Papadopoulus G., Kaimakamis V., Kaimakamis D., Proios M. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF… Vol. 6 Issue 2: 29 - 40

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF RULES AND COMPETITION SYSTEMS IN FROM 1896 TO 1912

Georgios Papadopoulos, Vasilios Kaimakamis, Dimitrios Kaimakamis. Miltiadis Proios

Department of Physical Education and Sport Science Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,

Original article Abstract

The efforts for a subjective and fair judgment for Gymnastics began since the first decades of the 19th century i.e. since the sport began to take a primitive competition form. In the years that followed, various competitive systems and rules were formed without being commonly accepted for all countries and federations. Nevertheless, the two international sport agencies, the IOC and the FEG organized international tournaments (, International Tournament), where participating countries accepted, more or less, the rules and competitive systems applied each time. The lack of permanent and commonly accepted rules and specifications of gymnastic apparatus created many problems at the six Olympic Games mentioned in the present study. This fact created suspiciousness within gymnastics and especially within the two international agencies with a direct impact on the progress and development of the sport.

Keywords: Gymnastics, Olympic Games, Judgment, Competitive systems, Rules

INTRODUCTION

From the end of the 19th century to the important efforts for the finding of reliable beginnings of the second decade of the 20th and commonly accepted scoring systems, century (1896-1913) it was the most without positive results since disagreements important period in the total history of and problems were aroused during this gymnastics. During these two decades the period. This fact was a rather suspending sport was highly promoted, formed, factor for the progress and international specialized and internationalized. acceptance of the sport as well as an Competitions began to be organized by the important reason for consideration for all two important international sports agencies involved (Kaimakamis, 2001). institutions, the Olympic Games of the IOC FEG established for its tournaments unified and the international tournament of the FEG rules and assessment system without (Federatious Europeennes de Gymnastque success since different federations were later named FIG). During this time we see characterized by introversion and did not

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have the will to give up their own systems. confusion and problems. This is the reason Problems also occurred at the Olympic why the FIG, as well as some federations in Games, since each organizing country many countries never stopped working to imposed its own scoring and competition find a more reliable and simpler ways of system and its own events based on its own assessment (Dörrer, 1999; Uhr, 1999a, b). specified preferences. Even more when The leaders of world gymnastics should be participating countries followed a different directed to such a path since it is proven system, problems were rather great since that the objectivity and reliability of rules is each side competed according to its own directly linked to the sport’s progress. It scoring and competition system should be mentioned that 2001 the last (Kaimakamis, 2001). change (improvement) of rules and The fact that many countries regulations took place, which surely will participated at both the Olympic Games and not be the last since Gymnastics the International Tournament which development will continue to be ongoing followed with the same rules and (Strickrodt, 1999). It is certain that in such regulations was a big success especially for an effort for the finding of ideal rules and an era when many Gymnastics’ Federations regulations, their history could provide the presented introversion and arrogance necessary guidance. The present study following their own path. offers assistance not only towards this It should also be noted that in both direction but also to the knowledge derived these decades cooperation did not exist from the general history of this sport. among the IOC and the FEG, despite the fact that these two important international agencies could be bonded based on their METHODS special love for Gymnastics. FEG for more than 20 years since its founding in 1881 up The present study makes an effort to to 1903 when it organized the first investigate record and showcase the international Gymnastics Tournament (then problems found within rules and renamed to World Championship of competition systems of the first five (5) Gymnastics), showed no activity worth Olympic Games (1896-1912), and the Mid of mentioning. Olympic Games of in 1906. This The path to development was long specific era was selected since the since the FIG rules were first composed and infrastructure of these games was formed commonly accepted in 1949 (with a total of not only for competitive systems and 12 pages), and have been continuously assessment method for athletes, but because improved up to present (Zschocke, 1997). it was a landmark for the development of During this time and for the following Gymnastics. decades Gymnastics, then called by the The method used in the collection of general name of “Gymnastic Sports”, was data was made based on historic research of not a separate and specialized sport but a archives and focused on the rules and mixed and integrated sport within a more competitive systems used at the greatest general gymnastic system, which apart from sport event, the Olympic Games. the traditional competitive gymnastics The collection of data for the present events also included track and field games study was mainly based on written and and even swimming. These extra events sources of Guts Muthts (1793), Jahn (1816), were included in Gymnastics’ competitions Brustmann (1906), Savvidis (1906), Diem up to 1950. (1912) and Chrysafis (1930). Data were Today the Scoring System covers all also derived from modern writers such as details relating to competition and Göhler (1980), Lennartz /Teutenberg assessment. Subjectivity was not (1995), Gajdos (1997), e.t.c. Useful data eliminated, often creating disagreement,

