed its consistency with the Winema Forest Plan in their respective resource sections though out this EA. The two site specific Forest Plan Amendments are proposed are discussed in detail on page 29.

Eastside Screens The Revised Continuation of Interim Management Direction Establishing Riparian, Ecosystem, and Wildlife Standards for Timber Sales amended the Winema LRMP (USDA Forest Service, 1990) in 1995. This applies to the design and preparation of timber sales on the eastside Forests and is often referred to as the “Eastside Screens”. This amendment includes interim riparian ecosystem and wildlife standards designed to maintain future planning options concerning wildlife habitat associated with Late and Old structural stages, fish habitat and old forest abundance. The interim ecosystem standard provides direction for characterizing a proposed timber sale and its associated watershed for patterns of stand structure by biophysical environment and comparing the abundance of structural stages to the Historic Range of Variability (HRV). The HRV is based on pre-Euro-American-settlement era conditions.

The Regional Forester’s Eastside Forest Plan Amendment 2 (part of the Winema National Forest Land and Resource Plan) requires a proposed timber sale area be characterized by its biophysical environments and compared to the Historic Range of Variability (HRV) of the biophysical environment. One of the issues in the Modoc planning area is the amount of Late and Old successional (LOS) forest. This classification is divided into two stand structures: Multi-Strata with Large Trees and Single Strata with Large Trees. This is referred to as the Interim Ecosystem Standard. The Interim Wildlife Standard has two scenarios, A and B based upon the two classifications of LOS and how they compare to the HRV. The Screens assess the consistency of projects with ecosystem management principles. Two screens are used, the ecosystem screen and the wildlife screen. The ecosystem screen evaluates proposed projects by examining current and historical range of variability (HRV) vegetation patterns. Its purpose is to maintain options associated with late and old structural stages. The table 14 displays the current successional stages compared to historical stages for the Red Knight planning area.

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The Regional Forester’s Eastside Forest Plan Amendment amended the Winema LRMP in 1998. Part of the amendment requires characterizing the proposed timber sale and its associated watershed for patterns of stand structure by biophysical environment and comparing it to the Historic Range of Variability (HRV). It goes on to say the HRV should be based on conditions in the pre-settlement era and should be developed for large landscapes across which forest types, environmental settings and disturbance regimes are relatively uniform. Late, Old Structure (LOS) a term used in the wildlife standard refers to the structural stages where large trees are common (Multi-stratum with Large Trees and Single-stratum with Large Trees.). For the HRV analysis for Red Knight LOS refers to the old-growth definitions from Hopkins, 1993 (Appendix G of the silviculture report). The landscape boundary used is the Red Knight project area since it is large enough (32,000+ acres), forest types, environmental settings and disturbance regimes are relatively uniform. The FSM 2000 Chapter 2020 broadens the definition of ecological restoration beyond the goal of reestablishing resource conditions that existed some time in the past (HRV). The Forest Service definition of ecological restoration focuses on reestablishing the resilience or adaptive capacity of ecosystems. Historical conditions are essential to understanding ecosystem dynamics considering the uncertainties of climate change and have great value in helping develop restoration goals and objectives. Historical vegetation information from The Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Project Scientific Assessment (ICBEMP, Quigley and Arbelbide, 1997) and Hagmann’s interpretation of 1920 forest inventory by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (Hagmann, et al. 2013) was used to determine the HRV for the Red Knight area. Ecosystems within their HRV are assumed to be more resilient to widespread disturbances and sustainable over time. Resilience to fire, insects and disease is important so that disturbance events do not lead to uncharacteristic large-scale loss of forest habitat. Creating a resilient forest allows for the development and maintenance of diverse wildlife habitats closer to what occurred historically. The concept of historic reference provides a range of natural variability in composition and structure in ponderosa pine ecosystems, a point of reference to evaluate departures within the ecosystem and criteria for measuring success of restoration treatments (Youngblood et al., 2004).

Table 14. Current and Historical Range of Variation by Physiognomic Type in Red Knight* Physiognomic Type – Dry Historical Range* Current** Forest Early-Seral 6-10% 10% Mid-Seral 14-35% 37% Late-Seral Multi-Layer 12-15% 53% Late-Seral Single-Layer 39-65% <1% *From ICBEMP current and historic period physiognomic types for the dry forest vegetation group for Upper Klamath Ecological reporting Unit (ERU) table 3.118 ; p. 659.

**Current percentages are from timber stand exams (1991-1993) and existing conditions field interpretations (Brown, 2010). All plant groups were combined to compare to data from ICBEMP.

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Table 15. Old Forest Multi and Single Stratum by Biophysical Environment Successional Stage Comparisons Biophysical Late Single Late Multi- Environments Stratum Stratum H% C% %D H% C% %D Dry Ponderosa 70-90 <1 -70 4-6 53 +49 Dry Lodgepole 5-16 <1 -4 2-5 16 +14 Dry Mixed 0-2 <1 0 2-4 60 +58 Conifer H=Historic, C=Current, D=Difference

The intent of the wildlife screen is to maintain options in the short term for conservation of wildlife species associated with late/old successional (LOS) habitat. The wildlife screen provides guidelines in two scenarios depending on results of the ecosystem screen. The following table displays the current status (below, within, or above HRV) of biophysical environments.

