How Do Middle Class Pakistani Young People Construct Contemporary International Conflicts?
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How do middle class Pakistani young people construct contemporary international conflicts? Naveed Kazmi March 2014 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of London Metropolitan University for the award of the degree of PhD in Education 1 Abstract This thesis examines how middle class Pakistani young people construct contemporary international conflicts. Little previous research has been conducted in this area, and none in Pakistan. This investigation is of interest because young people like the ones who participated in my research may become future leaders. Therefore, their perceptions and understanding of these issues may influence the way these are addressed in the future. This thesis draws on literature about the just war tradition – what are the just causes of war or jus ad bellum and how ethical warfare must be conducted or jus in bello. The theoretical framework used is that of social constructionism, especially drawing on the ideas of Jonathan Potter, Margaret Wetherell, Kenneth Gergen and Michel Foucault. The research involved six focus groups with Pakistani young people aged 17-18 years. The study found that the participants talked enthusiastically about issues related to international conflicts. They drew on a range of discourses and evidence to construct their arguments, some of which were grounded in not very reliable evidence. They argued that terrorism, whether perpetrated by state or non-state actors, was wrong, and they were highly critical of US policies and actions in the wider world. These findings are important because Pakistani society faces a serious challenge from militancy and terrorism. The thesis suggests that changes to the content and delivery of school curricula can help young people to develop a more informed and morally active sense of citizenship and world affairs. i Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... i Contents ....................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... vi 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 2 Social Constructionism and Discourse .................................................................................. 6 2.1 Origins of Social Constructionism ................................................................................. 7 2.2 Constructing Rather than Knowing the World ............................................................. 8 2.3 From the Epistemic Subject to the Linguistic Self ....................................................... 13 2.4 Towards a Relational Epistemology ............................................................................ 15 2.5 Discourse .................................................................................................................... 21 2.5.1 Foucauldian Discourse ........................................................................................ 23 2.6 Social Constructionism – Articulating the Limits of Realism or a Precipitous Slide into Relativism? ............................................................................................................................. 30 2.7 Social Constructionism and Discourse – Implications for My Research ...................... 37 3 Discourses of International Conflict ................................................................................... 39 3.1 The Discourses of Just Cause of War – Jus ad Bellum ................................................. 40 3.1.1 The Discourse of Protecting the Innocent .......................................................... 42 3.1.2 The Discourse of Punishing the Wrongdoers ...................................................... 43 3.1.3 The Discourse of Fight between Good and Evil .................................................. 43 3.1.4 The Discourse of Self-Defence ............................................................................ 44 3.1.5 The Discourse of War as a Means to do Justice and Establish Peace ................. 46 3.1.6 The Discourse of War as the Last Resort ............................................................ 47 3.1.7 The Discourse of Preventive Attack .................................................................... 49 3.1.8 The Discourse of Promoting Democracy ............................................................ 51 3.1.9 Discussion – Discourses of Just Causes of War or Jus ad Bellum ........................ 52 3.2 The Discourses of the Legitimate Authority – the Nation State and the International System 54 3.2.1 The Discourse of the Nation State and National Sovereignty ............................. 55 3.2.2 The Discourse of International Legal Order ........................................................ 58 3.2.3 The Discourse of Legitimate Authority ............................................................... 59 3.2.4 The Discourse of Secular Nationalism ................................................................ 61 3.2.5 The Discourse of Religion in National and International Politics ........................ 64 3.2.6 The Discourse of Hierarchy of Nation States ...................................................... 66 ii 3.2.7 The Discourse of American Imperialism ............................................................. 67 3.2.8 Discussion – The Discourses of Legitimate Authority – the Nation State and the International System .......................................................................................................... 69 3.3 The Discourses of Ethical Conduct in War – Jus in Bello ............................................. 70 3.3.1 The Discourse of the Rights of the Lawful Enemy Combatants .......................... 70 3.3.2 The Discourse of Permissible Weapons .............................................................. 71 3.3.3 The Discourse of Preventing Harm to Non-Combatants ..................................... 72 3.3.4 The Discourse of Supreme Emergency ............................................................... 75 3.3.5 Discussion – The Discourses of Ethical Conduct of War or Jus in Bello ............... 76 3.4 The Discourse of Terrorism ........................................................................................ 77 3.4.1 The Discourse of State Terrorism ....................................................................... 79 3.4.2 The Discourse of Islamic Terrorism..................................................................... 80 3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 83 4 Research Methodology ...................................................................................................... 85 4.1 The Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 85 4.2 The Method of Data Collection – Focus Groups ......................................................... 87 4.3 The Sample ................................................................................................................. 93 4.3.1 Researching Students attending Private Schools ................................................ 93 4.3.2 The Choice of Schools ......................................................................................... 95 4.3.3 The Number of Focus Groups ............................................................................. 97 4.3.4 Age of the Participants ....................................................................................... 98 4.3.5 Gender of the Participants ................................................................................. 99 4.3.6 Selection of Participants for the Focus Groups ................................................... 99 4.4 Conducting the Focus Groups .................................................................................. 101 4.4.1 Language used in the Focus Group Sessions .................................................... 101 4.4.2 The Substantive Focus of Discussions in Various Focus Groups ....................... 101 4.4.3 My Role in the Focus Groups ............................................................................ 106 4.5 Transcription and Analysis........................................................................................ 107 4.5.1 The Transcription of the Focus Group Sessions ................................................ 107 4.5.2 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 108 4.6 Ethical Issues ............................................................................................................ 110 4.7 The Strength and Limitations of the Research Design .............................................. 111 4.8 The Structure of the Data Chapters .......................................................................... 112 5 Constructions of Pakistan ................................................................................................. 114 5.1 Poverty and Socioeconomic Disparity in Pakistan .................................................... 115 iii 5.2 The Islamic Basis of the Pakistani State and the Muslim Identities of the Participants