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came from the two studies by Kaimakamis empirical observation and simple (2002, 2003), where Gymnastics in the comparison of those competing. Later these Olympic Games of 1896 and the Mid primitive forms of assessment determined Olympics of 1906 were analyzed. the winners and were developed, reformed and used by the creators of gymnastics, COMPETITION AND ASSESSMENT since this was necessary for the IN GYMNASTICS BY GUTS MUTHS development of the sport itself. The AND JAHN development and specialization led the people involved with Gymnastics to search It is widely known that the birth, and apply more reliable assessment systems formation and the first development of relevant to the level and needs of the sport. Gymnastics took place during the first Borrmann (1987, p. 36-37), informs us decades of the 19th century where the bases that the first official forms of gymnastics were set for this sport. A short mention of took place in 1832 at the gymnastics’ Gymnastics during this era will be helpful festival of the city of Aarau, Germany while for the present study. in 1844 the German city of Feldberg also Since the first years the students of held other activities and gymnastic events Jahn felt the need to be compared, to without archives regarding the assessment compete and to show excellence in many of athletes. gymnastics events. In the sport’s From the middle of the 19th century “primitive” era there were no technical onward, the organization of athletic games specifications for the various gymnastic always included gymnastics. No archives exercises. What was assessed was the for the assessments were found. number of repetitions of the various Gajdos (1997, p. 198), informs us that exercises and the endurance of the total in 1862 the Czech Federation of performance time. In this way the best were Gymnastics organized the first public easily found since the only thing needed events where the athletes’ performance and was to measure repetitions or time. Jahn in the type of exercises were determined by a his book «Die Deutsche Turnkunst», type of “lottery” as follows: “Little pieces proudly narrates the story of his young of paper with the various exercises were student named August Thaer, who placed in a hat. Each athlete put his hand in performed on the high bar 60 rotations the hat and after mixing the papers he took (Aufschwünge), later increased to 132 one. He then executed the exercise (Göhler, 1987; Jahn, 1816; Spieth, 1989). mentioned on the piece of paper while three Guts Muts, who is considered as the judges graded with a score scaled from one immediate precursor of Jahn in Gymnastics, to five”. in his writing «Gymnastik für die Jugend», In 1880 Frankfurt held a mixed event suggests that he assessed gymnastics by the (exathlon) including three track and field number of repetitions and endurance (time). and gymnastic apparatus events. For the For exercise, competition and winners in his assessment of these events, a scale from one primitive high bar, many athletes were to five was used (Borrmann, 1987). found simultaneously at the same apparatus, Guts Muts (1793, p. 225-226) mentions JUDGMENT AND SCORING that: “On the signal they jump and keep SYSTEMS IN THE FIRST OLYMPIC their weight on the bar. It is something one GAMES IN ATHENS (1896) may do during climbing. It is very good if the gymnast competes and the winner is the Just before the end of the 19th century one that will hold the most time”. many Gymnastics’ Federations had been At the beginning, the role of the judge created in Europe, which used a score was undertaken by the fellow athletes or the system with the highest score being the 10 coaches who based their judgment on or 20, with many specificities and