HRV Categories by Late/Old Stages Biophysical Environments Single Stratum with large trees Multi-Stratum with large trees Dry Ponderosa Pine below HRV above HRV Dry Lodgepole Pine below HRV above HRV Dry Mixed Conifer within HRV above HRV

Scenario 3a is used if the abundance of late successional stages in a biophysical environment is below historic levels. With Scenario 3a, if either one or both of the late stages is below HRV there should be no net loss of LOS from that biophysical environment. One type of late stage can be manipulated to move stands into a late stage that is deficit. Scenario 3b is used if the abundance of LOS falls within or above historic levels. Scenario 3b allows harvest within late stage stands if guidelines are followed and harvest does not cause late stages to fall below HRV. All biophysical environments are above HRV for multi-stratum with large trees. The ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine plant groups are below HRV for single canopy with large trees and the dry mixed conifer is within HRV for single stratum with large trees. Proposed activities would move ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine and mixed conifer stands from multi-stratum toward structural stages and conditions that occurred historically. Stands with a large component of older trees would closely resemble more open, clumpy conditions dominated by large, old trees that were prevalent historically.

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Table 16. Red Knight BioPhysical environments matrix

Biophysical Dominant Disturbance Average Typical Typical Typical Environment Disturbance Regime Disturbance Landform Elevation Aspects Factors Patch Setting Range Warm, Dry Fire, Insects Low 1-5 acres Flat, side Below Flat Ponderosa Disease intensity, slopes, 5,000 feet Pine (including frequent fire ridges bark beetles, Also mixed dwarf mistletoe and Pandora moth) Warm, Dry Insects, Moderate 5-15 acres Flat, cold 5,000 feet Flat, Lodgepole (bark air concave Pine beetles), drainages depressions Disease, Fire Warm, Dry Insects, Mixed (low 5-30 acres Ridges, 5-6,000 North, Mixed disease, fire and side slopes feet West, Flat conifer moderate)

The low severity/low intensity fire regimes typically had large fires but small patch sizes (Table 16). Fires burned frequently and regularly consuming fuels, killing small trees, and pruning the boles of the residual trees and maintained a relatively fire-resistant landscape. Forests with ponderosa pine had very small patch sizes (1-5 acre) due to group kill of pines by bark beetles or root disease pockets and subsequent consumption of the debris by fire. Most of the forest was a fairly uniform mosaic of mature tree clusters and grassy understories. As individual tree clumps became less vigorous, they would be attacked by bark beetles, creating a patch of coarse woody debris. The landscape was dotted with regenerating patches and clusters of coarse woody debris (Agee, 2002). Mixed severity fires had larger patch sizes (5-30 acre) and edges. These fires maintained a naturally fragmented forest structure and fuel structure.

3.3.25 – Civil Rights and Environmental Justice

Consultation with the Klamath Tribes on the Red Knight Restoration Project was conducted with participation from Tribal representatives. See section 3.2.1 - Treaty Resources and Other Concerns of the Klamath Tribes on pages 52-62 of this EA for more detail about treaty and other Tribal rights.

Direct and Indirect Effects of the Proposed Action on Civil Rights and Environmental Justice

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The proposed projects would not disproportionately affect consumers, civil rights, minority groups, or women compared to the general populace. Contracts would be governed by non- discrimination requirements to prevent adverse impact to these groups.

Environmental justice is defined as the pursuit of equal justice and equal protection under the law for all environmental statutes and regulations, without discrimination based on race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA 1969) requires integrated use of the natural and social sciences in all planning and decision-making that affect the human environment. The human environment includes the natural and physical environment and the relationship to the environment. Forest Service land management planning regulations require the integration of social science knowledge into Forest and Regional planning processes.

Executive Order 12898 (1994) ordered federal agencies to identify and address the issue of environmental justice, adverse human health and environmental effects of agency programs that disproportionately impact minority and low income populations. The implementation of the action alternative would not cause disproportionately high adverse human health or environmental effects on minority or low-income populations. Nearby communities would mainly be affected by the positive economic impacts of timber harvest as would contractors implementing non-commercial thinning and slash treatment activities. Racial and cultural minority groups could be prevalent in the work forces that implement harvest, prescribed fire, thinning, or fish habitat improvement projects. Contracts contain clauses that address worker safety.

