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Crossmodal Interactions: Lessons from Synesthesia Martinez-Conde, Macknik, Martinez, Alonso & Tse (Eds.) Progress in Brain Research, Vol. 155 ISSN 0079-6123 Copyright r 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved CHAPTER 15 Crossmodal interactions: lessons from synesthesia Noam Sagivà and Jamie Ward Department of Psychology, University College London, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK Abstract: Synesthesia is a condition in which stimulation in one modality also gives rise to a perceptual experience in a second modality. In two recent studies we found that the condition is more common than previously reported; up to 5% of the population may experience at least one type of synesthesia. Although the condition has been traditionally viewed as an anomaly (e.g., breakdown in modularity), it seems that at least some of the mechanisms underlying synesthesia do reflect universal crossmodal mechanisms. We review here a number of examples of crossmodal correspondences found in both synesthetes and non- synesthetes including pitch-lightness and vision-touch interaction, as well as cross-domain spatial-numeric interactions. Additionally, we discuss the common role of spatial attention in binding shape and color surface features (whether ordinary or synesthetic color). Consistently with behavioral and neuroimaging data showing that chromatic–graphemic (colored-letter) synesthesia is a genuine perceptual phenomenon implicating extrastriate cortex, we also present electrophysiological data showing modulation of visual evoked potentials by synesthetic color congruency. Keywords: synesthesia; number forms; crossmodal perception; multisensory integration; anomalous experience Introduction induce synesthesia when synesthetes are thinking about them, hearing about them, or reading about Narrowly defined, synesthesia is a condition in them. Ordinal sequences (e.g., letters, numbers, which stimulation in one sensory modality evokes and time units) often serve as inducers. In the re- an additional perceptual experience in another cent literature, these have been regarded as vari- modality. For example, sounds may evoke colors ants of synesthesia. Nevertheless, it is still a matter for some individuals (e.g., Ginsberg, 1923). While of some debate how inclusive the definition of various sensory combinations have been described synesthesia should be. For example, there is no (e.g., Cytowic, 2002; Day, 2004), a common type consensus concerning synesthesia-like cross-do- of synesthesia in which seen letters and numbers main phenomena involving spatial forms or per- induce color experience actually occurs intramo- sonification (e.g., Calkins, 1895). We do not use dally in vision (e.g., Ramachandran and Hubbard, the term synesthesia to describe any crossmodal 2001a). Furthermore, it is clear that the meaning correspondences and associations, but rather only of the inducing stimulus is implicated in synesthe- those cases in which a perceptual experience is in- sia at least sometimes rather than its lower level volved, i.e., what Martino and Marks (2001) call physical features (Myles et al., 2003). Moreover, strong synesthesia. certain concepts (e.g., days of the week) may Synesthesia exists in developmental and ac- quired forms. The former runs in the family (e.g., ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +44-1895-265341; Baron-Cohen et al., 1996; Ward and Simner, Fax: +44-1895-269724; E-mail: [email protected] 2005), while the latter has been described in a DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(06)55015-0 259 260 variety of conditions as well as altered states of between color and magnitude processing is availa- consciousness. Some examples include synesthesia ble (Cohen-Kadosh et al., 2005; Knoch et al., 2005). following brain or nerve injury (Jacobs et al., 1981), synesthesia in late-blind individuals (Armel and Ramachandran, 1999; Steven and Blakemore, Prevalence 2004). Hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethyl- amide (LSD), mescaline (Hartman and Hollister, Estimate concerning the prevalence of (developmen- 1963), or ayahuasca (Shanon, 2002) often induce tal) synesthesia vary widely. Early surveys, relying on synesthetic hallucination. It is also reported by subjective reports, suggested that up to one in five healthy individuals between sleep and wakefulness individuals may have some form of synesthesia (e.g., ( Sagiv and Ben-Tal, in preparation) and a high Uhlich, 1957). Estimates based on self-referred sam- proportion of meditators (Walsh, 2005). ples have been far more pessimistic. Cytowic (1997) Developmental synesthesia is thought to be estimated that only 1 in 25,000 might experience the characterized by a remarkable consistency of condition, while Baron-Cohen et al (1996) estimated synesthetic correspondence within an individual that