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deviations. During the same time though, a At the Olympic Games of Athens general mixed system began a form of (1896), where the first games of specialization with qualitative execution. Gymnastics took place, the score system Assessment and classification of athletes with a scale of 20 points (Kaimakamis et al, became a complex and difficult situation. 2002). For the assessment of athletes an For this reason people involved with international committee of seven judges Gymnastics tried to find even more reliable presided by the Greek Prince George was and simpler ways of assessment. used. The President’s opinion was not In the German Gymnastics system we doubted in case of disagreement among find a similar philosophy regarding the judge (Chrysafis, 1930; Teutenberg, 1995). direction of assessment not only from For synchronized team execution country to country, but even from teams of (high bars, parallel bars) the assessment was different areas of the same country. done as follows: Each judge assessed three Occasionally disputes arose causing many factors simultaneously, i.e. synchronization problems. (general team performance), rhythm and At the first modern Olympics in Athens technique. For the above three factors each (1896), the rules under which the so called judge produced three scores from zero to 20 “gymnastics” took place were not formed (Kaimakamis et al, 2003). The secretary by the IOC or any international added all the scores and then divided the organization. The organizing country sum of the seven judges. This means that if through a special committee had undertaken a team was awarded perfect scores from all the obligation to form the regulations, judges then the final score would be taking under consideration only some 20+20+ 20Χ7:7 = 60. The assessment of directions given by the IOC and Coubertin the individual execution of the above two (Kaimakamis, et al, 2002). events, was done as follows: Each judge The committee members, that were all gave the athlete’s routine two marks, one Greeks, supervised by gymnast Ioannis for power exercises and one for agility Fokianos, did not take under consideration exercises. The secretariat then added all foreign regulations used for many years marks and produced a mean score which prior to the games by many central was divided by the number of judges European countries with a great tradition in (Kaimakamis, et al, 2002). As can be seen gymnastics. (Chrysafis, 238). by some photographs of the Athens Being aware of the fact that these Olympic Games, judges would stand far regulations would not favor Greece, from one another wearing black round hats Fokianos adapted them to fit the abilities of and long black coats (Kluge, 1996; Tselika, local athletes, aiming to increase 1995). participation and possibly the chance for distinction. Both goals were reached since JUDGMENT AND SCORING from a total of 71 athletes, 52 were Greek SYSTEMS IN THE SECOND and the Olympic winner in still rings was OLYMPIC GAMES IN PARIS (1900) the Greek Ioannis Mitropoulos. It should be noted that the success of the Greek athlete The second Olympics were set to take was not due to his excellent performance place in 1900 in Paris, despite the Greek but mainly on the adapted in the Greek reactions and the strong wish of some standards regulations. Lennartz (1995, p. athletes, mainly Americans, for the 105) mentions for the winning of Olympics to take place permanently in Mitropoulos: «Despite the fact that German Greece (Mouratidis, 2009). Coubertin was athletes were obviously superior in the still very active in order to ensure success for rings, the judges committee with Prince the Games and for this reason he took George presiding, announce the Greek advantage of the international trade fair in Ioannis Mitropoulos as the winner». Paris, within which he included the sports

