WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development

Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

with the advice, cooperation and financial assistance of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (F AO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco)

~ '1 IUCN WWF

The Symbol

The circle symbolizes the biosphere-the thin covering of the planet that contains and sustains life. The three interlocking, overlapping arrows symbolize the three objectives of conservation: - maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems; - preservation of genetic diversity; - sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development

Prepared by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

with the advice, cooperation and financial assistance of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)

and in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (F AO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco)

1980

~ ~ IUCN WWF The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, UNEP or WWF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Copyright© IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 All rights reserved

First published 1980 Second printing 1980

ISBN 2-88032-104-2 (Bound) ISBN 2-88032-101-8 (Pack) WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Contents

Preamble and Guide

Foreword I Preface and acknowledgements ·II Guide to the World Conservation Strategy IV

Executive Summary VI

World Conservation Strategy

1. Introduction: living resource conservation for sustainable development ·

The' objectives of conservation and requirements for their achievement 2. Maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems 3. Preservation of genetic diversity 4. Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems 5. Priority requirements: ecological processes and life-support systems 6. · Priority requirements: genetic diversity 7. Priority requirements: sustainable utilization

Priorities for national action

8. A framework for national and subnational conservation strategies 9. Policy making and the integration of conservation and development 10 .. Environmental planning and rational use allocation 11. Improving the capacity to manage: legislation and organization 12. Improving the capacity to manage: training and research 13. Building support for conservation: participation and education 14. Conservation-based rural development

Continued overleaf Contents

Priorities for international action

15. International action: law and assistance 16. Tropical forests and drylands 17. A global programme for the protection of genetic resource areas 18. The global commons 19. Regional strategies for international river basins and seas 20. Towards sustainable development

Map Section

1. Tropical forests 2. Deserts and areas subject to desertification 3. Priority biogeographical provinces of the land for the establishment of protected areas 4. International river basins 5. Major consumers and exporters of seafood and gainers of large fisheries WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Forevvord

. Human beings, in their quest for economic development and enjoyment of the riches of nature, must come to terms with the reality of resource limitation· and the carrying capacities of ecosystems·, and must take acc~unt of the needs of future generations. This is the message of conservation. For ifthe object of development is to provide for social and economic welfare, the object of conservation is to ensure Earth's capacity to sustain development and to support all life.

Two features characterize our time. The first is the almost limitless capacity of human beings for building and creation, matched by equally great powers of destruction and annihilation. The escalating needs of soaring numbers have often driven people to take a short-sighted approach when exploiting natural resources. The toll of this approach has now become glaringly apparent: a long list of hazards and disasters, including soil erosion, desertification, loss of cropland, pollution, deforestation, ecosystem deg­ radation and destruction, and extinction of species and varieties. This situation underlines the need for conservation, comprising the ecologically sound management· of productive systems and the maintenance of their viability and versatility.

The second is the global interrelatedness of actions, with its corollary of global re­ sponsibility. This in turn gives rise to the need for global strategies both for develop­ ment and for conservation of nature and natural resources. The international com­ munity addresses the former through the development decades and associated enter­ prises sponsored by the United Nations, and is now addressing the latter through the World Conservation Strategy. presented in this pack.

The World Conservation Strategy provides both an intellectual framework and prac­ tical guidance for the conservation actions necessary. It cails for global coordi­ nated efforts backed by will and determination, for concerted action at national and international levels, and for global solidarity to implement its programmes. World­ wide action to give practical effect to this strategy is a necessary complement to a world-wide programme for rational development of the resources of our planet. Development and conservation are equally necessary for our survival and for the dis­ charge of our responsibilities as trustees of natural resources for the generations to come.

IUCN, UNEP and WWF have joined hands in the preparation of the present World Conservation Strategy, and will continue to coordinate their endeavours in support of its implementation.

Mohamed Kassas Mostafa K. Tolba John H. Loudon President Executive Director President IUCN UNEP WWF

I

WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Preface and acknowledgelllents

The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) was commissioned by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) which together with the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) provided the financial support for its preparation and contributed to the evolution of its basic themes and structure. IUCN is grateful to both organizations for all their support. While the WCS has been prepared by IUCN and primarily reflects IUCN's views and approaches it is intended that the Strategy represent a con­ sensus of policy on conservation efforts in the context of world development. To this end the final draft was submitted to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco), as well as to UNEP and WWF, and all four organizations carefully reviewed it and made significant contributions to it. The WCS is endorsed by the Ecosystem Conservation Group (ECG) the members of which are UNEP, FAO, Unesco and.IUCN.

The WCS, as the product of an extremely thorough consultation process, inevitably reflects a compromise: among conservationists, who may differ on the relative im­ portance of particular ecosystems, species, issues and measures; and between conser­ vationists and the practitioners of development, who may differ in their emphasis on maintenance on the one hand and production on the other. The document also shares the limitations of every global analysis: it is obliged to aggregate and simplify a host of diverse local phenomena and to ignore a host of local problems. Knowledge of the world is so patchy that global generalizations are particularly prone to error. These drawhacks are recognized; but they are considered less important than the need to present a statement of agreed conservation requirements and priorities, around which conservationists and development practitioners alike could rally, and to adopt a perspective unconfined by the boundaries that separate but do not insulate nation from nation, sector from sector, or interest from interest.

There is a parallel, paperback version of the World Conservation Strategy for the general reader. The paperback differs from the version in this pack in style and layout and in providing both a fuller account of the importance of living resource conserva­ tion and a more detailed description of the priority conservation issues. The pa­ perback devotes less space than the pack to the organizational aspects of conserva­ tion and its integration with development. Its purpose is to make more people aware of the vital importance of living resource conservation.

As a supplement to the two versions of the WCS, a Sourcebook will be published over several years in a number of volumes-on species, on ecosystems of the land,

II fresh waters and the sea, and on issues and measures. The Sourcebook will provide more detailed information than can be contained in the Strategy, and a basis for the Strategy's further development. The WCS is intended to be an evolving effort and is expected to be up-dated and improved from time to time, in response to new knowledge, better understanding, changes in perception and values, and conservation progress as a result of the Strategy's implementation. For it is strongly hoped that governments, nongovernmental organizations and intergovernmental bodies will be quick to carry out the relevant recommendations. The members of the Ecosystem Conservation Group and WWF are ready to give whatever help they can within the limits of available resources, should their assistance be requested.

Many governments, nongovernmental organizations and individuals from both developed and developing countries have participated in the preparation of the Strategy. IUCN's membership currently consists of more than 450 government agen­ cies and conservation organizations in over 100 countries. These members were first polled for their views on conservation priorities. Subsequently two drafts of the WCS were sent to them for comment, as well as to I UCN's Commissions of more than 700 scientists and other experts on ecology, threatened species, protected areas, envi­ ronmental planning, environmental policy, law and administration and environ­ mental education. The individuals concerned are too numerous to name here, but the assistance of each is gratefully acknowledged.

Special thanks, however, should go to the members of the four panels that reviewed drafts of the WCS: Emmanuel O.A. Asibey, Mona Bjorklund, Cecilia de Blohm, Mario A. Boza, William G. Conway, Sylvia Earle, Charles de Haes, N.D. Jayal, Mohamed Kassas, Ashok Khosla, F. Wayne King, P.H.C. Lucas, Duncan Poore, G. Carleton Ray, Mats Segnestam, Thomas B. Stoel Jr., Maurice F. Strong, and Lee M. Talbot. The generous contribution of their time and expertise was invaluable.

Patrick Virolle who devised the symbol and designed this pack, Dounia Morgan who translated the text into French, and the many IUCN secretaries who at various times typed one draft or another also deserve particular appreciation.

Robert Allen, as compiler and editor of the Strategy, guided it through the four working drafts and prepared the present text. His contribution has been central to the whole endeavour.

David A. Munro Director General IUCN

III WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Guide to the World Conservation Strategy

The aim

The aim of the World Conservation Strategy is to help advance the achievement of sustainable development through the conservation of living resources. The Strategy: 1. explains the contribution of living resource conservation to human survival and to sustainable development; 2. identifies the priority conservation issues and the main requirements for dealing with them; 3. proposes effective ways for achieving the Strategy's aim. The Strategy is intended to stimulate a more focussed approach to living resource conservation and to provide policy guidance on how this can be carried out. It concentrates on the main problems directly affecting the achievement of conserva­ tion's objectives; and on how to deal with them through conservation. In particular, the Strategy identifies the action needed both to improve conservation efficiency and to integrate conservation and development.

