Ethnobotanical Study of Wild Food Plants Used by Rice Farmers in Northeast Thailand
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Ethnobotanical study of wild food plants used by rice farmers in Northeast Thailand Gisella S. Cruz García Thesis committee Thesis supervisor Prof. dr. P.C. Struik Professor of Crop Physiology Wageningen University Thesis co-supervisor Prof. dr. L.L. Price Professor of Anthropology, Oregon State University, USA / External staff member, Sociology of Consumers and Households, Wageningen University Other members Prof. dr. P. Howard Wageningen University Prof. dr. G.R. de Snoo Wageningen University Dr. ir. L. Visser Centre for Genetic Resources, Wageningen, The Netherlands Dr. ir. K.F. Wiersum Wageningen University This research was conducted under the auspices of the C.T. de Wit Graduate School for Production Ecology and Resource Conservation (PE&RC) Ethnobotanical study of wild food plants used by rice farmers in Northeast Thailand Gisella S. Cruz García Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. dr. M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Wednesday 16 May 2012 at 4 p.m. in the Aula. Gisella S. Cruz García Ethnobotanical study of wild food plants used by rice farmers in Northeast Thailand. 215 pages. Thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands With summaries in English and Dutch ISBN 978-94-6173-275-0 Dedicated to Paul, my beloved husband and travelling companion during the PhD voyage Abstract Cruz García, G. S. (2012). Ethnobotanical study of wild food plants used by rice farmers in Northeast Thailand. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. With summaries in English and Dutch, 215 pp. Wild food plants have been recognized as an essential component of the world’s food basket. Farmer’s gathering locations are increasingly from anthropogenic ecosystems given the decline of pristine environments. However, there are neither quantitative studies on the ecological characterization nor on the seasonal gathering of wild food plants in anthropogenic ecosystems; moreover, systematic studies on the seasonal implications of these food plants for households are rare. Therefore, this thesis aimed at contributing to the understanding of wild food plant gathering by rice farmers, by developing a theoretical and analytical framework supported by multi-facetted empirical evidence on the spatial and seasonal complementarity of anthropogenic ecosystems and sub-systems, as well as its implications for the food security and dietary diversity of households from an ethnobotanical perspective. A theoretical model was developed and field work was conducted in Kalasin, Northeast Thailand. The empirical analysis comprised three principle analytically and methodologically coherent research components: (a) botanical (species level), (b) ecological (ecosystem and sub-system level) and (c) anthropological (household level). This was reflected in the use of research methodologies drawn from (ethno)botany, ecology and anthropology, respectively. Results showed a total of 87 elicited wild food plant species comprising trees, terrestrial and aquatic herbs, climbers, shrubs, bamboos and a rattan; growing in anthropogenic ecosystems including rice fields, home gardens, secondary woods, upland fields, swamps and roadsides. Most species can be found in different places and more than two thirds of the species have extra uses besides food. A total of 42 wild food plant species were reported in 102 sampling sites corresponding to seven sub-systems associated to lowland rice production, including shelters, hillocks, ponds and their margins, tree rows, dikes and field margins. Likewise, 20 wild food plant species were observed in 77 sampling sites corresponding to five home garden sub-systems, comprising yards, fenced gardens and their margins, hedgerows and fences constituting household boundaries, and pots. Species density, Shannon and Simpson diversity indexes were calculated per sub-system in the dry and rainy seasons. Whereas rice fields presented more species during the rainy season, their diversity in home gardens was higher in the dry season, because farmers encourage the availability of these plants though management. The findings also showed that communities of wild food plant species are different for each sub- system and season, and consequently all sub-systems, providing different habitats ranging from terrestrial to aquatic, are important for ensuring wild food plant diversity. The findings of the 12-month study conducted with a sample of 40 households visited every month to conduct 7-day recalls on wild food plant acquisition events, revealed a substantial number of gathered species (n=50), high monthly percentages of families gathering these