Chapter 4

4.1 - Agencies and Governments Consulted Klamath Tribes USDI-Fish and Wildlife Service, Klamath Marsh Refuge Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife

4.2 - Persons and Organizations Consulted Maps, background material, and information about the proposed activities in the Red Knight planning area were mailed to 30 individuals, organizations, and agencies. The following persons, organizations, or agencies expressed interest: American Forest Resources Council Dick Artley Lillian Watah Ron Crandall Mark Gaffney Mr.and Mrs.William Ray Sr. KS Wild (Klamath Siskiyou Wildlands Center) US Fish and Wildlife Service

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Oregon Wild Concerned Friends of the Winema Chapter 5

5.1 - Interdisciplinary Team

Faith Brown, Silviculturist/Planning Forester Will Hatcher, Klamath Tribes Natural Resource Director and Forester Terry Simpson, Wildlife Biologist Jen Sanborn, Wildlife Biologist David Speten, Klamath Tribes Wildlife Biologist Randy Henry, Klamath Tribes Forester Missy Anderson, Botanist Dave Halemier, Hydrologist William Goodman, Hydrologist Cindy Foster, Soil Scientist Debbie Johnson, Applegate Forestry Neil Anderson, West Zone Fisheries Biologist Floyd K. Gregor, Assistant Fire Management Officer Tim Yurkiewicz, Supervisory Engine Crew Foreman George Libercajt, Fire Management Officer William Ray Jr., Archaeologist Ed Brown, Natural Resource Staff Officer Joe Monroe, GIS Analyst Doug Miller, Roads Engineer Amber Lidell, NEPA writer/editor Anne Trapanese, NEPA writer/editor

5.2 – Support and Review

Kelly Lawrence, Acting Chemult District Ranger Mike Lawrence, Acting Chemult District Ranger Dave Sabo, Chemult District Ranger Amy Gowan Partnership Coordinator/Tribal Government Relations Staff

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References

The following references appear in the Red Knight Project Environmental Analysis. Additional references are in the various resource specialist reports, and as such are considered incorporated by reference. These reports are part of the project record.

Botany Carr, M., K. Amsberry, and R. Meinke. 2007. Astragalus peckii disturbance ecology study. Report for U.S. Forest Service, Fremont-Winema National Forest, and Bureau of Land Management, Prineville District. Native Plant Conservation Program, Oregon Department of Agriculture, Salem, Oregon.

Lehmkuhl, J. F. 2004. Epiphytic lichen diversity and biomass in low-elevation forests of the eastern Washington Cascade range, USA. Forest Ecology and Management 187:381-392.

Malaby, S. 2005. Fremont-Winema National Forest Prevention Practices.

McCune, B. & Geiser, L. (1997). Macrolichens of the Pacific Northwest, 2nd Edition, Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, OR.

McIver, J.D., Adams, P.W., Doyal, J.A., Drews, E.S., Hartsough, B.R., Kellogg, L.D., Niwa, C.G., Ottmar, R.D., Peck, R., Taratoot, M., Torgersen, T. and Youngblood, A. (2003). Environmental effects and economics of mechanized logging for fuel reduction in Northeastern Oregon mixed-conifer stands. Western Journal of Applied Forestry, 18(4), 238-249.

Martin, E.F., and R.J. Meinke. 2012. Variation in the demographics of a rare central Oregon endemic, Astragalus peckii Piper (Fabaceae), with fluctuating levels of herbivory. Population Ecology 54:381-390.

Oregon Department of Agriculture. 2013. Oregon Plant Programs, Plant Conservation, Pumice grape-fern (Botrychium pumicola). Oregon Department of Agriculture: Web Page: http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/PLANT/CONSERVATION/pages/profile_bopu.aspx Accessed: Mar 1, 2013.

Shoal, R., Ohlson, T., and Aubry, C. 2008. Land Managers Guide to Whitebark Pine Restoration in the Pacific Northwest Region. Olympic, WA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. p. 1-37

Smith, J. E., McKay, D, Brenner, G., McIvers, J., & Spatafora, J. W. (2005). Early impacts of forest restoration treatments on the ectomycorrhizal fungal community and fine root biomass in a mixed conifer forest. Journal of Applied Ecology, 42, 526-535.

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Tomback, D.F., Arno, S.F. & Keane, R.E. (2001) Whitebark Pine communities: ecology and restoration. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA, p. 328.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1998. Applegate’s milk-vetch (Astragalus applegatei) Recovery Plan. Portland, Oregon. p. 1-41

USDA Forest Service. 2011a. Fremont-Winema National Forest Invasive Plant Treatment Record of Decision.

USDA Forest Service. 2011b. Forest Service Manual 2900 – Invasive Species Management.

USDA Forest Service. 2011c. Regional Forester’s Sensitive Plant List, Pacific Northwest Region. December 2011.

USDA Forest Service. 2005a. Forest Service Manual 2600 – Wildlife, Fish, and Sensitive Plant Habitat Management, Chapter 2670 – Threatened, Endangered and Sensitive Plant and Animals.

USDA Forest Service. 2005. Pacific Northwest Region Invasive Plant Program Preventing and Managing Invasive Plants. Final Environmental Impact Statement Record of Decision.