The users

The Strategy is intended chiefly for three groups of user (none of which is wholly sep­ arate from the others): 1. Government policy makers and .their advisers. Few governments have the finan­ cial and technical resources to ·address' all of the problems of living resource con­ servation at once. Therefore they need to know what needs to be done first. Ac­ cordingly, the Strategy both recommends ways of overcoming the main obstacles to conservation and provides guidance on what action is most important. The Strategy is relevant to any level of government with significant responsibilities for planning and managing the use of living resources. 2. Conservationists and others directly concerned with living resources. For this group, the Strategy indicates those areas where conservation action is most urgently needed and where it is likely to yield the greatest and most lasting results. It also proposes ways in which conservation can participate more effectively in the development process, thereby increasing the likelihood of its being positively received by the development community and of helping to ensure that develop­ ment is sustainable. 3. Development practitioners, including aid agencies, industry and commerce, and trade unions. For this group the Strategy demonstrates that conservation im-

IV proves the prospects of sustainable development and proposes ways of integrating conservation into the development process. It also attempts to identify those areas where the interests of conservation and of development are most likely to coincide and therefore where a closer partnership between the two processes would be par­ ticularly advantageous to both.

Arrangement of the text

The Strategy consists of 20 double page sections. The introduction (section 1), which defines key terms, is followed by three groups of sections. The first group (sections 2-7) describes the contribution of each of the objectives of conservation to human survival and wellbeing; outlines the main threats to them; and identifies the priority require­ ments for achieving the objectives. The second group (sections 8-14) sets out a strategy for action at the national and subnational levels. A framework for the strategy is outlined; then each of the main obstacles to conservation is described, together with recommendations for dealing with the obstacles. The third group (sections 15-20) is devoted to international action to stimulate and support national and subnational action. Section 20 includes a checklist of priority requirements, national actions and international actions.

Priority issues

The priority issues discussed in the Strategy are (numbers in parentheses refer to sections): reduction in quality and quantity of agricultural land (2, 5, 16) and grazing land (4, 7, 16); soil erosion and the degradation of catchment areas ;md watersheds (2, 5, 11, 16, 19); desertification (2, 5, 16); loss of the support systems of fisheries (2, 5, 11, 18, 19); extinction of species, subspecies and varieties (3, 6, 15, 17); overexploi­ tation offish and other wildlife (4, 7, II, 18, 19); deforestation (4, 7, 16); climate alteration and air pollution (18); narrow sectoral approach to conservation (8, 9); failure to integrate conservation and development (9, 20); inadequate environmental planning and irrational resource allocation (I 0); inadequate or unenforced legis­ lation (11); poor organization ( 11); Jack of trained personnel (12); lack of infor­ mation (12); lack of support for conservation (13); lack of conservation-based rural development (14). Most of these problems are common in both developed and developing countries. Several, however, such as erosion, desertification, deforestation and lack of conservation-based rural development, are much more acute in developing countries than in developed ones.

v WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY Executive Sullllllary

The World Conservation Strategy is intended to stimulate a more focussed approach to the management of living resources and to provide policy guidance on how this can be carried out by three main groups: - government policy makers and their advisers; - conservationists and others directly concerned with living resources; - development practitioners, including development agencies, industry and commerce, and trade unions.

1. The aim of the World Conservation Strategy is to achieve the three main objectives of living resource conservation: a. to maintain essential ecological processes and life-support systems (such as soil regeneration and protection, the recycling of nutrients, and the cleansing of waters), on which human survival and development depend; b. to preserve genetic diversity (the range of genetic material found in the world's organisms), on which depend the functioning of many of the above processes and life-support systems, the breeding programmes necessary for the protection and improvement of cultivated plants, domesticated animals and microorganisms, as well as much scientific and medical advance, technical innovation, and the security of the many industries that use living resources; c. to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems (notably fish and other wildlife, forests and grazing lands), which support millions of rural communities as well as major industries.

2. These objectives must be achieved as a matter of urgency because: a. the planet's capacity to support people is being irreversibly reduced in both devel­ oping and developed countries: - thousands of millions of tonnes of soil are lost every year as a result of deforest­ ation and poor land management; - at least 3,000 km2 of prime farmland disappear every year under buildings and roads in developed countries alone; b. hundreds of millions of rural people in developing countries, including 500 million malnourished and 800 million destitute, are compelled to destroy the resources neces­ sary to free them from starvation and poverty: - in widening swaths around their villages the rural poor strip the land of trees and shrubs for fuel so that now many communities do not have enough wood to cook food or keep warm; - the rural poor are also obliged to burn every year 400 million tonnes of dung and crop residues badly needed to regenerate soils; c. the energy, financial and other costs of providing goods and services are growing: - throughout the world, but especially in developing countries, siltation cuts the lifetimes of reservoirs supplying water and hydroelectricity, often by as much as half; - floods devastate settlements and crops (in India the annual cost of floods ranges from $I 40 million to $750 million); d. the resource base of major industries is shrinking: - tropical forests are contracting so rapidly that by the end of this century the remaining area of unlogged productive forest will have been halved; - the coastal support systems of many fisheries are being destroyed or polluted (in the USA the annual cost of the resulting losses is estimated at $86 million).

3. The main obstacles to achieving conservation are: a. the belief that living resource conservation is a limited sector, rather than a process that cuts across and must be considered by all sectors; b. the consequent failure to integrate conservation with development; c. a development process that is often inflexible and needlessly destructive, due to vr inadequacies in environmental planning, a lack of rational use allocation and undue emphasis on narrow short term interests rather than broader longer term ones; d. the lack of a capacity to conserve, due to inadequate legislation and lack of enforcement; poor organization (notably government agencies with insufficient mandates and a lack of coordination); lack of trained personnel; and a lack of basic information on priorities, on the productive and regenerative capacities of living resources, and on the trade-offs between one management option and another; e. the lack of support for conservation, due to a lack of awareness (other than at the most superficial level) of the benefits of conservation and of the responsibility to conserve among those who use or have an impact ori living resources, including in many cases governments; f. the failure to deliver conservation-based development where it is most needed, notably the rural areas of developing countries:

4. The World Conservation Strategy therefore: a. defines living resource conservation and explains its objectives, its contribution to human survival and development and the main impediments to its achievement (sections 1-4); b. determines the priority requirements for achieving each of the objectives (sections 5-7); c. proposes national and subnational strategies to meet the priority requirements, describing a framework and principles for those strategies (section 8); d. recommends anticipatory environmental policies, a cross-sectoral conservation policy and a broader system of national accounting in order to integrate conservation with development at the policy making level (section 9); e. proposes an integrated method of evaluating land and water reimurces, supplemented by environmental assessments, as a means of improving environmental planning; and · outlines a procedure for the rational allocation of land and water uses (section 10); f. recommends reviews of legislation concerning living resources; suggests general principles for organization within government; and in particular proposes ways of improving the organizational capacities for soil conservation and for the conservation of marine living resources (section 11); g. suggests ways of increasing the number of trained personnel; and proposes more management-oriented research and research-oriented management, so that the most urgently needed basic information is generated more quickly (section 12); h. recommends greater public participation in planning and decision making concern­ ing living resource use; and proposes environmental education programmes and campaigns to build support for conservation (section 13); i. suggests ways of helping rural communities to conserve their living resources, as the essential basis of the development they need (section 14).

5. In addition, the Strategy recommends international action to promote, support and (where necessary) coordinate national action, emphasizing in particular the needfor: a. stronger more comprehensive international conservation law, and increased develop­ ment assistance for living resource conservation (section 15); b. international programmes to promote the action necessary to conserve tropical forests and drylands (section 16), to protect areas essential for the preservation of genetic resources (section 17), and to conserve the global "commons"-the open ocean, the atmosphere, and Antarctica (section 18); c. regional strategies to advance the conservation of shared living resources particu­ larly with respect to international river basins and seas (section 19).