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of the Games. Things though, did not go as Paris Olympics (Lennartz & Teutenberg, the French organizers wished since this fair 1995). not only did not give any merit and During these games as well as at those perspective to the revival of the Olympic that followed a big problem was created Games but on the contrary it downgraded regarding objectivity of the judges and with them (Yalouris, 1996). No mention neither the scoring system itself. The the Olympics nor the International Athletic unprecedented triumph of the French Games was found in any advertising athletes taking the top 27 places was not material of the organizers (Concours just a product of their numerical superiority Internationaux d’ exercicis phissiques (109 French out of a total of 136 athletes) or sports) or even of a world championship of their obvious competitive level by the (Wohlrath, 1900). A main characteristic of competitive system formed according to the pretty bad organization and the chaos their measures, along with the competition relating to the Games was the fact that these taking place in their country and the judges’ lasted for more than five months ( from favorable attitude (Wohlrath, 1900). Apart May 14 to October 28), without any from this all events were well known to the opening and closing ceremonies. Many French since for a long time these were historians support that it was rather difficult included in the examinations’ material for for anyone to separate sports included in the the military academy where almost all Olympic program from simple athletes were members. demonstrations or other separate games that The formation of the competitive took place during the same period ( system in favour of the organizing country Kamper, 1972; Lennartz & Teutenberg, as well as favourable judging was a fact for 1995; Umminger, 1969). almost all games. Fokianos, four years At the Paris Olympic Games (1900) earlier, during the Athens Games (1896) gymnastics took place according to the formed the competitive system based on his German system but with events and rules own views. On this issue Chrysafis (1930, that favored the organizers (Chrysafis, p. 382) mentions that: “For Fokianos it was 1930). Athletes competed only in one a unique opportunity to adjust the rules of individual medley, including a total of 16 Gymnastics based on his own views and events from which some were track and ideas”. field events. No individual medley was Regarding the lack of subjectivity of included in the competitive program judges during the Paris Olympics, many eye because of a disagreement among the witnesses-writers offered the following various sides regarding rules and judgments information. Chrysafis (1930, p. 382), who (Kaimakamis, 2001). For better organization watched the games, writes: “The outcome athletes were separated in to 16 groups and of the game is a great surprise while doubt moved from each event with the three is created regarding the correctness and judges grading with a scoring scale from impartiality of the judges’ decisions”. The zero to 20 with no decimals. In other words President of the Competition Committee Dr. if an athlete scored perfect scores in all Lauchaud (French) following the end of the events his final score would be 16Χ20 = games submitted a special report where 320 points. At every event the score was a among others admits that “something went result of the mean of the scores given by the wrong with the judges” (Chrysafis, 1930). three judges (Wohlrath, 1900). The French Nevertheless, the fact that only capable Gustave Sandras was the winner, gathering German athletes many of which had 302 out of the 320 points. It should be noted triumphed at the Athens Games of 1896 that the organizers awarded Sandras the title were classified at lower positions (the first of Champion du Monde without any German was found at the 29th position) mention of an Olympic Winner, a sign of a definitely raises some questions. Pahncke bad organization and downgrading of the (1983, p. 65) supports that “it was a bitter

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disappointment resulting from the hostility It should be mentioned that the shown by the German Federation against participation of foreign athletes at the the Olympic Movement”. Lennartz & overseas Teutenberg (1995, p. 34) wrote on same Olympics was very limited since only subject: “German athletes expressed many 10 foreign athletes (nine Germans and one complaints on the condition of the organs, Swiss) participated at the gymnastics the biased subjectivity of the judges and events, while the 111 Americans mainly on the facts that they were not participating were mostly of German origin allowed to exercise prior the main event”. (Gajdos, 1977; Göhler, 1980; Umminger, Information on the judgment issue, 1969). It was therefore a case of the according to the above mentioned writers, is organizing country with the German- also given to us by the coach of the German American athletes and the few German team Fritz Hofmann (at a written report to ones. This was the reason why the the President of the German Olympic proclamation of all gymnastics events as Committee, Dr. Gebhardt), the German well as the program was written only in the athlete Theodor Wohlrath (1900, p. 36), the German language (Kaimakamis, 2001). correspondence following the Games As expected the Olympic Games of St. between Goubertin and Gebhardt, as well as Louis (1904) were organized according to by the written report submitted to the the German system but the Americans German Federation after the games by adjusted the competitive systems and the President of the German Olympic rules based on their own preference as was Committee (Gebhardt 1900). In other done by the organizers in 1896 and 1900. words, athletes, coaches, leaders and (Kaimakamis, 2001). The above observers complained not only about the scoring system included four individual competitive system, which they knew in medleys (triathlon, hexathlon, heptathlon, advance, but also for biased objectivity on enneathlon), and a team event which was behalf of the judges. unique for the history of the Games. The organizers included the last event JUDGMENT AND COMPETITIVE (individual medley) to favor themselves, SYSTEMS AT THE THIRD OLYMPIC since only domestic teams and not nations GAMES IN ST LOUIS (1904) were allowed to participate (Chrysafis, 1930; Kamper, 1972; Kluge, 1981). In total, The third international Olympic Games seven gymnastics apparatus were included were organized at St. Louis, USA and lasted (some of which had obligatory programs) from July 1st to November 23. They were while from athletics triathlon, , too included in a large international fair running and long jump were included, as trade (Louisiana Purchase Exposition), well as swimming (Göhler, 1980; despite the fact that the Americans had Ummiger, 1969). protested four years earlier against the At the Olympic Games of 1904 a total French for such a form of the Games of eleven gymnastics events took place (Diem, 1912). from which the IOC recognized only two Gymnastics was quite a tradition sets of events as Olympic. The events were throughout the USA and especially at the conducted in two different competition city hosting the Games, since a few decades dates four months apart. At the first ago many students and associates of competition date, July 1-2, the International Ludwig Jahn had moved there. This was Turner’s Championships took place actually the reason why there were so many including the all-around, the triathlon and gymnastics teams (Turnvereine) of German team events. On October 29, the second immigrants who promoted the German competition date, the individual events took gymnastics system (Binz, 1985; Temme, place in seven individual apparatus and the 2000) combined event. The latter were actually a