USDA Forest Service. 1990. Land and Resource Management Plan Winema National Forest.

Volland L.A. 1988. Plant associations of the central Oregon Pumice Zone. USDA For. Serv. PNW R6-ECOL-104, Portland, OR. 138 p.

Wooley, R.L. April 1993. Conservation Strategy for Penstemon glaucinus. Fremont National Forest. p. 1-44.

Fisheries

Benavides-Solorio, J., and L. H. MacDonald. 2001. Post-fire runoff and erosion from simulated rainfall on small plots, Colorado Front Range. Hydrological Processes 15:2931-2952.

Benavides-Solorio, J., and L. H. MacDonald. 2005. Measurement and prediction of postfire erosion at the hillslope scale, Colorado Front Range. International Journal of Wildland Fire 14:457-474.

Burroughs, Edward R., Jr.; King, John G. 1989. Reduction of soil erosion on forest roads. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-264. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, lntermountain Research Station. 21 p.

Frest, T. and E. Johannes. 1995. Interior Columbia Basin mollusk species of special concern. Final Report. Prepared for Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. Contract #43-0E00-4-9112. Walla Walla, WA.

Frest, T. and E. Johannes. 1998. Freshwater mollusks of the Upper Klamath Drainage, Oregon.

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Frest, T and E. Johannes. 2000. A mollusk survey of Klamath and Sycan Marshes and Vicinity. Final Report. Prepared for Oregon Natural Heritage Program, Portland, OR. Megahan and others 1992. Best management practices and cumulative effects from sedimentation in the South fork Salmon River: An Idaho case study. In: Naiman, R.J. (ed) Watershed Management: Balancing Sustainability with Environmental Change, new York: springer-Verlag. Chapter 15, 401-414.

Nedeau, E., A. K. Smith, and J. Stone. 2005. Freshwater mussels of the Pacific Northwest. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Water Tenders, and the Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation. Available at www.fws.gov/columbiariver/mwg/pdfdocs/Pacific_Northwest_Mussel_Guide.pdf

Robichaud et al. 1993. Variation among different surface conditions in timber harvest sites in the southern Appalachians, in, International workshop on soil erosion, Proceedings. Moscow, Russia. Sept. 1993. The center for technology transfer and pollution prevention. Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN [ 231-241. In Cumulative Watershed Effects of Fuels Management: A Western Synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Robichaud, P.R. and T.A. Waldrop, 1994. A comparison of surface runoff and sediment yields from low-and high-severity site preparation burns. Water Resources Bulletin 30:27-34. In Cumulative Watershed Effects of Fuels Management: A Western Synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

ODFW 1991. Physical habitat survey of Jackson Creek.

ODFW 1997. Klamath River Basin, Oregon. Fish Management Plan. Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife.

(OWEB 2005). (Upper Williamson River Watershed Assessment. Prepared for the Klamath Basin Ecosystem Foundation Upper Williamson River Catchment Group in Cooperation with the Upper Klamath Basin Working Group and the Klamath Watershed Council. June 2005. David Evans and Associates Inc. Page 152.)

USDA. 1988. General Water Quality Best Management Practices. Dept. of Agriculture. U.S. Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Region, Region 6. Portland, Oregon.

USDA Forest Service. 1990. Land and Resource Management Plan. Winema National Forest. Dept. of Agriculture. U.S. Forest Service. Klamath Falls, Oregon.

USDA Forest Service. 1993. Fishes of the United States Forest Service Streams within the Klamath Basin, Oregon. Dept. of Agriculture. Fremont-Winema National Forests. Not cited.

USDA Forest Service 1995. Inland Native Fish Strategy Environmental Assessment (INFISH). USDA Forest Service, Intermountain, Northern, and Pacific Northwest Regions, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho.

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USDA Forest Service, August 1996. Upper Williamson River Watershed Analysis, Chiloquin and Chemult RD, Winema National Forest USDA Forest Service 1998. Big Bill. The Williamson River Basin Watershed Analysis. Chiloquin and Chemult Ranger Districts. Winema National Forest. February 1998.

USDA Forest Service 1999. Roads Analysis. Informing Decisions About Managing the National Forest Transportation System. Dept. of Agriculture. Forest Service. Washington Office. FS-643. August 1999.

USDA and USDI 2003. Water Quality Restoration Plan Upper Klamath Basin. Dept. of Agriculture Forest Service, Winema and Fremont National Forests. Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Lakeview District, Klamath Falls Resource Area.

USDA Forest Service 2013a. Fremont-Winema National Forest Fish Distribution Database. USDA Forest Service 2013b. Region 6 (Forest Service) ISSSSP website. http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/sfpnw/issssp/planning-documents/assessments.shtml

USDI 2004a. Spencer Creek Road Inventory and Sediment Assessment, Status Report. May 2004. Bureau of Land Management. Klamath Falls Resource Area. Lakeview District. Mike Turaski, Hydrologist.