6. The World Conservation Strategy ends by summarizing the main requirements for sustainable development, indicating conservation priorities for the Third Devel­ opment Decade (section 20). VII

<:> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980

WORLD CONSERVATION· STRATEGY

World Conservation Strategy WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 1. Introduction: living resource conservation

1. Earth is the only place in the 5. Conservation, like development, is 8. Living resource conservation is just universe known to sustain life. Yet for people; while development aims to one of a number of conditions necessary human actlv1tles are progressively achieve human goals largely through use to assure human survival and wellbeing, reducing the planet's life-supporting of the biosphere, conservation aims to and a world conservation strategy is but capacity at a time when rising human achieve them by ensuring that such use one of a number of strategies needed: a numbers and consumption are making can continue. Conservation's concern strategy for peace; a strategy for a new increasingly heavy demands on it (see for maintenance and sustainability is a international economic order; a strategy box). The combined destructive impacts rational response to the nature of living for human rights; a strategy for over­ of a poor majority struggling to stay resources (renewability +destructibility) coming poverty; a world food supply alive and an affluent minority consuming and also an ethical imperative, expressed strategy; a population strategy. Several most of the world's resources are under­ in the belief that "we have not inherited of these issues are properly the subject of mining the very means by which all the earth from our parents, we have bor­ the International Development Strategy people can survive and flourish. rowed it from our children". for the Third United Nations Develop­ ment Decade. All such strategies should 2. Humanity's relationship with the 6. Conservation is a process-to be be mutually reinforcing. None has much biosphere (the thin covering of the applied cross-sectorally-not an activ­ chance of success unless they are. The planet that contains and sustains life) will ity sector in its own ·right. In the case integration of conservation and develop­ continue to deteriorate until a new inter­ of sectors (such as agriculture, fisheries, ment is particularly important, because national economic order is achieved, a forestry and wildlife) directly respon­ unless patterns of development that also new environmental ethic adopted, sible for the management of living re­ conserve living resources are widely human populations stabilize, and sus­ sources, conservation is that aspect of adopted, it will become impossible to tainable modes of development become management which ensures that utili­ meet the needs of today without fore­ the rule rather than the exception. zation is sustainable and which safe­ closing the achievement of tomorrow's. Among the prerequisites for sustainable guards the ecological processes and ge­ development is the conservation of liv­ netic diversity essential for the mainte­ 9. Conservation and development mg resources. nance of the resources concerned. In the have so seldom been combined that they case of other sectors (such as health, often appear-and are sometimes repre­ 3. Development is defined here as: the energy, industry), conservation is that sented as being-incompatible. Con­ modification of the biosphere and the aspect of management which ensures servationists themselves have helped­ application of human, financial, living that the fullest sustainable advantage is quite unwittingly-to foster this mis­ and non-living resources to satisfy derived from the living resource base conception. Too often they have allowed human needs and improve the quality of and that activities are so located and themselves to be seen as resisting all human life. For development to be sus­ conducted that the resource base is development-although often they have tainable it must take account of social maintained. been forced into that posture because and ecological factors, as well as eco­ 7. Living resource conservation has they have not been invited to participate nomic ones; of the living and non-living three specific objectives: in the development process early resource base; and of the long term as to maintain essential ecological enough. The result has been not to stop well as the short term advantages and development, but to persuade many disadvantages of alternative actions. processes and life-support systems (such as soil regeneration and protec­ development practitioners, especially in developing countries, that conservation 4. Conservation is defined here as: the tion, the recycling of nutrients, and the cleansing of waters), on which is not merely irrelevant, it is harmful and management of human use of the bio­ anti-social. Consequently, development sphere so that it may yield the greatest human survival and development depend; has continued unimpeded by conserva­ sustainable benefit to present genera­ tionists yet with the seeds of its eventual tions while maintaining its potential to to preserve genetic diversity (the range failure lying in the ecological damage of genetic material found in the meet the needs and aspirations of future that conservation could have helped world's organisms), on which depend generations. Thus conservation is posi­ prevent. tive, embracing preservation, mainte­ the breeding programmes necessary nance, sustainable utilization, restora­ for the protection and improvement 10. That conservation and sustainable tion, and enhancement of the natural en­ of cultivated plants and domesticated development are mutually dependent vironment. Living resource conservation animals, as well as much scientific ad­ can be illustrated by the plight of the is specifically concerned with plants, ani­ vance, technical innovation, and the rural poor. The dependence of rural mals and microorganisms, and with security of the many industries that communities on living resources is direct those non-living elements of the environ­ use living resources; and immediate. For the 500 million peo­ ment on which they depend. Living to ensure the sustainable utilization of ple who are malnourished2, or the resources have two important properties species and ecosystems (notably fish 1500 million people whose only fuel is the combination of which distinguishes and other wildlife, forests and graz­ wood, dung or crop wastes 3, or the al­ them from non-living resources: they ing lands), which support millions of most 800 million people with incomes of are renewable if conserved; and they are rural communities as well as major $50 or less a year4-for all these people destructible if not. industries 1. conservation is the only thing between

Notes and references 3. FAO. 1978. Forestry for local community development. FAO coal in developing countries: an economic survey. Unasylva, Forestry Paper, 7. 29:2-9. I. Ecosystem~ are system~ ~f plants, animals and microorganisms together with the non-hvmg components of their environment. 4. World Bank. 1978. World development report. World Bank, 6. Myers, Norman. 1978. Forests for people. New Scientist, Washington, DC. 80:951-953. 2. FAO. 1977. The fourth woridjood survey. FAQ, Rome. 5. Arnold, J.E. M., and Jules Jongma. 1977. Fuelwood and char- 7. See section 2 for references. for sustainable developlllent

them and at best abject misery, at worst death. Unhappily, people on the mar­ Why a world conservation strategy is needed gins of survival are compelled by their A world strategy for the conservation of Earth's living resources is needed now poverty-and their consequent vulner­ because: ability to inflation-to destroy the few resources available to them. In widening circles around their villages they strip trees and shrubs for fuel until the plants wither away and the villagers are forced to burn dung and stubble. The 400 mil­ lion tonnes of dung and crop wastes that - rural people burn annuallyS are badly needed to regenerate soils already highly vulnerable to erosion now that the plants that bind them are disappearing.

l l. It would be wrong, however, to I. Living resources essential for human survival and sustainable development conclude that conservation is a sufficient are increasingly being destroyed or depleted8. At the same time human demand response . to such problems. People for those resources is growing fast. The problem is illustrated above. If current whose very survival is precarious and rates of land degradation continue, close to one third of the world's arable land whose prospects of even temporary (symbolized by the stalk of grain) will be destroyed in the next 20 years 9. Similar­ prosperity are bleak cannot be expected ly, by the end of this century (at present rates of clearance), the remaining area of to respond sympathetically to calls to unlogged productive tropical forest will be halved 10. During this period the world subordinate their acute short term needs population is expected to increase by almost half-from just over 4,000 million to to the possibility of long term returns. just under 6,000 million 11. The predicament caused by growing numbers of peo­ Conservation must therefore be com­ ple demanding scarcer resources ~s exacerbated by the disproportionately high bined with measures to meet short term consumption rates of developed countries (illustrated below). economic needs. The vicious circle by 2. The action required to cure the most serious current conservation problems which poverty causes ecological degra­ and to prevt;nt still worse ones takes time: time for planning, education, training, dation which in turn leads to more better organization and research; and when such action is undertaken, it takes poverty can be broken only by develop­ time for the biosphere to respond-reforestation, the restoration of degraded ment. But if it is not to be self-defeating, land, the recovery of depleted fisheries, and so on, are not instantaneous it must be development that is sustain­ processes. able-and conservation helps to make it so. The development efforts of many 3. National and international capa­ developing countries are being slowed or cities to conserve are ill-organized and compromised by lack of conservation. fragmented-split up amongst sectors tttttttttt In Southeast Asia excessive clearing of such as agriculture, forestry, fisheries forests has caused fluctuations in river and wildlife-with consequent dupli­ flow that are lowering rice yields6. cation of effort, gaps in coverage, tttttttttt Throughout the developing world the competition for money and influence, lifetimes of hydroelectric power stations and conflict; and they have little in­ and water-supply systems are being cut fluence on the development process, as reservoirs silt up--because siltation is with the result that development, the tttttttttt accelerated by deforestation, overgraz­ principal means of tackling human ing and other unwise land uses 7. problems, too often adds to them by destroying ·or degrading the living f =tftttttttt 12. The activities of every organism resource base of human welfare. 1 40 modify its environment, and those of SWISS SOMALIS Disproportionate consumption of resources by the affluent. human beings are no exception. Al­ One Swiss consumes as much as 40 Somalis. Source: 12. though environmental modification is both natural and a necessary part of development. Unless it is guided by eco­ servation and failure to achieve the development, this does not mean that all logical, as well as by other environmen­ social and economic objectives of devel­ modification leads to development (nor tal, and by social, cultural and ethical opment-or, having achieved them, to that preservation impedes it). While it considerations, much development will sustain that achievement. Hence the is inevitable that most of the planet will continue to have undesired effects, to goal of the World Conservation Strategy be modified by people and that much of provide reduced benefits or even to fail is the integration of conservation and it will be transformed, it is not at all inev­ altogether. As will be seen in sections 2- development to ·ensure that modifica­ itable that such alterations will achieve 4, there is a close relationship between tions to the planet do indeed secure the the social and economic objectives of failure to achieve the objectives of con- survival and wellbeing of all people.