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USA- AAU (Amateur Athletic Union) apparatus 20 points, then his final score Gymnastics Championship, but because few would be 20+20+20+20+20=100. In both foreign athletes also competed the games team and individual rounds we had were recognized as Olympic Gymnastics decimals and two categories (Kaimakamis Championships.(Göhler,1980; Merert, et al, 2001). 1983). Regarding judging and the organization At the St. Louis Olympics USA won of judges, the Greek organizers (up to the almost all medals (29 out of 33 and 12 point that they could) did not leave space gold), since they took advantage of their for negative comments and protests. It numerical superiority, the selected by them should be mentioned that at the Paris events and the athletic abilities of the Olympics (1900) there was, as already American athletes (Kaimakamis, 2001). mentioned, big problems due to the attitude of the organizers (Chrysafis, 1930). For this reason the Hellenic Olympic Committee JUDGMENT AND COMPETITIVE sent on October 1905, Ioannis Chrysafis to SYSTEMS AT THE MID-OLYMPIC various European cities (Stockholm, GAMES IN ATHENS (1904) Copenhagen, Paris, ) to be updated on the rules and regulations of the most At the Mid-Olympics of Athens important sports, in order for the rules (1906), not organized by the IOC, two applied at the Athens Olympics to be more competitive systems with three events were or less commonly accepted. It should be included. In other words there was a team noted that the Germans had submitted since round according to the Swedish system and 1901 to the IOC a proposal for the two individual rounds (pentathlon and formation of unified and commonly hexathlon) according to the German system. accepted rules, which did not get accepted At the first one, the team had 25 minutes to by the IOC. The Germans talked about a set present the best exercises in various events, of commonly accepted written rules as these while the judges graded two factors, team were applied by their federation (Lennartz, synchronization and technique. In order to 1999; Lennartz & Teutenberg, 1991). The impress the judges all teams tried to put the German Olympic Committee noted that aspect of difficulty in their exercises what happened during these games, made (Lennartz & Teutenberg, 1991; Savvidis, the following positive comments regarding 1906). Scoring ranged from zero to 20 judgment and organization shown by the points resulting from the means scores of all Greeks: “At the same time one should the judges. The final team score came from congratulate the judges. They were the mean of all scores given for all events generally objective and only a few actions while decimals were also calculated. Teams led to protest. It should also be mentioned scoring from 18 to 20 were classified at the that the work of a judge is very difficult first category while those scoring from 16 when it comes to international games. We to 17, 90 were classified at the second wish for the formation of international rules category (Kaimakamis et al, 2001). at future Olympic Games” (Lennartz & At the two individual rounds each Teutenberg, 1991). athlete was given three minutes on each As a protest one can consider the view event to perform the best exercises of power of M. Brustmann for excessive time (3 and skill. Score for every event resulted minutes), given to athletes in individual from the mean of the scores given by each rounds for each event. Here is what a track judge. The highest score an athlete could and field athlete wrote, who seemed to get was 20 points, while the final of the know in depth issues related to Gymnastics individual round resulted from the addition in that era: “It seems to me that rules for of the five scores given for the five organs. gymnastics pentathlon and hexathlon have In other words, if an athlete scored in every been formed by people who did not know