USDI 2013. Listed, Proposed, and Candidate Species. Klamath County, Oregon. Dept. of Interior. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Klamath Falls Fish and Wildlife Office. http://www.fws.gov/klamathfallsfwo/es/es-species.html May 2013.

USDI 2012. 77 FR 73740 73768 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Proposed Determination of Critical Habitat for Lost River Sucker and Shortnose Sucker

USDI. 2010. 75 FR 63898 64070 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Revised Designation of Critical Habitat for Bull Trout in the Coterminous United States; Final Rule.

Van Lear, D.H. and S.J.. Danielovich, 1988. Soil Movement after broadcast burning in the southern Appalachians. Southern Journal of applied Forestry. 12:49-53. In Cumulative Watershed Effects of Fuels Management: A Western Synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

Van Lear, D.H. and P.R. Kapeluck, 1989. Fell and burn to regenerate mixed pine-hardwood stands: An overview of effects on soil. in, Proceedings of pine-hardwood mixtures: A symposium on management and ecology of the type. USA Forest Service General Technical Report SE-58. p. 83-90. . In Cumulative Watershed Effects of Fuels Management: A Western Synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Wells, C.G., R.E. Campbell, L.F. Debano, C.E. Lewis, r.L. Fredriksen, E.C. Franklin, R.C. Froelich, and P.H. Dunn. 1979. Effects of fire on soil: a state of the knowledge review. USDA Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Report WO No. 7, Washington, D.C. . In Cumulative Watershed Effects of Fuels Management: A Western Synthesis. Gen. Tech. Rep., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rocky Mountain Research Station.

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Hydrology Bosch, J.M.; and Hewlett, J.D. 1982. A Review of Catchment Experiments to Determine the Effect of Vegetation Changes on Water Yield and Evaporation. Journal of Hydrology 55, pages 3-23.

Kaufmann, Merrill; Troendle, Charles; Ryan, Michael; Mowrer, H. Todd. 1987. Trees the Link Between Silviculture and Hydrology. In Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station GTR 149 Management of subalpine forests: building on 50 years of research. Proceedings of a technical conference in Silver Creek Colorado July 6-9 1987. Pages 54-60.

Shepperd, W.; Troendle, C.; Edminster, C. 1991. Linking water and growth and yield models to evaluate management alternatives in subalpine ecosystems. Paper presented at the National Silviculture Workshop, Cedar City, UT, May 6-9, 1991

John D. Stednick 2008a, Hydrological and biological responses to forest practices : the Alsea Watershed study. Chapter 2 Effects of Timber Harvesting on Streamflow in the Alsea Watershed Study.

John D. Stednick 2008b, Hydrological and biological responses to forest practices : the Alsea Watershed study. Chapter 9 Long Term stream flow changes following timber harvesting. U.S.D.A. Forest Service National Best Management Practices for Water Quality Management on National Forest System Lands Vol. 1 National Core BMP Technical Guide (FS-990a), 2012.

Recreation and Visuals USDA Forest Service. 1986. The 1986 ROS Book (compilation of information), Washington, DC:Recreation, Heritage, and Wilderness Resources. II-30-II-33 p.

USDA Forest Service. 1974. National Forest Landscape Management, Volume 2, Chapter 1, The Visual Management System. Agriculture Handbook 462, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

USDA Forest Service. 1996. Landscape Aesthetics: A Handbook for Scenery Management. Agriculture Handbook 701. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Silviculture

A Plan for the Klamath Tribes’ Management of the Klamath Reservation Forest. 2008. K. Norman Johnson, Jerry Franklin, Debora Johnson.

Agee, J.K., 1993. Fire Ecology of Pacific Northwest Forests. Island Press. 493 pp.

Agee, J.K., 1998. The landscape ecology of western forest fire regimes. NW Science, (72). Special issue, 1998.

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Agee, J.K., Skinner C.N., 2005. Basic Principles of forest fuel reduction treatments. Forest Ecology and Management, 211 (2005) 83-96. Agee, J.K., 2002. Fire as a coarse filter for snags and logs. USDA-FS Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW- GTR-181. 2002.

Amaranthus, M.P., Perry, D.A., 1994. The functioning of ectomycorrhizal fungi in the field: linkages in space and time. Plant and Soil 159: 133-140, 1994.

Breshears, D.D., et al, 2008. Tree die-off in response to global change-type drought: mortality insights from a decade of plant water potential measurements. Front Ecol Environ 2009; 7 (4): 185-189. Published online 2008.

Busse, M.D., Riegel, G.M., 2009. Response of antelope bitterbrush to repeated prescribed burning in Central Oregon ponderosa pine forests. Forest Ecology and Management 257; 2009, p. 904-910.

Busse, M.D., et al, 2009. Developing resilient ponderosa pine forests with mechanical thinning and prescribed fire in central Oregon’s pumice region. M.D. Busse, P.H. Cochran, W.E. Hopkins, W.H. Johnson, G.M. Riegel, G.O. Fiddler, A.W. Ratcliff, C.J. Shestak. Can. J. For. Res. 39; 2009, 1171-1185.