8. See sections 2-4 for examples. plt111tl1tion art'as in 1/u• tropic.L FO:MISC/79/I. FAO, Rome. 12. Strahm, Rudolf H. 1974. Pays industriuli.n•s, pays .mus-dh-e­ c; United Nations. 1978. United Nations Conference on Desertifi­ And: J.P. Lanly; personal communication, 1979. loppes: faits et chi}fres. A la BaconniCre, Neuchiitel. cation: round-up, plan ofaction and resolutions. United Nations, New York. ! I. World Bank. 1979. World development report. World Bank, IO. l.anly. J.P .. and .I. Ckmcnt. 1979. Prt··"""' mul.fi1111ri•forc... 1 mul Washington, DC. ' «> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980

The objectives of conservation• and requirements for their achievement WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 2. Maintenance of essential ecological proce

J. Essential ecological processes are poorly managed human acttv1ttes, ero­ 5. The productivity of agricultural eco­ those processes that are governed, sup­ sion is accelerated with disastrous conse­ systems depends not only on maintain-· ported or strongly moderated by ecosys­ quences. Even under natural conditions ing soil quality but also on retaining the tems and are essential for food produc­ of vegetation cover, nature takes from habitats of beneficial insects and other tion, health and other aspects of human 100 to 400 years or more to generate animals, such as crop pollinators and survival and sustainable development. 10 millimetres of top soil; and 3,000 to the predators and parasites of pests. Ef­ "Life-support systems" is shorthand for 12,000 years would be needed to gener­ fective pest control is no longer a matter the main ecosystems involved-for ex­ ate soil to a depth of the length of this of heavy applications of pesticides, part­ ample, watershed forests or coastal wet­ page. So once the soil has gone, for all ly because of the rising cost of petro­ lands. The maintenance of such practical purposes it has gone for good. leum-derived products but largely processes and systems is vital for all 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 because excessive pesticide use promotes · societies regardless of their stage of resistance (the number of pesticide­ development. Many archaeological rel­ resistant insects and mites has doubled ics, whether of great civilizations or peas­ in 12 years-see figure B), destroys ant villages, testify to the consequences natural enemies, turns formerly innoc­ of not doing so. Today, the most impor­ uous species into pests, harms other tant and most threatened life-support non-target species, and contaminates systems are agricultural systems, forests, food and feed. Instead pesticides should and coastal and freshwater systems. be used to supplement a battery of methods integrated in appropriate com­ Agricultural systems binations: these methods include intro­ 2. Only about 11 % of the world's land duction of pest-resistant crop varieties, area (excluding Antarctica) offers no special planting combinations and pat­ serious limitation to agriculture; the rest terns, mechanical methods, the use of suffers from drought, mineral stress repellents and hormones, and encour­ (nutritional deficiencies or toxicities), agement of natural enemies. shallow depth, excess water, or perma­ frost I. The best land is not evenly distrib­ Forests uted (see figure A). The world's crop­ 6. Besides supplying timber and other 36 25 22 18 16 15 15 14 10 11 land currently occupies 14 million km2, products, forests have a vital effect on and although it may be possible to dou­ 00 No serious limitation a Shallow depth processes of great significance for peo­ ble this area, much of the best land is al­ E2J Drought - Water excess ple. They influence local and regional ready being farmed 1. Unfortunately - Mineral stress ~ Permafrost climates, generally by making them large areas of prime quality land are be­ 1. Europe 5. Africa 9. North and milder, and they help to ensure a contin­ ing permanently taken out of agricul­ 2. Central America 6. South America Central Asia uous flow of clean water. Some forests, 3. North America 7. Australasia 10. WORLD tural use by being built on. In developed 4. South Asia 8. Southeast Asia notably tropical cloud forests, even in­ 3,000 countries at least km2 of prime A. Regional distribution of soils with or without limitations for crease the availability of water by in­ agricultural land are submerged every agriculture. Source: 1. tercepting moisture from clouds. Water­ yea,r under urban sprawl: between 1960 4. Soil loss has accelerated sharply shed forests are particularly important and 1970 Japan lost 7.3% of its agricul­ because they protect soil cover on site tural -land to buildings and roads and throughout the food-hungry tropics, which are generally more susceptible to and protect areas downstream from ex­ European countries lost from 1.5% cessive floods and other harmful fluctu­ (Norway) to 4.3% (Netherlands)2. In erosion than the temperate zone, due to the topography of the land and the ations in streamflow. By thus reducing addition, close to one third of the the silt load of rivers, watershed forests world's arable land will be destroyed in nature of the soils and rainfalJ5. More than half of India, for example, suffers also help prevent the clogging of reser­ the next 20 years if current rates of voirs, irrigation systems, canals and land degradation continue 3. from someform of soil degradation: out of her total of 3.3 million km2, 1.4 mil­ docks, and the smothering by sediment 3. Soil is a crucial life-support system, lion km2 are subject to increased soil of coral reefs. since the bulk of all food production loss, while an additional 270,000 km2 7. Yet watershed forests are being depends on it. Soil erosion is a natural are being degraded by floods, salinity widely devastated-by clearance for and continuous process, but in undis­ and alkalinity6. An estimated 6,000 mil­ agriculture, by logging and cutting for turbed ecosystems with a protective lion tonnes of soil are lost every year fuel, by overgrazing, and by badly cover of plants the soil is usually regen­ from 800,000 km2 alone; with them go managed road building. The results can erated at the same rate it is removed 4. If more than 6 million tonnes ofnutrients­ be extremely expensive. It costs Argenti­ soil and vegetation are not in balance, as more than the amount that is applied in na $10 million a year to dredge silt from often they are not when influenced by the form of fertilizers 7. the estuary of the River Plate and keep

Notes and references developing countries. In: F AO. Soil conservation and manage­ Experts on Resistance of Pests to Pesticides. F AO Meeting 1. FAO. 1978. Thestateof/oodandagriculture /977. FAO, Rome. ment in developing countries: report of an expert consultation Report, PL/1965/18; FAQ. 1968. Report of third session of 2. All figures from: Organization for Economic Cooperation and held in Rome 22-26 November 1976. FAO Soils Bulletin, 33. FAO Working Party of Experts on Resistance of Pests to Pesti­ Development (OECD). 1979. The state of the environment: an cides. FAO Meeting Report, PL/1967/M/8; FAO. 1977. Report 6. Bali, Y.P., and J.S. Kanwar. 1977. Soil degradation in India. appraisal of economic conditions and trends in OECD coun­ of the first session of the FAO Panel of Experts on Pest Resis­ In: FAO. Assessing soil degradation: report of an FAO/UNEP tries. OECD.ENV/Min(79)1. tance to Pesticides and Crop Loss Assessment. FAO Plant consultation held in Rome, 18-20 January 1977. FAO Soils Bul­ Production and Protection Papers, 6. All cited by: UNEP. 1979. 3. Un~ted Nations. 1978. United Nations Conference on Desertifi­ letin, 34. c::~:;.~~~~1d-up,plan ofaction and resolu1fons. United Nations, The state of the environment: selected topics-1979. Report 7. Das, D.C. 1977. Soil conservation practices and erosion con­ of the Executive Director. UNEP/GC.7/4. 4. C~:mstantinesco, I. 1976. Soil conservation for developing coun­ trol in India-a case study. In: FAO So;/s Bulletin, 33 (see 9. Pereira, H.C. 1973. Land use and water resources in temperate tries. FA 0 Soils Bulletin, 30. ref. 5). and tropical climates. Cambridge University Press. 5. Hudson, N. W. 1977. Research needs for soil conservation in 8. FAO. 1967. Report of first session of FAO Working Party of 10. Sterling, C. 1976. Nepal. Al/antic Monthly, October 1976. Cited sses and life-support systellls