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much about competition, since in my the well organized Czechoslovakian opinion it is bad for an athlete’s health to Gymnastics Federation. In this sense execute exercises on an apparatus for such technical and rules related issues that up to a long time” (Brustmann, 1906). then were dealt by FEG’s President, N. J. Also, the German coach Fritz Hofmann Cuperus and his Belgian advisors were now (also coach at the Olympics of 1896 and under the jurisdiction of an international 1904), in order to justify the not so committee (Huguenin, 1981). Regarding the flattering position of the German team, above mentioned competition the expressed the view that the Greek leaders Czechoslovakian professor Miroslav favored more the Danish and Norwegians Klinger writes among others that: “Scoring since the coaches of both these teams were was secret and made known only at the end their army colleagues. Such a view though of the competition, while athletes were seems to have no basis. The fact though that obliged to wear shoes when performing Greece had started to use the Swedish (Huguenin, 1981). The same system leaving the German one aside, may Czechoslovakian Federation from 1907 to have led the Greeks to emotionally affect 1936 applied the following rules: them towards the Swedish. The heart of “Execution errors, change or replacement these Games was Chrysafis who since 1900 of elements in the obligatory program that and onward had endorsed the Swedish was graded from zero to 10, was penalized system showing at the same time a blind with the score of zero. Free program was hatred towards the German one (Paleologos, graded with the highest score 20, i.e. up to 1960). 10 points for the assessment of difficulty Finally, Savvidis (1906, p. 38) (an eye and up to 10 for execution. Already since witness and sports commentator) who then, athletes in their free program should among others promotes the excellent have included elements of power, position organization and subjectivity of Greeks and swinging without clarifying the specific expresses some reservations regarding analogies”.(Gajdos, 1994). judging at pentathlon: “The judges’ It is important to state that during this committee is divided. Others watch (assess) era there was no cooperation at all between parallel bars, others the high bar, others FIG and the IOC. the still rings and others pommel horse, meaning that no judgment will be fair JUDGING AND COMPETITIVE considering that the same judges should SYSTEMS DURING THE FOURTH judge all events”. OLYMPIC GAMES IN LONDON (1908) During the same year and during the Mid-Olympics of Athens, a technical The Olympics of 1908, officially the committee was formed for the first time Games of IV Olympiad, took place parallel under the auspices of FEG in order to to the Franco – British Exhibition, from discuss and offer solutions to many April 27 to October 31, 1908. Contrary to problems regarding the primitive existing the Paris and St. Louis Olympics, which rules (Huguenin, 1981). This committee due to chaotic conditions in sports the consisting mostly of active athletes made Games were downgraded, the London some progress towards this direction but it Games were quite successful. Success was was not possible yet to solve all problems mainly a result of the fact that more than a and form a commonly accepted scoring 2/3 of all sports took place within the two system. It should be noted that this weeks of committee with its first president, Pierre July at the White City Stadium. Hentges, was initially activated during the (Kluge, 1997; Lennartz, 1998). fourth International Tournament (Prague, Gymnastics games also took place at 1907), while the initial proposal for its the White City Stadium at specially formed formation was prepared and submitted by premises from July 13 to July 18. At the

