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ABSTRACT Title of Document: PRIDE, INC.: BLACK POWER AND BLACK CAPITALISM IN WASHINGTON, D.C., 1967- 1981 Susan Philpott Directed By: Associate Professor, Dr. George Derek Musgrove, Historical Studies Pride, Inc., a nationally- recognized youth jobs program in Washington, D.C., put young men from the city’s poorest neighborhoods to work killing rats, collecting trash, and cleaning alleys. Pride promoted these “hard-core unemployed,” the street kids with criminal records who were affectionately called “dudes,” as leaders and change agents. This thesis explores the evolution of the program’s structure and philosophy as it grew from a clean-up effort into a network of social services and for- profit companies while other programs initiated under the War on Poverty were stripped of funding or fell apart in the late 1960s and early 1970s. As Pride expanded, its leaders sought to remake the economic landscape of the city by developing profitable businesses run by the dudes; they emphasized community self-reliance and black capitalism. Through the history of Pride, I explore the tension experienced by many in the Black Power Movement who sought to overcome poverty and racism from within existing economic and political systems rather than challenging structural oppression and inequality. PRIDE, INC.: BLACK POWER AND BLACK CAPITALISM IN WASHINGTON, D.C., 1967-1981. By Susan Philpott. Thesis submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in History 2018 © Copyright by Susan Philpott 2018 Dedication This thesis is dedicated to Keon and Jerda, two young men from Washington, D.C. who might have been called “dudes” if they had been born fifty years earlier. Having the opportunity to work with them and the other young people in the Youth Conservation Corp at the National Mall during the summer of 2013 was one of the most rewarding experiences of my career. And, as always, to my husband Ronnie, whose support and love make everything possible. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Derek Musgrove, for his unwavering support, understanding, and dedication to excellence throughout this process. I am doubtful that I ever could have completed this work without his encouragement. I know that I am a better scholar because of the opportunity to work under his guidance. Thank you also to Dr. Denise Meringolo and Dr. Michelle Scott for your expertise and support. I aspire to follow your examples as scholars of the struggles for equality and justice. My deepest gratitude to those who assisted me with my research, especially Joellen El-Bashir in the Manuscripts Division at the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center at Howard University, Dr. Ben Houston of Newcastle University, and Anne McDonough and Jessica Smith at the Historical Society of Washington, D.C. Thanks to Dr. Lauren Pearlman for allowing me to access her dissertation, “Democracy’s Capital,” before its publication. The expertise and encouragement of all the scholars and archivists who assisted me along the way kept me going when I thought I would never be able to complete this work. Any success I have achieved, I owe in no small part to my amazing network of family, friends, and co-workers who cheer me on. I am forever grateful for the friendship, love, and support of (in no particular order): Jana, Mannie, Zach, Lauren, Wendy, Kenna, Greg, Matt, Talbot, Jessi, Cole, Celso, LaQuanda, and Jenn. Special thanks to Nichole for sitting with me while I waited nervously for my defense and for helping with the final formatting. iii This work was fueled by endless cups of tea served with love by my children Aaron, Emily, and Jesse. I hope they still like me when I finally return to the world of family interaction. And, last but not least, thank you to our family dog, Chester, who never let me forget that long walks in the sunshine are essential to the writing process. iv Table of Contents Dedication ..................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... v Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review...................................................................................................... 5 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 25 Chapter Organization .............................................................................................. 27 Chapter One ........................................................................................................ 27 Chapter Two........................................................................................................ 27 Chapter Three...................................................................................................... 28 Chapter 1: Locating Pride Within the Evolving Civil Rights Movement, 1965-1967 30 Washington Heats Up ............................................................................................. 32 Barry in Washington ............................................................................................... 35 From Bus Boycott to Free D.C. .............................................................................. 40 Pride Takes Shape ................................................................................................... 51 Chapter 2: Pride’s First Year: From Rat Patrol through Riot Recovery into a New Philosophy, September 1967-August 1968................................................................. 63 The Psychology of Pride ......................................................................................... 65 The Organization and Structure of Pride ................................................................ 77 Uprising: Pride Emerges from the Ashes................................................................ 93 Chapter 3: The Rise and Fall of Pride, 1969-1981 ..................................................... 99 The Pride Business Model .................................................................................... 101 The Problems of Pride: Black Capitalism’s Flaws ............................................... 110 Pride and Legitimacy ............................................................................................ 122 The Fall of Pride ................................................................................................... 129 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 139 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 148 v Introduction In 1967, Pride, Inc., a youth jobs program in Washington, D.C., captured national attention for its approach to combating poverty and unemployment in the inner city. Pride members made their mark wearing army-style dark green denim uniforms while pushing brooms through neglected city streets. The young workers who spent the last month of the summer killing rats, collecting trash, and cleaning alleys in the city’s poorest neighborhoods received visits from Vice President Hubert Humphrey and presidential hopeful George Romney. Over the objection of some Southern congressmen, the Department of Labor, pleased with Pride’s success, expanded the initial $300,000 grant that funded the project start-up to $2 million to keep the initiative going through the fall and winter. Ebony magazine chronicled the upstart organization while the FBI sent special agents to monitor Pride activities for signs of black militancy. Despite having many critics in law enforcement and on Capitol Hill, while other programs initiated under President Johnson’s War on Poverty were stripped of funding or fell apart in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Pride, Inc. expanded and continued to operate with federal support until 1981. The full story of Pride has been overshadowed in previous scholarship by the charismatic personality and sometimes sordid political career of its co-founder, Marion Barry. Such a framing ignores the historical context in which the project was conceived and in which it operated for years before Barry’s political career began. The Pride philosophy of black capitalism and self-respect celebrated rather than condemned the culture of “ghetto” youth. Through ambitious and wide-ranging endeavors, the leaders of Pride put the so-called “hard-core” unemployed to work— 1 including in leadership positions—with the intention of capitalizing on the street- smarts of their members, affectionately and respectfully called “dudes.” “Pride, Inc. was organized to provide solutions to problems created by the larger society and festering within the lower-economic black community of Washington, D.C.,” an early Pride description paper explained. By channeling the energy of the discarded and marginalized young people of the District, Pride intended to “demonstrat[e] to the larger community that these people want to and will work.”1 Through meaningful employment, young men could transform themselves and their communities. Pride was