Buenos Aires open to shipping: yet 80% mountainous areas, but another 40% extremely important for coastal protec­ of the I 00 million tonnes of sediment that live in the adjacent plains 13; so the lives tion: without the activities of corals and every year threaten to block the harbour and livelihoods of half the world directly other reef-building organisms, for exam­ comes from only 4% of the drainage depend on the way in which watershed ple, more than 400 islands would not ex­ basin-the heavily overgrazed catch­ ecosystems are managed. ist 16. Similarly, many freshwater wet­ ment area of the Bermejo River 1,800 km lands and floodplains support important upstream9. In India the annual cost of 9. In areas under shifting cultivation inland fisheries, while floodplain agri­ damage by floods ranges from $140 mil­ forests also act to restore soil fertility. culture has long relied on the regular More than 200 million people occupying lion to $750 million 7, 10. supply of nutrients by floodwaters. about 30 million km2 of tropical forests 8. Sedimentation as a result of careless live by practising shifting cultivation­ 11. Wetlands, floodplains, seagrass use of watershed forests can cut drasti­ cropping an area for a few years, then beds and coral reefs are being destroyed cally the economic life of reservoirs, clearing another area, leaving the first the world over, with severe effects on the hydroelectric facilities and irrigation one fallow to revert to scrub and forest. economies that depend on them most systems. The capacity of India's Nizam­ The fallow period lasts from 8-12 years closely. For example, the cost of damage sagar reservoir has been more than in tropical rain forests to 20-30 years in to US marine fisheries caused by degra­ halved (from almost 900 million m3 to drier areas, and during this time the dation of coastal wetlands has been esti­ fewer than 340 million m3) and there is forest cover enables the soil to regener­ mated to be almost $86 million a yeari7. now not enough water to irrigate the ate. This is a stable, productive practice In Sri Lanka repeated removal of corals 1, 100 km2 of sugarcane and rice for if the population itself is stable; but if for the production oflime is so extensive which it was intended-and hence not populations are growing, which nowa­ that a local fishery has collapsed; man­ enough sugarcane to supply local sugar days they usually are, the pressure on groves, small lagoons and coconut factories 7. Deforestation in northern land increases, fallow periods shorten, groves have disappeared; and local wells Luzon in the Philippines has silted up the soil has no chance to regenerate, and have been contaminated with saltlS. In the reservoir of the Ambuklao Dam so wider and wider tracts of otherwise many parts of the world the construction fast that its useful life has been reduced productive forest land are destroyed. Al­ of dams has blocked the passage of mi­ from 60 to 32 years 11. Such problems most two-thirds of the land under shift­ grating fish and drowned or otherwise are not confined to developing coun­ ing cultivation is upland forest, much of destroyed the habitats of others; and al­ tries: for example, it has been estimated it on steep slopes, and the resulting ero­ though the new reservoir may support a that more than 1,000 million m3 of sion is severe I. In the Ivory Coast, shift­ new fishery this does not always compen­ sediment are deposited every year in the ing cultivation reduced the forest cover sate for the loss of the floodplain 19. The major reservoirs of the USA 12. Al­ by 30% between 1956 and 1966 and now habitats of many other aquatic animals though they have not been calculated only 50,000 km2 remain out of the also are threatened. For example, many (indeed, probably cannot be), the global 150,000 km2 that is believed to have ex­ sea turtle nesting beaches have been costs of sediment removal, river dredg­ isted at the beginning of this century 1. wrecked for roads, housing and other ing, reconstruction of irrigation systems Similarly, shifting cultivators clear developments; while the breeding areas and loss of investment in expensive about 3,500 km2 a year in the Philip­ of gray whales and belugas (or white structures like dams must be huge. Only pines-in Mindanao alone they cleared whales) are also at risk. 10% of the world's population live in 10,000 km2 between 1960 and 197114. 12. These are typical effects of the im­ pacts on coastal and freshwater ecosys­ Coastal and freshwater systems tems everywhere: impacts such as indus­ 10. Coastal wetlands and shallows­ trial and agricultural pollution; the con­ 364 especially estuaries and mangrove struction of dams; siltation from eroded swamps-provide food and shelter for uplands; filling to provide sites for in­

300 waterfowl and for fishes, crustaceans dustry, housing, recreation, airports and and molluscs utilized by an estimated farmland; dredging to create, deepen or two-thirds of the world's fisheries IS. improve harbours; quarrying; and cut­ 228

200 Some are among the world's most lucra­ ting of mangroves for fuel. As the com­ 182 tive fisheries, notably those for shrimp. mercially valuable fisheries for fish, crus­ Seagrass meadows also act as nurseries taceans and molluscs become more fully and nutrient suppliers for economically exploited, so the effects of habitat de­ 100 important fish species. Coral ecosystems struction and pollution-particularly on are of more local, but nonetheless vital, those species depending on coastal wet­ significance-providing habitats for the lands and shallows or on inland wet­ fish on which many coastal communities lands and floodplains for nutrients or in developing countries depend. In addi­ for spawning grounds and nurseries­ B. Number of pesticide-resistant species of insects and mites. Source: 8. tion, coastal wetlands and coral reefs are will become more evident.

by: Kunkle, S. H. and D.A. Harcharik. 1977. Conservation of 14. FAO. 1971. Environmental aspects of natural resources nomic impact of the effects of pollution on the coastal fisheries upland wildlands for downstream agriculture. In: F AO Soils management: forestry. Cited by: FAO, 1978 (see ref. 1). of the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions of the United States Bulletin. 33 (see ref. 5). 15. This figure is extrapolated from an analysis of the relationship of America. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 172. And: Hester, 11. US Agency for International Development. 1979. Em·ironmen­ between commercial fisheries and estuaries in the USA, by: Frank J. 1976. Economic aspects of the effects of pollution on ral and natural resources managemem in dereloping countries: a McHugh, J. L. 1966. Management of estuarine fisheries. In: A the marine and anadromous fisheries of the western United report to Congress. Volume J: Report. USAID, Department of symposium on estuarine fisheries. Special Publica1io11s of the States of America. F AO Fisheries Technical Paper, 162. State, Washington, DC. American Fisheries Societv, 3: 133-154. Locally, the proportion 18. Library of Congress, Science and Technology Division. 1978. 12. Holeman, N. 1968. The sediment yield of major rivers of the may be much higher (fof example, an estimated 97% in the Draft environmental report on Sri Lanka. Cited by: USAID. world. Water Resources Research, 4:737-747. Cited by: FAO. Gulf of Mexico) or lower. 1979 (see ref. I l_l. 16. Salvat, Bernard. 1979. Trouble in paradise. Part 2: coral reef 1978. The state offood and agriculture 1977. F AO, Rome. 19. Welcomme, R.L. 1975. The fisheries ecology of African flood­ parks and reserves. Parks, 4: 1-4. 13. FAO. 1978. Forestry for local community development. FAO plains. CIFA Technical Paper, 3. Committee for Inland Fish­ Forestry Paper. 7. 17. Total figure combined from: Kumpf, Herman E. 1977. Eco- eries of Africa. F AO.

© IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 3. Preservation of genetic diversity

l. The preservation of genetic diversity relatives. The continued existence of dangerous situation could be corrected is both a matter of insurance and in­ wild and primitive varieties of the (the diversity of crop varieties and rela­ vestment-necessary to sustain and im­ world's crop plants is humanity's chief tives) are being destroyed. Many wild prove agricultural, forestry and fisheries insurance against their destruction by and domesticated varieties of crop production, to keep open future options, the equivalents for .those crops of chest­ plants-such as wheat, rice, millet, as a buffer against harmful environmen­ nut blight and Dutch elm disease. This is beans, yams, tomatoes, potatoes, bana­ tal change, and as the raw material for not a remote .eventuality. It happened nas, limes and oranges-are already ex­ much scientific and industrial innova­ once with the European grape vine. In tinct and many more are in danger of tion-and a matter of moral principle. the 1860s Phylloxera, an insect which following them 5. lives on the roots of the vine, arrived in 5. Valuable but primitive or locally 2. The issue of moral principle relates Europe from North America. Its effect particularly to species extinction, and distributed varieties are to an extent vic­ was catastrophic. Almost every vineyard tims of their own utility, since the q uali­ may be stated as follows. Human beings on the continent was destroyed. Then it have become a major evolutionary ties of higher productivity and greater was discovered that the native American disease resistance that give the advanced force. While lacking the knowledge to vine is tolerant of Phylloxera. Europe's control the biosphere, we have the pow­ varieties such an advantage over them wine production was saved only by the are in large measure derived from them. er to change it radically. We are morally grafting of European vines onto Ameri­ obliged-to our descendants and tooth­ The rapid replacement of traditional can rootstocks-a practice that contin­ varieties by new ones is a necessary and er creatures-to act prudently. Since our ues today2. capacity to alter the course of evolution positive development given the need for does not make us any the less subject to 4. The prospects of similar disasters more food; but it could prove counter­ it, wisdom also dictates that we be pru­ striking other crops increase as farmers productive if the traditional varieties dent. We cannot predict what species rely on fewer varieties. Because of inten­ and their wild relatives are not saved as may become useful to us. Indeed we may sive selection for high performance and well. Primitive populations of crops and learn that many species that seem dis­ uniformity the genetic base of much their wild relatives are an important pensable are capable of providing im­ modern food production has grown source, and often the only source, of portant products, such as pharmaceuti­ dangerously narrow. Only four varieties pest and disease resistance worth many cals, or are vital parts of life-support sys­ of wheat produce 75% of the crop millions of dollars, of adaptations to dif­ tems on which we depend. For reasons grown on the Canadian prairies; and ficult environments and of other agro­ of ethics and self-interest, therefore, we more than half the prairie wheatlands nomically valuable characteristics such should not knowingly cause the extinc­ are devoted to a single variety (Neepa­ as the dwarf habit in rice and wheat, tion of a species. wa)3. Similarly, 72% of US potato pro­ which has revolutionized their cultiva­ duction depends on only four varieties, tion and led to greatly increased yields in Disappearing cultivars many parts of the world 6. 3. The genetic material contained in 6. Useful breeds of livestock are also at the domesticated varieties of crop risk. Of the 145 indigenous cattle breeds plants, trees, livestock, aquatic animals in Europe and the Mediterranean and microorganisms-as well as in their region, I 15 are threatened with extinc­ wild relatives-is essential for the breed­ tion 7. Yet, as with crops, many tradi­ ing programmes in which continued im­ tional strains are of great value for provements in yields, nutritional quali­ breeding purposes. The very rare Wens­ ty, flavour, durability, pest and disease Loss of crop genetic diversity. Percentage of primitive culti­ leydale sheep has been used to produce a resistance, responsiveness to different vars in Greek wheat crop. The decline is typical of most crops in most countries. Source: 5. heat tolerant breed able to produce good soils and climates, and other qualities quality wool in subtropical lands; and are achieved. These qualities are rarely if and just two varieties supply US pea the Cornish hen, once of interest only to ever permanent. For example, the aver­ production. Almost every coffee tree in poultry fanciers, proved so useful for age lifetime of wheat and other cereal Brazil descends from a single plant, crossing with other strains to produce a varieties in Europe and North America and the entire US soybean industry is quick-growing meat bird that it is effec­ is only 5-15 years I. This is because pests derived from a mere six plants from one tively the basis of the broiler industry 8. and diseases evolve new strains and place in Asia 4. These and other crops in overcome resistance; climates alter; a similar position are extremely vulner­ Resources for health soils vary; corisumer demands change. able to outbreaks of pests and diseases 7. Although only a minute proportion Farmers and other crop-producers, and to sudden unfavourable changes of the world's plants and animals have therefore, cannot do without the reser­ in growing conditions. Unfortunately, been investigated for their value as med­ voir of still-evolving possibilities avail­ while the genetic base of the world's icines and other pharmaceutical prod­ able in the range of varieties of crops, crops and other living resources is nar­ ucts, modern medicine depends heavily domesticated animals, and their wild rowing rapidly, the means by which this on them. According to one analysis,

Notes and references 5. Frankel. 0.H. (editor). 1973. Surrey of crop genetic re.1·011rces in and conservation of nature, wildlife and genetic resources. I. No internati?nal study has been made to support this state­ their centres of diversi1y: first repon. FA011BP. Additional UNEP/Prog./4. ment: but this seems to be an acceptable estimate. reports in Pla111 Genetic Resources Nell'sleller. 9. Farnsworth, Norman R., and Ralph W. Morris. 1976. Higher 2. ~Imo, H.P. 1976. Grapes. In: N. W. Simmonds (editor). Evolu­ 6. International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR). plants: the sleeping giant of drug development. American Jour­ t10n of crop plants. Longman, London and New York. 1975. The conservation of crop genetic resources. IBPGR, nal of Pharmacy, 146:46-52. FAO, Rome. 3. ~ h~~~~~~rbidii8. Sowing the seeds of suspicion. Maclean's, 10. Hansel, Rudolf. 1972. Medicinal plants and empirical drug 8 7. FAO/UNEP, 1975. Pilot study on conservation of animal genetic research. In: Tony Swain (editor). Plants in the development of 4. Harlan, Jack R. 1972. Genetic disaster. Journal of EiH'iron­ resources. F AO, Rome. modern medicine. Harvard University Press. mental Quality, I :212-215. 8. UNEP. 1976. Overviews in the priority subject areas, oceans 11. United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNI- more than 40% of the prescriptions each species and their habitats is thus one of mg, so too are many species of wild year in the USA contain a drug of the preconditions for maintaining indig­ plants and animals. An estimated natural origin-either from higher enous pharmaceutical industries. 25,000 plant species 16 and more than a plants (25%) or microbes (13%) or from 9. The history of human use of plant thousand vertebrate species and subspe­ animals (3%)-as sole active ingredient and animal species demonstrates that cies 17 are threatened with extinction. or as one of the main ones 9. In the USA vanishing and apparently insignificant These figures do not take account of the alone the value of medicines just from species can suddenly become useful, inevitable losses of small animal spe­ higher plants is reported to be about even important. The "pescado blanco" cies-particularly invertebrates like $3,000 million a year and rising9. The Chirostoma estor, a fish which in the molluscs, insects and corals-whose most important applications of higher wild occurs in a single Mexican lake, habitats are being destroyed. Indeed es­ plants and animals for medicine are 10: was until recently in danger of extinction timates that do attempt to take this fac­ as constituents used directly as thera­ as a result of overfishing, habitat degra­ tor into account suggest that from half a peutic agents-for example, digitoxin, dation, and predation and competition million to a million species wilf have been made extinct by the end of this cen­ morphine, and atropine, which are by introduced species 12. Now, as a still unsurpassed in their respective result of good management and artificial tury 18. If these species disappeared, the fields; propagation, the fish is being stocked in loss to humanity could be irreparable. several reservoirs and dams and a The most serious threat is habitat des­ as starting materials for drug synthe­ truction 16, 19, which includes: replace­ 15 hectare farm is under construction 13. sis-for example, adrenal cortex and ment of the entire habitat by settle­ other steroid hormones, which are Many species-for example the armadil­ lo and the polar bear-unexpectedly ments, harbours and other human con­ normally synthesized from plant structions, by cropland, grazing land steroidal sapogenins; have been found useful for scientific research, whether as experimental and plantations, and by mines and quar­ as models for drug synthesis-for ex­ material or as the providers of clues to ries; the effects of dams (blocking of ample, cocaine, which led to the de­ technical innovations. Armadillos are spawning migrations, drowning of habi­ velopment of modern local anesthet­ the only animals other than human be­ tat, alteration of chemical or thermal ics. This application should not be ings known to contract leprosy. They conditions); drainage, channelization underestimated. As one authority are now proving to be invaluable aids in and flood control; chemical nutrient comments: "without naturally occur­ the search for a cure for this diseasel4. and solid waste pollution (domestic, ring active principles, it seems prob­ The recent discovery that polar bear agricultural, industrial, mining); overex­ able that neither the principle nor the hairs are exceptionally efficient heat ab­ traction of water (for domestic, agricul­ activity would otherwise have been sorbers has provided researchers with a tural and industrial purposes); removal discovered. Put yourself in the place of clue that may help them design and pro­ of materials (such as vegetation, gravel a chemist who would like to develop duce materials for the manufacture of and stones) for timber, fuel, c:onstruc­ a remedy for cardiac insufficiency; better cold-weather clothing and solar tion and so on; dredging and dumping; methods currently available would overgrazing; and erosion and siltation. energy collectors 15. not lead him to synthesize a digitoxin­ like molecule without knowledge of 10. Preservation of genetic diversity is the natural prototype" lo. thus necessary both to secure supplies of 12. The two other most serious threats food, fibre, and certain drugs, and to ad­ to species are overexploitation (see fol­ 8. Paradoxically, a country's depen­ vance scientific and industrial innova­ lowing section) and the effects of intro­ dence. on its own diminishing store of tion. It is also necessary to ensure that duced exotic species. Exotic species, genetic diversity-as well as on that of the loss of species does not impair the which may be introduced deliberately or other countries-is likely to grow as the effective functioning of ecological inadvertently, can have adverse effects country develops. Several developing processes. It is unlikely that the particu­ on native species in one or more of the countries, for example, are currently set­ lar communities of plants, animals and following ways: competition for space ting up their own pharmaceutical indus­ microorganisms that make up. the eco­ or food; predation; habitat destruction tries in order to supply their peoples systems associated with so many essen­ or degradation; and transmission of with essential drugs at an acceptable tial processes-particularly pollination diseases and parasites. The native spe­ cost. As a service to this effort a UN and naturally occurring pest control­ cies of fresh waters and of islands are workshop recently compiled a basic list can readily be substituted by other com­ particularly vulnerable to the harmful of medicinal plants found in Africa, munities. The genetic composition of effects of introduced species. For exam­ Asia and Latin America whose active such ecosystems may be crucial for their ple, introduced trout and bass are principles are used in modern medicine. performance. threatening many species of fishes in the More than 40 of the 90 species listed are USA; and introduced goats and rabbits available only from the wild; and anoth­ Threats to wild species are destroying the habitats of plants, er 20, though cultivated, are also taken 11. Just as many varieties of domesti­ birds and reptiles in the islands of the from the wild 11. Preservation of these cated plants and animals are disappear- Pacific and Indian Ocean.