Busse, M.D., P.H. Cochran and J.W. Barrett, 1996. Changes in ponderosa pine site productivity following removal of understory vegetation. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.: J. 60:1614-1621 (1996).

Busse, M.D., 2010. Site quality changes in response to slash retention and prescribed fire in thinned ponderosa pine forests. USDA-FS proceedings RMRS-P-61. 2010

Churchill, D.J., M.C. Dalhgreen, A.J. Larson and J.F. Franklin. 2013. The ICO approach to restoring spatial pattern in dry forests: Implementation guide. Version 1.0. Stewardship Forestry, Vashon, Washington, USA.

Churchill, D.J., A.J. Larson, M.C. Dahlgreen, J.F. Franklin, P.F. Hessburg. 2013. Restoring forest resilience: From reference spatial patterns to silvicultural prescriptions and monitoring. Forest Ecology and Management 291 (2013) 442-457.

Cochran, P,H., 1992, Stocking Levels and Underlying Assumptions for Uneven-Aged Ponderosa Pine Stands, PNW-RN-509. USDA Forest Service

Cochran, P.H. et al., 1994. Suggested Stocking Levels for Forest Stands in Northeastern Oregon and Southeastern Washington, PNW-RN-513. USDA Forest Service.

Cochran, P.H., 1998 Examples of Mortality and Reduced Annual Increments of White Fir Induced by Drought, Insects, and Disease at Different Stand Densities. PNW-RN-525.

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Cochran, P.H., Barrett, J.W. 1993. Long-term response of planted ponderosa pine to thinning in Oregon’s Blue Mountains. WJAF 8(4) 1993. Dixon, G. 2002. Forest Vegetation Simulator. Version 6.21. Southern Oregon Northern California SORNEC variant. http://www.fs.fed.us/fmsc/fvs/software/varfiles.php. Dixon, Gary E. comp. 2002. Essential FVS; A user’s guide to the Forest Vegetation Simulation Internal Rep. Fort Collins Co.: USFS, Forest Management Service Center.

Durkin, P.R., Koltzbach, J. 2006. Human health and ecological risk assessment for Borax (Sporax) Final Report. USDA-FS. SERA TR 04-43-21/06-30-02b. 2006.

Egan, J.M., 2010. Forest thinning and subsequent bark beetle-caused mortality in NE California. Forest Ecology and Management 260 (2010) 1832-1842.

Estes, B.L., et al., 2012. Seasonal variation in surface fuel moisture between unthinned and thinned mixed conifer forest, northern California, USA. International Jor. of Wildland Fire. 2012. 21, 428-435.

Filip, G. and Fitzgerald, S. 1999. Precommercial Thinning in a Ponderosa Pine Stand Affected by Armillaria Root Disease in Central Oregon: 30 years of Growth and Mortality. WJAF 14 (3) 1999.

Forest Health Risk Analysis for Forest Treatment Priorities, Amy Krommes, Forest Silviculturist, Fremont-Winema National Forests, 2010.

Franklin, J.F., Johnson, N.K., 2012. A Restoration Framework for Federal Forests in the Pacific Northwest. J. of For. 110(8):429-439.

Franklin, J.F. and Dyrness, C.T. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. OSU Press. 1988.

Geiszler, D.R., et al. 1980. Fire, Fungi, and Beetle Influences on a lodgepole pine ecosystem of south central Oregon. Oecologia (Berl.) 46, 239-243 (1980).

Graham, R.T., T.B. Jain, 2005. Ponderosa pine ecosystems. USDA-FS Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR- 198. 2005.

Hagmann, R.K., et al., 2013. Historical structure and composition of ponderosa pine and mixed- conifer forests in south-central Oregon. Forest Ecol. Manage. (2013).

Hawksworth, F.G. and Geils, B.W. 1990. How Long Do Mistletoe-Infected Ponderosa Pines Live? West. J. Appl. For. 5 (2):47-48, April 1990.

Hessburg, P.F. et al., 2005. Dry forests and wildland fires of the inland Northwest USA: Contrasting the landscape ecology of the pre-settlement and modern eras. Forest Ecology and Management 211 (2005) 117-139.

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Hessl, A.E., et al., 2004. Drought and Pacific decadal oscillation linked to fire occurrence in the inland Pacific Northwest. Ecological Applications 14(2). 2004, pp. 425-442. Hood, S.M., 2010. Mitigating old tree mortality in long-unburned, fire-dependent forests: a synthesis. Gen Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-238. Fort Collins, CO:USDA, FS, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 71p.

Hopkins, W.E., S. Simon, M. Schafer, and T. Lillybridge., 1993. Region 6 Interim Old Growth Definitions for Grand fir/White fir series, Lodgepole series, and Ponderosa pine series.

