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Supercapacitor Energy Storage Device Using Biowastes: a Sustainable Approach to Green Energy

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Supercapacitor Energy Storage Device Using Biowastes: a Sustainable Approach to Green Energy sustainability Review Supercapacitor Energy Storage Device Using Biowastes: A Sustainable Approach to Green Energy Kwadwo Mensah-Darkwa 1, Camila Zequine 2, Pawan K. Kahol 3 and Ram K. Gupta 2,* 1 Department of Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi AK-448-6434, Ghana; [email protected] 2 Department of Chemistry, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, KS 66762, USA; [email protected] 3 Department of Physics, Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, KS 66762, USA; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-620-2354763; Fax: +1-620-2354003 Received: 5 December 2018; Accepted: 10 January 2019; Published: 15 January 2019 Abstract: The demand for renewable energy sources worldwide has gained tremendous research attention over the past decades. Technologies such as wind and solar have been widely researched and reported in the literature. However, economical use of these technologies has not been widespread due partly to cost and the inability for service during of-source periods. To make these technologies more competitive, research into energy storage systems has intensified over the last few decades. The idea is to devise an energy storage system that allows for storage of electricity during lean hours at a relatively cheaper value and delivery later. Energy storage and delivery technologies such as supercapacitors can store and deliver energy at a very fast rate, offering high current in a short duration. The past decade has witnessed a rapid growth in research and development in supercapacitor technology. Several electrochemical properties of the electrode material and electrolyte have been reported in the literature. Supercapacitor electrode materials such as carbon and carbon-based materials have received increasing attention because of their high specific surface area, good electrical conductivity and excellent stability in harsh environments etc. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in biomass-derived activated carbons as an electrode material for supercapacitor applications. The development of an alternative supercapacitor electrode material from biowaste serves two main purposes: (1) It helps with waste disposal; converting waste to a useful product, and (2) it provides an economic argument for the substantiality of supercapacitor technology. This article reviews recent developments in carbon and carbon-based materials derived from biowaste for supercapacitor technology. A comparison between the various storage mechanisms and electrochemical performance of electrodes derived from biowaste is presented. Keywords: bio-waste; electrochemical double layer; supercapacitor; energy density; power density; electrochemical stability 1. Introduction The demand for energy worldwide is expected to double in about two decades [1,2]. Energy plays an important role in the quality of our lives, impacting our social and economic development [3]. Modern economies are driven by the availability of reliable energy sources. Conventional energy sources such as fossil fuels (coal, gas, and oil) are being depleted at a fast rate, accompanied by the destruction of ecosystems and habitats, the extinction of wildlife, and pollution of the environment [4–8]. A primary concern of harvesting energy from fossil fuels is that it is unsustainable in the long term, so this has driven researchers and the industry to adopt sustainable and renewable energy technologies. Over the past several decades, there has been a dramatic increase in research on Sustainability 2019, 11, 414; doi:10.3390/su11020414 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 20192019,, 1111, FOR 414 PEER REVIEW 2 of 22 technologies. Over the past several decades, there has been a dramatic increase in research on renewable energy sources such as solar energy, energy, geothermalgeothermal energy, wind energy, biofuels,biofuels, etc., while electrochemical energy storage devices such as supercapacitors,supercapacitors, rechargeable batteries,batteries, etc.etc. have also attracted significantsignificant research [[9–11].9–11]. It is not an overstatement to say that successful development of any renewable energy source (e.g.,(e.g., windmillswindmills and solarsolar cells), hybrid and electric vehicles and smart grids depend significantlysignificantly upon the availabilityavailability of a suitablesuitable energyenergy storagestorage system.system. A considerableconsiderable amount of literature literature has has been been published published on on the the use use of ofsupercapacitors supercapacitors as asa viable a viable storage storage device device for forrenewable