DO). 1978. Report of the Technical Consultation on Produc­ Aquaculture development in Mexico: report of a review mis­ 17. IUCN. 1975. Red Data Book (separate, frequently supplement­ tion of drugs from Medicinal Plants in Developing Countries, sion 1978. ADCP/MR/79/4. UNDP/FAO. ed or revised volumes, on fishes, amphibians and reptiles, birds, Lucknow, India, 13-20 March 1978. ID/222 (ID/WG.271/6). and mammals). IUCN, Gland. UNIDO, Vienna. 14. Storrs, Eleanor E. 1971. The nine-banded armadillo: a model for leprosy and other biomedical research. International Journal 12. Rosas, Mateo. 1970. Pescado blanco (Chirostorna estor): su of Leprosy, 39:703-714. · 18. See, for example: Myers, Norman. 1979. The sinking ark. Per­ gamon Press, Oxford. fomento y cultivo en Mtxico. Institute nacional de investiga­ 15. Furry funnels: are polar bears really white? Time, 4 December ciones biol6gico pesqueras/Comisi6n nacional Consultiva de 1978. Pesca. Mfxico. 19. Allen, Robert, and Christine Prescott-Allen. 1978. Threatened 16. Lucas, Gren, and Hugh Synge. 1978. The IUCN plant red data vertebrates (second draft). General Assembly Paper GA.78/10 13. Aquaculture development and coordination programme. 1979. book. IUCN, Gland. Add.6. IUCN.

ll IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 4. Sustainable utilization of species and ecos

1. The necessity of ensuring that util­ (see map 5 in the map section for the 5. As well as depleting many fish and a ization of an ecosystem or species is sus­ main seafood exporting countries). few mollusc stocks, overfishing has al­ tainable varies with a society's depen­ most extinguished entire species of dence on the resource in question. For a 3. Because much utilization of fisheries whales, sea cows and sea turtles. Many subsistence society, sustainable utiliza­ is not sustainable, their contribution to aquatic animal groups are also under tion of most, if not all, its living national diets and incomes is likely to pressure because of accidental overex­ resources is essential. So it is for a soci­ diminish. The result of past and present ploitation or "incidental take". The inci­ ety (whether developing or developed) overfishing is that the annual world dental capture and killing of non-target with a "one crop" or "few crop" econo­ marine catch is 15-20 million tonnes (or animals in the course of hunting or fish­ my, depending largely on a particular about 20%-24%) lower than it might ing for other species is one of the more living resource (for example, the fishing otherwise have been 3, and at least 25 of destructive yet neglected problems of communities of eastern Canada). The the world's most valuable fisheries are aquatic living resource management. It greater the diversity and flexibility of the seriously depleted 4. The consequences of is not only highly wasteful, destroying economy, the less the need to utilize cer­ such overexploitation can be illustrated an estimated 7 million tonnes of fish tain resources sustainably-but by the from the northwest Atlantic, where due every year, it also threatens the survival same token the less the excuse not to. to overfishing in the late 1960s cod of several sea turtle species, notably the Sustainable utilization is also necessary catches are still only a third of their esti­ Kemp's ridley turtle which has been for the rational planning and manage­ mated potential. The drops in cod, her­ reduced almost to extinction. A million ment of industries dependent on the ring and haddock catches (all caused by seabirds are killed accidentally in nets resources concerned (for example, tim­ overfishing) could not be compensated every year; and more cetaceans, notably ber, fish). Sustainable utilization is some­ by increased catches of capelin and dolphins and porpoises, are taken incid­ what analogous to spending the interest mackerel; and the total catch of the entally than deliberately 5. while keeping the capital. A society that fishery as a whole has declined from insists that all utilization of living 4.3 million tonnes in 1970 to 3.5 million Wild plants and animals of the land resources be sustainable ensures that it tonnes in 19764. It can no longer be as­ 6. Wildlife is an important subsistence will benefit from those resources virtual­ sumed that depleted stocks will recover resource in developing countries and an ly indefinitely. Unfortunately, most util­ to their full potential, because: the important recreational resource in both ization of aquatic animals, of the wild spawning fishes and juveniles may con­ developed and developing countries. plants and animals of the land, of forests tinue to be caught by industrial fisheries Many wild plants and animals of the and of grazing lands is not sustainable. (which take fish for conversion to animal land are an important renewable feed); ecosystem dynamics can change resource and source of food, particularly Aquatic animals and another species may take over for rural communities in developing because the depleted species can no countries. In parts of Ghana, Zaire and 2. On average, fish and other aquatic longer compete effectively with it; and other countries in west and central Afri­ animals account for 6% of the total pro­ habitats essential for spawning or as ca, for example, up to three-quarters of tein and 17% of the animal protein in nurseries may be degraded or destroyed. the animal protein comes from wild ani­ 1. the human diet If this seems small, it mals 6, 7. The nutritional importance of should be remembered that on a world 4. Overfishing is the main threat to wild animals and plants for large num­ basis most (65%) protein comes from· marine living resources and a significant bers of people is invariably underesti­ plants-chiefly cereals, beans and peas, threat to freshwater ones. It occurs mated (and often ignored), largely nuts and oilseeds. Meat accounts for locally in all regions, but it is generally because many of the more frequently 16% and milk products for 9.5% of the most pronounced in regions dominated eaten plants and animals (for example, average total protein intake 1. These av­ by developed countries. Five of the eight vetches and porcupines) seldom feature erages conceal substantial differences regions with most stocks that are in the diets of nutritionists and are between and within countries. Thirty­ depleted are developed (northwest At­ harvested in areas far from the scrutiny two countries get 34% or more of their lantic, northeast Atlantic, Mediter­ of statisticians. This is unfortunate, for animal protein from seafood, and an­ ranean, northwest Pacific, northeast were the true nutritional value and the other 11 countries consume double the Pacific). Of the remaining three, two use made of wild plants and animals ap­ world average for seafood consump­ (eastern central Atlantic and southeast preciated by governments they might be tion l (see map 5 in the map section for Atlantic) are dominated by developed more ready to encourage these resources the main seafood consuming countries). country fishing fleets: France, Japan, to be managed sustainably and to take Aquatic animals are also important for Poland, Spain, USSR, South Africa­ steps to retain their habitats. trade. There are no world figures for with. Cuba and the Republic of Korea domestic trade, but it is clear from ex­ operating the only major developing 7. Wild animals and plants also pro­ port values alone that trade in seafood country fleets. The only developing vide a significant, and sometimes the is both substantial and growing fast. In region dominated by developing coun­ only, source of income for rural com­ 1978 exports of fish and fishery products try fleets is the southeast Pacific, where munities. In Canada, for example, the reached $10.8 thousand million, an in­ most of the fishing is done by Peru and wild fur trade helps support 40,000 trap­ crease of 15% over the previous year2 Chile4. pers, who in the 1975-1976 season