Hopkins, W.E., Cochran, P.H., 1990. Does fire exclusion increase productivity of ponderosa pine? Paper presented at Symposium on management and productivity of western-montane forest soils, Boise, ID, April, 10-12, 1990.

IPCC, 2007. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Fourth Assessment Report: Climate change 2007, synthesis Report, section 2, Causes of Change, 2007. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland.

Krommes, A.J., Eglitis, A., 2010. Mountain pine beetle in Lake and Klamath Counties: Status as of 2009 and expectations for 2010 and beyond. White paper, Fremont-Winema NF. 2010. Land and Resource Management Plan Winema National Forest 1990.

Larson, A.J., D.J. Churchill, 2012. Tree spatial patterns in fire-frequent forests of western North America, including mechanisms of pattern formation and implications for designing fuel reduction and restoration treatments. Forest Ecology and Management 267 (2012) 74-92.

Larson, A.J., 2012. Effects of restoration thinning on spatial heterogeneity in mixed-conifer forest. Can. J. For. Res. 42: 1505-1517 (2012).

Littell, et al., 2009. Climate and wildfire area burned in western U.S. ecoprovinces, 1916-2003. Ecological Applications, 19(4), 2009. pp. 1003-1021.

Mote et al., 2010. Future climate in the Pacific Northwest. Climatic Change (2010) 102:29-50.

Mote, 2003. Trends in snow water equivalent in the Pacific Northwest and their climatic causes. Geophysical Research Letters, (30) No. 12. 2003.

Ohmann, J.L. 2010. Mapping forest composition and structure in the Pacific Coast States with gradient nearest neighbor imputation (GNN).

Quigley, Arbelbide, 1997. Upper Klamath ERU from the ICBEMP. An Assessment of Ecosystem Components in the Interior Columbia Basin and Portion of the Klamath and Great Basins. Volume II: Landscape Dynamics of the Basin. 1997. (PNW-GTR-405 June, 1997).

Seager, T., 2010. Quaking Aspen Persistence in Three Oregon Landscapes, Thesis for M.S., Oregon State University. 2010.

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Seager, T., 2011. Aspen restoration through conifer removal: recommendations to the Chemult Ranger District. 2011. Seager, T., 2013. Aspen restoration strategy – Fremont-Winema NF. 2013 (draft).

Shuffield, C.D., 2010. Overstory composition and stand structure shifts within inter-mixed ponderosa pine and lodgepole pine stands of South-central Oregon pumice zone. Masters thesis. OSU. 2010.

Smith, A. 2009. Recommended mitigation measures for western dwarf mistletoe in ponderosa pine in the Deadlog Project Area. 2009.

Soil Resource Inventory, USDA-FS Winema National Forest. Garwin Carlson, soil scientist. 1979.

Stanton, S. 2007. Effects of Dwarf Mistletoe on Climate Response of Mature Ponderosa Pine Trees. Tree-Ring Research, Vol. 63, (2), 2007, pp.69-80.

Stuart, J.D., Agee, J.K. and Gara, R.I., 1989. Lodgepole pine regeneration in an old-self- perpetuating forest in south central Oregon. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 1096-1104.

Thies, W.G., Westlind, D.J., 2012. Validating the Malheur model for predicting ponderosa pine post-fire mortality using 24 fires in the PNW, USA. International Journal of Wildland Fire 2012, 21, 572-582.

Use of Borax to Prevent Spread of Annosus Root Disease, Jan Lerum, Vegetation Management and Planning Staff Officer, Fremont-Winema National Forests, July 2, 2010.

Van Pelt, R. 2008. Identifying Old Trees and Forests in Eastern Washington. Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA. 166 p.

Volland, L.A., 1985. Plant Associations of the Central Oregon pumice zone. USDA-FS, PNW, R-6-ECOL-104-1985. Revised by Hopkins, W.E., 1999.

Youngblood, A. et al., 2004. Stand structure in eastside old-growth ponderosa pine forests of Oregon and northern California. Forest Ecology and Management 199 (2004) 191-217.

Soils

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Soil Conservation Service. 1958. Soils of the Klamath Indian Reservation. Interim Report. No publisher cited.

Croke, J.C. and Hairsine, P.B. 2001. Management of Road Runoff: A Design Approach. Soil Erosion Research for the 21st Century. Honolulu, HI: Proceedings International Symposium.

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Croke, J.; Wallbrink, P.; Fogarty, P.; Hairsine, P.; Mockler. S.; McCormack, B.; Brophy, J. 1999. Managing sediment sources and movement in forests: the forest industry and water quality. Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology.

Deschutes National Forest, 1995-1999. Forest staff. Internal Monitoring Reports.

Dryness, C.T. and C.T. Youngberg. 1966. Soil-Vegetation Relationships within the Ponderosa Pine Type in the Central Oregon Pumice Region. Ecology, vol. 47, no.1.