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London Olympics, and in order for the IOC Gunsch and Wiedemann on the same issue to maintain some balance among the writes: “German athletes did not lose German and the Swedish systems, it because of lack of ability but because organized the Games with two competitive arbitrariness and lack of objectivity of the systems: One team event according to the international and more specifically of the Swedish system and an individual English judges”. event according to the German system The German Federation believed that (Göhler, 1980). At the first competition a the competitive system and the judging team consisting from 16 to 40 athletes had were not proper or objective, and ignored 30 minutes to execute exercises on various the institution of the Olympic Games. As apparatus. The competitions were judged by already mentioned the German Olympic three judges who assessed general Committee had suggested that the IOC impression, difficulty, versatility, entrance suggested the formation of special and exit of its team. Each judge could give international judges’ committee for judging a maximum of 160 points for each and assessing all sports. This was not execution. In other words a judge could accepted due to other existing predicaments give 40 points (the maximum) for entrance (Lennartz, 1995). It should be mentioned and exit, 60 for versatility and accuracy and that during these Games FEG participated 60 for level of difficulty. At the end of the for the first time without having any special competition the scores of all three judges jurisdiction. were added and the summary was the actual score of the team (160+160+160=480 JUDGING AND COMPETITIVE maximum score) (Lennartz, 1999). SYSTEMS DURING THE FIFTH At the individual round (heptathlon) OLYMPIC GAMES IN STOCKHOLM according to the German system each (1912) athlete had two minutes time on every apparatus.(Gajdos, 1997; Kaimakamis, Stockholm Olympics with their good 2001; Kluge, 1977). For this competition organization and great success created there were also three judges, who graded on hopes for their global promotion and a scale from zero to 24 points. For every acceptance (Mouratidis, 2009). After 1896, apparatus the grade resulted from the mean these were the first Olympic Games that of the scores of all judges, while the final were not included or were a secondary (individual all- around event) score was the event within some international trade. sum of the scores of all apparatus. These At the Stockholm Olympic Games Games were the first to assess separately (1912) the IOC and the FΕG cooperated for the difficulty of the exercise and technique the first time in organizing the competition, (Gajdos, 1997). Many protests were made before problems resulted by competition though for unreliable judgments and the and diversity of the two main systems competitive systems (especially by the (Swedish and German) (Kaimakamis, Italians and German athletes and team 2001). In order to keep some balance and leaders). keep all sides happy they organized the It should be noted that by Coubertin’s Games according to the following four proposal the judges were all English who systems: supported, as did the viewers, the Swedish -A team round according to the system (Gajdos, 1997; Pahncke, 1983). The Swedish system. fact that the English athlete Tysal was -A team round with free selection of placed second and had no other athletic events, apparatus and exercises. achievements and, thus, no athletic future -A team round according to the was an indication for the lack of biased German system. subjectivity of the judges. Göhler (1980, p. -An individual round according to the 160) conveying the view of the Germans, German system (Kluge, 1977).

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Despite these efforts protests were the reason why in each Olympiad we had made for both competitive systems and different competitive systems. It should be judging. At the second competition which noted that we had only one competition was a peculiar team round, there was a free (individual medley) in 1900 in Paris. selection of apparatus, events and exercises At almost all Olympic Games there with a time limit of one hour and the team was protesting not only for competitive consisted of 16 to 40 athletes. There were systems but for the judgment as well. It five judges who graded not only qualitative should be noted that protesting during the execution and synchronization but also the Games of 1896 and 1906 was very limited. number of athletes per team for a specific At the competitive program of the first apparatus. The final score, each time, three Olympic Games (1896-1904) resulted from the addition of the scores competitive systems and rules were added given by all judges divided by the number only according to the German Gymnastic of athletes and apparatus (Gajdos, 1997). If system, while at the other three games one studies the scores given by each judge (1906-1912) we also had the Swedish and compares them with the rest of the system. This was the reason why the judges (for a specific country), the degree of problem with rules grew over the last three the judgment problem becomes obvious and Games. was nothing but a“Babel”. Some scores FEG and the representatives of various were so far apart that one score was almost federations early on recognized various double the other. Carl Diem, chief of imperfections in rules and therefore agreed German delegation in O.G. 1912, presented to change them. The fact though that each a table with judges and scores given for federation led its own path did not leave each country, where the large difference any room for mutual understanding, and so among scores was clearly visible. At the the significant changes did not occur third competition, a team round according immediately but much later. to the German system also had five judges. During time cooperation did not exist Each team could have up to 24 athletes who between the IOC and FIG, regarding the competed on four events in one hour. Just organization of tournaments or even any as happened in the previous Games, there exchanging of views. The two agencies first were great differences in the judges’ scores met at the Olympic Games of 1908. It was (Diem, 1990). during the Games of 1912 where they first Despite all the above, the games of cooperated with each other. During the last Stockholm remained in history for the years there was a sense of cooperation intense juxtaposition among the two main between the two agencies. gymnastics system and mostly for the well At that time Gymnastics was not a organized effort of the Swedish to promote separate and specialized sport since it their own system (Huguenin, 1981). It included more events than it does today. should be noted that a first serious effort to Apart from the traditional gymnastics promote the Swedish gymnastics system at events, various competitive systems a world level, was done in 1906 during the included other sports as well (mainly track Mid-Olympics of Athens. & field). Various scoring scales were used CONCLUSIONS (mainly 10 & 20 points). The factors assessed were synchronization (in team At the Olympic Games organized by performance), technique, rhythm and the IOC (1896-1912) there were no difficulty. Within the same events there was commonly accepted rules. Each different assessment for power and participating country composed its own swinging. rules in order to have balance on the one The lack of written set of rules and hand but favor itself on the other. This was commonly accepted operational