plants (100% to 93%) and a great number of collection events (n=2196). It was evidenced that all households gathered wild food plants from both paddy fields and home gardens throughout the year, whereas most families gathered from roadsides. Wild food gathering was principally essential for local households during lean months, constituting a ‘rural safety net’, in particular for the most vulnerable families. This study highlighted the importance of diversity at species, sub-system and ecosystem level, and confirmed the theoretical model on seasonal and spatial complementarity of anthropogenic ecosystems and sub-systems for provisioning and gathering wild food plants. It was concluded that this complementarity is crucial for household food security and dietary diversity, and has major societal implications for agricultural programs, food policies, biodiversity conservation initiatives and poverty alleviation strategies in the region. Keywords: Wild food plant, ethnobotany, domestication, anthropogenic ecosystem, rice ecosystem, home garden, gathering, abundance, diversity, seasonality, ecosystem complementarity, multi-functionality, poverty, vulnerability, rice farmers, Thailand, Southeast Asia. Preface This thesis is on wild food plant gathering by rice farmers across anthropogenic ecosystems in Kalasin, Northeast Thailand, and the implications for food security and dietary diversity of local households. Wild food plant gathering has long been neglected by agricultural research and decision makers. I sincerely hope that this study will not only further convey the importance of wild food plant diversity in the farming landscape to the scientific community, but also that it can provide a strong basis for an argument to incorporate these food species in future agricultural programmes, food policies, biodiversity conservation initiatives and poverty alleviation strategies, at regional, national and international levels. During the course of my PhD study I have greatly benefitted from numerous people who have contributed to the successful completion of this work. First of all, I am deeply indebted to my promotor, Prof. Paul Struik, and my co-promotor, Prof. Lisa Price, without their valuable guidance and countless hours of support it would not have been possible to accomplish this study. I very much appreciate the motivating and highly efficient discussions with Prof. Paul Struik, and I am deeply grateful to the wise and inspiring supervision of Prof. Lisa Price. It was a great honour and pleasure to work with both of you and to learn from both of you. I am very thankful to Dr. David Johnson, from the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI, Philippines), who provided valuable and helpful supervision during my stay at IRRI and his visits to the field site in Northeast Thailand, as well as for his cooperation in one of the chapters of this thesis. I would like to thank Arnel Rala from IRRI who carefully elaborated the satellite image included in the thesis. I wish to extend my appreciation to the IRRI staff of the Weed Sciences group, especially to Ofelia Namuco, Ted Migo, Joel Janiya and Corazon Bambase, who made my stay at IRRI very pleasant. I am sincerely grateful for the logistic support provided by Dr. Viyouth Chamruspanth from Khon Kaen University, and Surajit Pupak from Ubon Rachatani University, Northeast Thailand. I am deeply indebted to Paitoon Nakvanich, Wasana Pupak, Siriporn Kotawinon and Bangon Phetsugan who efficiently assisted me during my fieldwork in Kalasin. I am very thankful to Napaporn Kongvisat and Siriwan Jumrevnboon, from Ampher Muang Agricultural Extension Office, for the monthly collection of data during my absence. I am grateful to Dr. Chayan Picheansoonthon and his field assistant Pornpimon Wongsuwan, as well as to Chantita Setalaphruk, who conducted part of the data collection. My thanks are extended to Chusie Trisonthi from the Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, as well as Suttira Khoomgratok and Komgrit Wongpakam from Walai Rukhavej Botanical Research Institute (WRBRI) of Mahasarakham University, who did the taxonomical identification of the plants. I am especially indebted to the Kalasin farmers who shared with me not only valuable information during this research, but also provided hospitality and care. I am grateful to the staff of the Centre for Crop Systems Analysis (CSA), the Sociology of Consumers and Households group (SCH), and the Production Ecology and Resource Conservation Graduate School (PE&RC). Special thanks go to Wampie van Schouwenburg, Sjanie van Roekel, Hedy Munro-Pieters and Margaret van Wissen. I appreciate the encouragement given by Prof. Anke Niehof. I am indebted to Eelco Meuter, formerly from the Plant Production Systems