Dumroese, Deborah S., Jurgensen, M., Elliot, W., Rice, T., Nesser, J., Collins, T., Meurisse, R., 1996. Soil quality standards and guidelines for forest sustainability in northwestern North America. USDA Forest Service. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-494.

Geist, J.M. and P.H. Cochran. 1991. Influences of Volcanic Ash and Pumice Deposition on Productivity of Western Interior Forest Soils. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280.

Johnson, K. Norman, Franklin, J.F., and Johnson, D.L., 2008. A Plan for the Klamath Tribes’ Management of the Klamath Reservation Forest. Landsberg, Johanna D., Miller, R.E., Anderson, H.W., and Tepp J.S., 2003. Bulk Density and Soil Resistance to Penetration as Affected by Commercial Thinning in Northeastern Washington. Pacific Northwest Research Station. Research Paper PNW-RP-551.

Megahan, Walter F., n.d., 1986. Effects of Silvicultural Practices on Erosion and Sedimentation in the Interior West – A Case for Sediment Budgeting. Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service. Boise, Idaho

USDA Forest Service, 1979. Soil Resource Inventory, Winema National Forest. G.T. Carlson.

USDA Forest Service, 1990. Winema National Forest, Land and Resource Management Plan.

USDA Forest Service, 1998. FSM 2520, Forest Service Soil Quality Standards, Region 6, R-6 Supplement No. 2500-98-1.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2002. Field Guide for Describing and Sampling Soils, version 2. National Soil Survey Center.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1985. Soil Survey of Klamath County, Oregon Southern Part.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2012. Soil Survey of Lake County Oregon, Northern Part, Parts of Lake and Klamath County

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 1999. Soil Survey of Upper Deschutes River Area, Parts of Deschutes, Jefferson, and Klamath Counties.

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USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2002. Soil Survey of Crater Lake National Park.

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2007. National Engineering Handbook, Part 630, Hydrology. Chapter 7 Hydrologic Soil Groups.

U.S. Department of Interior BLM, 2004. GIS Skid trail disturbance assessment. Klamath Falls Resource Area staff.

Wildlife

Albert, Travis J. 2013. The American Marten (Martes americana) and Pacific Fisher (Martes pennanti) of the Eastside Cascade Crest Oregon: Report on Infra-red Camera Study Klamath Ranger District, Fremont-Winema National Forests.

Arnett, E.B. B. Altman, W.P. Erickson, and K.A. Bettinger, 2000 Final Report, Weyerhaeuser Company, Springfield, OR.

Bull, Evelyn L., R. S. Holthausen, and M. G. Henjum. 1990. Techniques for monitoring pileated woodpeckers. USDA, PNW-GTR-269.

Bull, Evelyn L. 1987. Ecology of the pileated woodpecker in northeastern Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 51(2):472-481.

Bull, Evelyn L., and Richard S. Holthausen. 1993. Habitat use and management of pileated woodpeckers in Northeastern Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 57(2):335-345.

Bull, Evelyn L., Richard S. Holthausen, and Mark G. Henjum. 1992. Roost trees used by pileated woodpeckers in northeastern Oregon. J. Wildl. Manage. 56:786-793.

Collom, Tom. 2005. Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Letter Re: Historic Mule Deer/Elk Numbers, Sprague Management Unit. Cross, Stephen. 1997. A Survey of Bat Populations and their Habitat Preferences in Southern Oregon. Southern Oregon State University. Ashland, Oregon. 89 pp.

Davis, R.,D. and Kathleen Weaver. March, 2011. Johnson’s Haristreak Surveys in Washington and Oregon. On file with: Interagency Special Status Species Program, USDA Forest Service and USDI Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR.

Ehrlich, Paul R., David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye. 1988. The Birder’s Handbook: A Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds. Simon and Schuster. New York. 785 pp.

Frest, Terrence J. and Edward J. Johannes. November 29, 2000. A Mollusk survey of Klamath and Sycan Marshes and Vicinity. Final report prepared for Oregon Natural Heritage Program.

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821 SE 14th, Portland, OR. 97214.

Heffelfinger, James R., Clay Brewer, Carlos Hugo Alcala-Galvan, Barry Hale, Darrel L. Weybright, Brian F. Wakeling, Len H. Carpenter, Norris L. Dodd. 2006. Habitat Guidelines for Mule Deer: Southwest Deserts Ecoregion. Mule Deer Working Group, Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 48 pp.

Korol, Jerome J., Miles A. Hemstrom, Wendel J. Hann, and Rebecca Gravenmier. 2002. Snags and down wood in the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. In:

Laudenslayer, William F., Jr.; Valentine, Brad; Weatherspoon, C. Philip; Lisle, Thomas E., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the symposium on the ecology and management of dead wood in western forests. 1999 November 2-4; Reno, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-181. Albany, CA: Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/gtr-181/049_Korol.pdf

Landres, P.B.; Morgan, P.; Swanson, F.J. 1999. Overview of the use of natural range of variability concepts in managing ecological systems. Ecological Applications 9(4):1179-1188.

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