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specifications for gymnastics competitions, Göhler, W. (1987). Die Geburtsstunde created great problems in the development des Recks vor 75 Jahren. Turnen und Sport, of gymnastics. It should be mentioned that 2, 42. at competitions organized by FEG the Guts-Muths, J.C.F. (1793).Gymnastik various teams had the right to use their own für die Jugend, Schnepfenthal. events creating even bigger problems. Jahn, L., & Eiselen, E. (1816). Die The German and Swiss were the most Deutsche Turnkunst. Berlin. important Federations during this era Huguenin, A. (1981). 100 years of the (especially the first had the most power and International Gymnastic Federation, 1881 – the most athletes), did not like the two 1981. FIG: Moutier. international agencies (FIG, FEG), neither Kaimakamis, V. (2001). Κύρια the competitions organized by them. The χαρακτηριστικά της εξέλιξης της Ενόργανης two federations never participated at Γυµναστικής στο πρώτο µισό του 20ου competitions organized by the FEG. αιώνα. (Major Features of Apparatus Gymnastics during the first Half of the 20th REFERENCES Century). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece. Binz, R. (1985). Deutsche Turner in Kaimakamis, V., Koronas, K., Amerika, Turnen und Sport, 2, 6-8. Stefanidis, P. & Papadopoulos, P. (2001). Borrmann, G. (1978). Gerätturnen (3 The Gymnastic Competition at the th ed.). Berlin, Sportverlag. Mesolympic Games of Athens (1906). Brustmann, M. (1906). Von Sport und Studies in physical culture & Tourism, 8, Körper Kultur. Olympische 17-23. Reiseneindrücke. Kraft und Schönheit, 6, Kaimakamis, V. Balasas, G., Bara A. 161-167. & Mouradidis, I. (2002). Gymnastics Chrysafis, Ι. (1930). Οι σύγχρονοι During the first Olympic Games of διεθνείς Ολυµπιακοί αγώνες (The moderne modern times (Athens 1896). Studies in indernational Olympic Games), Athens. physical culture & Tourism, 9, 40-48. Diem, C. (1912/1990). Die Kaimakamis, V. Stefanidis P., Laskari, Olympischen Spiele 1912. Kassel. T. & Mouratidis, I. (2003).The rules for Dörrer, H. J. (1999). Neues für die gymnastics in the first international Kampfrichter. Olympisches Turnen Aktuell, Olympic Games in Athens (1896). Annual 3, 15. of CESH, 1, 67-76. Gajdos, A. (1994). Entwicklung und Kampere, E. (1972). Enzyklopädie der Prognose am Barren. Olympisches Turnen Olympischen Spielen. Sttutgart, Aktuell, 4, 34. Römmerverlag. Gajdos, A. (1997). Artistic Gymnastics, Gluge, V. (1996). 1896 Athen, Athens, A history of development and Olympic Athenes, Atenas. Die Bilder der Spiele der I. Competition. Louborough: British Amateur Olympiade von Albert Meyer und anderen Gymnastics Association. Limited, Fotografen. Berlin, Brandenburgisches Louborough University. Verlagshaus. Gebhardt, W. (1904). Korrespondenz Kluge, V. (1997). Die Olympische zwischen Gedhardt und Coubertin, Spiele von 1896 - 1986. Berlin: Sportverlag. zwischen 1901 und 1902. In K. Lennartz, & Lennartz, K., & Teutenberg, W. W.Teutenberg, (1995) (Eds). Olympische (1991). Die Deutsche Beteiligung an den Spiele 1900 in Paris. Kassel, Agon Olympischen Spielen 1906 in Athen. Köln: Sportverlag. Agon Sportverlag. Göhler, W. (1980). Die Turnkunst bei Lennartz, K. & Teutenberg, W. (1995). den Olympischen Spielen. Stadion, 6, 158- Olympische Spiele 1900 in Paris. Kassel: 164. Agon Sportverlag.

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