renewable energy. energy. Over Over 20,000 20,000 arti articles,cles, books books etc. etc. were were published published in in 2017, 2017, a a higher higher number ofof research work is projectedprojected forfor 20182018 (data(data fromfrom googlegoogle scholar).scholar). There has beenbeen aa geometricgeometric increaseincrease in thethe researchresearch publishedpublished sincesince thethe yearyear 2000.2000. SinceSince supercapacitors were firstfirst experimented in 1957 by engineers at General Electric, they have found commercial applications in portable electronics, transportation andand aerospace aerospace industry industry [12 [12,13].,13]. These These applications applications of supercapacitors of supercapacitors have comehave aboutcome dueabout to due advances to advances in materials in materials and manufacturing and manufact technologies.uring technologies. The various The various components components such as such the anodes,as the anodes, cathodes, cathodes, separators, separators, binder, binder, and electrolyte and elec havetrolyte received have received in-depth in-depth research research activity leadingactivity toleading improved to improved performance performance and reduction and reduct in theion cost in ofthe manufacture cost of manufacture [14–16]. [14–16]. Energy storage and delivery technologies such as supercapacitors can store and deliver energy at a very fast fast rate, rate, offering offering high high current current in in a ash shortort duration. duration. Supercapacitors Supercapacitors are are categorized categorized as an as anelectrochemical electrochemical storage storage device, device, sometimes sometimes called called an ultracapacitor. an ultracapacitor. They can They store can and store deliver and deliverenergy energyat a very at fast a very rate fast offering rate offering high current high currentin a burs int. a Hence, burst. Hence,they have they found have applications found applications in electric in electricvehicles, vehicles, uninterruptible uninterruptible power powersupplies supplies (UPS), (UPS),and memory and memory backups backups in IT systems. in IT systems. They Theyalso have also havevirtually virtually unlimited unlimited cycle cyclelife, accompanied life, accompanied by high by highspecific specific power. power. They Theyalso work also workbetter better than thanbatteries batteries in extreme in extreme temperatures, temperatures, offering offering ex excellentcellent low-temperature low-temperature charge charge and and dischargedischarge performance. The Ragone plot [[1177–19]–19] shows a comparison between various energy storage devices in termsterms ofof powerpower andand energyenergy densitydensity (Figure1 1).). Clearly,Clearly, thethe plotplot givesgives aa goodgood overviewoverview ofof energyenergy storage performance; however, the plot is silent on critical factors such such as as cycle cycle life, life, cost, cost, and and safety. safety. These factors have to bebe investigatedinvestigated on their ownown merits to developdevelop a betterbetter understandingunderstanding of a particular energyenergy storagestorage technology.technology. Figure 1.1. Ragone plot showing a comparisoncomparison between various energy storagestorage devicesdevices (“Reprinted(“Reprinted (adapted)(adapted) withwith permissionpermission fromfrom [[20],20], CopyrightCopyright (2004)(2004) AmericanAmerican ChemicalChemical Society”).Society”). Because of the chargecharge storagestorage mechanism,mechanism, supercapacitorssupercapacitors are capable of an extremelyextremely longlong cycling life.life. ItIt isis reported reported to to have have a cyclea cycle life life of overof over 500,000 500,000 [21 –[21–23],23], which which is considerably is considerably higher higher than otherthan other storage storage technologies. technologies. Thisis This because is because supercapacitors supercapacitors storereversible store reversible electrostatic electrostatic charges charges on the surfaceon the surface of electrodes, of electrodes, while other while technologies other technologies such as such batteries as batteries really on really chemical on chemical reactions. reactions. Supercapacitors cancan be be classified classified as threeas three main typesmain accordingtypes according to the energy to the storage energy mechanism. storage Figuremechanism.2 shows Figure the main2 shows categorization the main categorization of supercapacitors of supercapacitors and a further and classification a further classification based on based on electrode materials [24,25]. The first type, which is the most common, is called the electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC). These commonly use KOH, H2SO4 etc. as a liquid Sustainability 2019, 11, 414 3 of 22 electrode materials [24,25]. The first type, which is the most common, is called the electrochemical
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