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An Overview of Local Environmental Activism in Britain

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An Overview of Local Environmental Activism in Britain Loughborough University Institutional Repository Thinking globally acting locally : an overview of local environmental activism in Britain This item was submitted to Loughborough University's Institutional Repository by the/an author. Additional Information: • A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fullment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University. Metadata Record: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/12165 Publisher: c Robert Vickers Please cite the published version. This item was submitted to Loughborough University as a PhD thesis by the author and is made available in the Institutional Repository (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) under the following Creative Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, please go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ • • Loughborough ., University I University Library AuthorlFihng. Title .........................................................V / C k:'£ RS . Class Mark ....................................................................T . Please note that fines are charged on ALL overdue items. 0403910978 11111111111111111111 I 1111111111111 Thinking Globallv Acting Locally: An overview of local environmental activism in Britain. By Rob Vickers Doctoral Thesis Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University December 2010 © by Robert Vickers 2010 ~!:1;:3,10'_":' ft",""'-nn"""l"-'I") .'., . :-;'1" Univcl''''( v Cv!\ • Piikin~lcm Ubr:1ry Date ZS-/ID/lj Class -,- Ace OLf03Q 109,'3 No, , For H, B & G Abstract Over the last four decades national environmental groups have become an important means of political participation for many British citizens. Since the mid-1980s these organizations have established a number of local groups. There are still some gaps in our understanding of these groups, particularly relating to participation at the grass-roots level. This investigation examines the British environmental movement, focusing on those who become coordinators of local groups, and attempts to find the correlates of their environmental activism. The research reviews the existing empirical data relating to environmental activism, and theoretical accounts relating to participation. It also considers the significance of the emergence of post­ material values, and looks at the theoretical framework that informs environmental activism. The hypothesis that the conservation and ecology movements are effectively sub-groups within the broader ecology movement is tested, and the thesis explores the possibility that those who participate in these movements have different socio-demographic and cognitive profiles, and methods of activism. The history and development of environmentalism in Britain is discussed, revealing the fundamental differences between the conservation and ecology movements. To test the hypothesis a national, internet based, questionnaire was conducted. In total, 380 activists were surveyed, all of whom were coordinators of local environmental groups that were affiliated to one of six nationally prominent environmental organisations. The findings of the research indicated that although many national environmental organizations seem to have become closer together in terms of their core beliefs and objectives. There are some notable differences between conservationists and ecologists at the grass-roots level, particularly in relation to socio­ psychological variables, and means of participation. Key Words: Environmentalism, Conservation, Ecology, Green, Activism, Participation, Pressure Group, Social Movement. Abbreviations BTCV .............. British Trust for Conservation Volunteers CND .................. the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament DiY ......... Do it Yourself EEC •••...... European Economic Community EFl .............. Earth First! ERM .................. (European) Exchange Rate Mechanism EU ......... European Union FoE .............. Friends of the Earth G8 .................. Group of Eight GDP ......... Gross Domestic Product GM .................. Genetically Modified IMF ......... International Monetary Fund IPCC .................. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change MORI .................. Market and Opinion Research International MP ......... Member of Parliament NEP ......... New Environmental Paradigm NIMBY ......... Not-In-My-Back-Yard NVDA ......... Non-Violent Direct Action ONS •••••• 0 •• the Office of National Statistics OPEC •••• e •••• the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries PR ........... Proportional Representation RSPB ......... Royal Society for the Protection of Birds SPSS •••• 0- •••• Statistical Package for the Social Sciences TWT ........... The Wildlife Trusts UK ............ United Kingdom INWF ......... World Wildlife Fund 1 List of Tables 2.1: British Participation Rates in Higher Education: By Social 30 Class 4.1: Membership of selected United Kingdom environmental 66 organisations 4.2: Selected Environmental Concerns England and Wales 77 5.1: Percentage of Registered Electorate Who Actually Voted 90 1945-2005 5.2: Reported Political Action 1986 - 2000 96 6.1: United Kingdom Distribution of Real Household Disposable 110 Income 1971 -2000 7.1: Environmental Groups Initially Contacted 121 8.1: British Environmental Groups with Widespread National 129 Support 8.2: Possible Activities to Support an Environmental Cause or 130 Issue 8.3: Assessment ofthe level of Participation Undertaken by 131 Activists 8.4: Categorization of Unorthodox Activism 132 9.1: Number of E-Mails Sent Out in the First Wave of the Survey 147 10.1: What Respondents do 'in an Average Week' 159 10.2 Gender Balance 161 10.3: Age Distribution of Environmental Activists by Gender 162 10.4: Post-Materialism Four Item Battery 169 10.5: New Environmental Paradigm Statistics 174 10.6: Actions Undertaken in a 12 Month Period: Group 176 Coordinators Contrasted with the UK Population 10.7: Participation Statistics - Number of Orthodox Activities 177 Undertaken in the Last 12 Months 2 10.8: Coordinators Overall Level of Orthodox Participation 177 10.9: Unorthodox Actions Undertaken in the Last 12 Months to 178 Support Environmental Causes 11.1: Educational Attainment I Conservationist and Ecologists 183 Crosstabulation 11.2: Employment Sector I Conservationist and Ecologists 185 Crosstabulation 11.3: Chi-Square Test Employment Sector I Conservationist and 186 Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.4: Materialists and Mixed Types Combined I Conservationists 189 and Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.5: Chi-Square Test Materialists and Mixed Types Combined I 190 Conservationists and Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.6: NEP 3 Categories I Conservationists and Ecologists 193 Crosstabulation 11.7: Chi-Square Tests NEP 3 Categories I Conservationists and 194 Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.8: Post-Materialist I NEP Correlation 195 11.9: Four Sacrifice for Environmental Protection Questions 198 Combined I Conservationists and Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.10: Chi-Square Tests Four Sacrifice Questions Combined I 198 Conservationists and Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.11: Overall Willingness to Sacrifice I Belief about Economic 199 Growth Correlation 11.12: Unorthodox Campaigning I Conservationists and 204 Ecologists Crosstabulation 11.13: Chi-square Unorthodox Campaigning 204 11.14: Percentage of Conservationists and Ecologists who would 206 Never Consider Participating in Various Forms of Unorthodox Campaigning 3 List of Figures 3.1: The Composition of the Environmental Movement 33 3.2 Verba and Nie's Socio-economic Status Model 47 10.1: Highest Educational Qualification 158 10.2 Four Category Occupational Classification of Sample 160 Compared with that of the Working Age Population of Britain 10.3: Political Party Approval Rating 166 10.4: Post-Materialism Twelve Item Battery 170 10.5: New Environmental Paradigm Score 173 11.1: Potential Subdivisions within the Environmental Movement 182 11.2: Age Distribution of Conservationists and Ecologists 188 11.3: The 12 Item Battery Results for Conservationists and 191 Ecologists 11.4: Frequency of Participation 202 4 CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE. .............................................................................................. 8 The Ambiguity Surrounding the Environmental Movement... ........................ 8 Introduction ................................................................................................ 8 What is the Environmental Movement? ................................................... 10 Who is part of the environmental movement? ......................................... 11 What is Environmental Activism? ............................................................ 13 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................ 15 The Correlates of Environmental Activism .................................................. 15 Socio-demographic Factors and Environmental Activism ........................ 16 Cognitive Factors and Environmental Activism ........................................ 24 CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................ 32 The Theoretical Framework ........................................................................ 32 Conservation and Ecology ....................................................................... 32 Participation in Conservation Organisations, Ecology Organisations, Pressure Groups and Social Movements ...............................................
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