the condition is present in at least 1in2000 across time (which has, in fact, been used as one individuals. Baron-Cohen and his colleagues com- diagnostic criterion). Still, synesthetes rarely agree bined for the first time subjective reports with an on particular synesthetic correspondence (see, e.g., objective test of genuineness (testing for consistency Pat Duffy and Carol Steen’s colored alphabets; synesthetic correspondences) thus ensuring low rate Duffy, 2001). However, some trends can be traced of false alarms. However, because the prevalence in large synesthete populations (e.g., Shanon, 1982; estimate was based on the number of people Day, 2004; Rich et al., 2005). Beyond disagreement responding to a newspaper advertisement (divided on particular correspondences, substantial hetero- by readership figures), many cases were probably geneity is often found in phenomenological de- missed either because they did not see the ad or saw scription, for example, in the spatial extent of it but chose not to respond. synesthetic percepts (e.g., Dixon et al., 2004; Sagiv, The best estimate we have so far comes from 2004). Indeed we are only beginning to appreciate two large-scale surveys we recently conducted individual difference among synesthetes currently (Simner et al., in press). In both we combined ob- grouped together under single labels (Dixon and jective and subjective methods for ascertaining Smilek, 2005; Hubbard et al., 2005a). synesthesia, but minimized self-referral bias. One Synesthesia is involuntary and automatically survey in London’s Science Museum included 1190 evoked (in contrast to imagery at will). It is unclear unsuspecting visitors. The study was conducted in whether similar underlying mechanisms give rise to an interactive gallery in the museum, and visitor developmental and acquired synesthesia. Reports cooperation was high, although they did not know of acquired synesthesia are largely anecdotal; how- what the purpose of the experiment was. Here we ever, it is possible that some predisposition is re- looked at chromatic–graphemic synesthesia (the quired. Additionally, positive symptoms are often most common type in self-referred samples). Par- under-reported, however, and thus prevalence of ticipants were requested to choose a color that acquired synesthesia is harder to establish. Simi- ‘‘goes best’’ with letters and numbers. The process larly, individuals with developmental synesthesia was repeated immediately, yielding a measure of may have not realized that how they perceive the consistency. Following this participants were world is unusual in any way. asked direct questions concerning synesthetic ex- It has been suggested that synesthesia is unidi- perience. 1.1% of the individuals tested were iden- rectional (Mills et al., 1999). Phenomenologically, tified as chromatic–graphemic synesthetes. this seems to be the case (e.g., pain may evoke a In the second survey of multiple types of bright orange color; however, orange objects do not synesthesia among 500 Scottish students who usually induce pain). However, at least in numerical where given more information on the varieties of cognition, evidence for bidirectional interaction synesthesia, we identified 23 synesthetes (4.6%) of 261 which about half only reported colored weekdays. synesthesia could influence perception of the evok- The prevalence of chromatic–graphemic synesthe- ing stimulus (e.g., grouping, detection, and appar- sia in this sample (1.4%) was similar to that ob- ent motion) also strongly suggests that visual tained in the museum study. In summary, the synesthetic experience taps into existing visual condition may not be so unusual and appears to be mechanisms (Ramachandran and Hubbard, almost two orders of magnitude more common 2001a; Smilek et al., 2001; Blake et al., 2004). than previously regarded. In the remainder of this chapter, we will con- Indeed, some view synesthesia not as an anom- sider the extent to which synesthesia may utilize alous phenomenon, but rather as one reflecting a some of the same mechanisms found in other normal mode of cognition (for a discussion, see members of the population in situations of cross- Sagiv, 2004) that remains implicit in most individ- modal perception. For example, it is generally ac- uals. Consistent with this view is the high preva- cepted that there are crossmodal mechanisms for lence of synesthesia in a number of altered states of linking together sight and touch (e.g., Spence, consciousness suggesting that many of us have 2002) and sight and sound (e.g., King and Calvert, some predisposition to synesthesia. In the next 2001) when both modalities are stimulated. But section we explore the idea that synesthesia shares could these same mechanisms be implicated in much in common with normal perception and dis- synesthetic experiences of touch given a unimodal
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