;\/otes and references 3. Estimate derived by subtracting the current catches from. major 19-26 April 1977. COFI/77/5. And: FAO. 1978. Review of the depleted stocks from the estimated potential catches. Source: state of world fishery resources. Committee on Fisheries. l. F AO. 1977. Provisional food balance sheets, 1972-1974 average. Twelfth Session. Rome, J2.J6 June 1978. COFI/78/Inf.4. FAO, Rome. FAO. I 979. Review of the state of world fishery resources. Com­ mittee on Fisheries. Thirteenth Session, Rome, 8-12 October 5. Allen, Robert and Christine Prescott-Allen. 1978. Threatened 2. The increase is partly due to inflation. Source: FAQ. 1979. 1979. COFI/79/lnf.4. vertebrates (second draft). General Assembly Paper GA. 78/10. Fishe:y co_mrnodity situation and outlook 1978/79. Committee Add. 6. IUCN. on F1shenes. Thirteenth Session, Rome 8-12 October 1979. 4. FA0.1976. Reviewofthestateofexploitation of th' 6. Asibey, Emmanuel 0. A. 1974. Wildlife as a source of protein in COFI/79/lnf.5. • resources. Committee on Fisheries. Eleventh Sessi Africa south of the Sahara. Biological Conservalion, 6: 32-39. ystenis

caught $25 million worth of pelts, most­ hikers 11. For a great many people, too, be as high as 25% 14. Consequently ly from beaver, muskrat, lynx, seal, wildlife is of great symbolic, ritual and many families are forced to do mink and fox. By comparison, in the cultural importance, enriching their lives without16. same season, farms produced $17 mil­ emotionally and spiritually. Grazing lands lion worth of furs, 99% being minks. Forests and woodlands World trade in wildlife and wildlife 12. Permanent pastures (land used for products has become big business: in 10. Forests and woodlands provide a 5 years or more for herbaceous forage 1975 the USA alone imported more than rich variety of goods, useful to affluent crops, whether cultivated or wild) are $1,000 million of wildlife products9. industrial and poor rural communities the most extensive land-use type in the alike: timber, sawnwood and panels for world-occupying 30 million km2, or 8. International trade has become a construction, walls, doors, shuttering 23% of the earth's land surface14. Per­ threat to many species as well-organized and furniture; pulpwood for pulp, pa­ manent pastures and other grazing land commercial enterprises attempt to sup­ per, cartons and rayon; poles, posts, are generally in areas oflow and irregular ply a vastly expanded market (mainly in­ mining timbers and railway track sleep­ rainfall and are usually unsuitable for dustrialized countries) with increasingly ers; fuel wood; fodder, fruits, game crops without intensive capital invest­ scarce "commodities" taken from the meat, honey, pharmaceuticals, fibres, ment. Their productivity is generally wild (mainly in developing countries): resins, gums, dyes, skins, waxes and oils; low, ranging from 1 hectare supporting hides and skins for the luxury fur and beauty, amenity and recreation. Forests 3-5 animal units on fertile, well­ leather industry; exotic meat and fish have unquestioned importance for in­ managed pastures in central Europe to for luxury food; a wide range of other dustry and commerce. The value of the 50-60 hectares to support 1 animal unit animal and plant products for phar- annual world production of forest prod­ in Saudi Arabia. Nonetheless, grazing . maceuticals, perfumes, cosmetics, ucts exceeds $115,500 million, and inter­ lands and forage support most of the aphrodisiacs, decoration, souvenirs or national trade is worth about $40,000 world's 3,000 million head of domesti­ investment; specimens for natural his­ million a year12. Thirty countries (eight cated grazing animals, and hence most tory museums; of them developing countries) each earn of the world's production of meat and live plants for horticulture; live ani­ more than $100 million a year from ex­ milk14. mals for the pet trade, zoos and ports of forest products-and five of menageries, aquaria and other collec­ these each earn more than $1,000 mil­ tions; and for the testing of new lion a year 13. chemical products and for biomedical 11. In developing countries the heav­ research. · iest demand on forests and woodlands Most of the trade is openly advertised, is for fue) and as a site for shifting_ culti­ but a significant part of it takes place il­ vation. More than 1,500 million people legally, often through channels and by in developing countries depend on wood methods not unlike those of the drug for cooking and keeping warm. Their traffic. The impact of this trade on many annual consumption of wood is estimat­ species and ecosystems is now serious. ed to be more than 1,000 million m3, For example, overexploitation threatens well over 80% of developing countries' total wood use (excluding exports) 14. In The reality behind a statistic: women in Mali carrying fuel. almost 40% of all vertebrate species in Photo: Franco Mattioli/Unasylva. danger of extinction, and is the most Africa the contribution of trees to total serious of the threats faced by reptiles s. energy use is as high as 58%; in South­ 13. Unfortunately, mismanagement of Because of the difficulty of securing sup­ east Asia and Latin America it is 42 % grazing lands is widespread. Overstock­ plies, world trade in crocodilian hides and 20% respectively 14. The effect of ing has severely degraded grazing lands has dropped from an estimated 10 mil­ such intense· demand is to denude the in Africa's Sahelian and Sudanian zones. lion hides to 2 million 9. land of wood over wide areas. Around In parts of North Africa, the Mediter­ one fishing centre in the Sahel region of ranean and the Near East, it is a major 9. Finally, wildlife is a major resource Africa, where the drying of 40,000 tonnes contributor to desertification14. In many base for recreation and tourism. Tour­ of fish consumes 130,000 tonnes of wood areas farmers are moving onto land that ism, largely based on wildlife, is among every year, deforestation extends as far is marginal for agriculture, thereby dis­ Kenya's top three foreign exchange earn­ away as 100 kmlS. Fuelwood is now so placing pastoralists onto land that is ers. In Canada I 1 % of the population scarce in the Gambia that gathering it marginal for livestock rearing. Over­ hold hunting licences; in the USA 8% takes 360 woman days a year per fami­ stocking together with uncontrolled hold hunting licences and 13% hold fish­ ly 16. Even when firewood is available for grazing is also a serious problem in ing licences; and in Sweden from 12% to sale, it is often beyond the budgets of mountain areas, such as the Himalaya 18 % hold fishing licences 10. Many more poor householders. In the highlands of and the Andes. There, too many improp­ people enjoy simply looking at wildlife: the Republic of Korea cooking and erly tended animals remove both trees in the USA there are about 7 million heating can cost up to 15% of the house­ and grass cover-which is often very birdwatchers, 4.5 million wildlife photog­ hold budget; and in the poorer parts of poor, both as forage and for soil protec­ raphers, and almost 27 million nature the Andean Sierra and the Sahel it can tion-and erosion accelerates14.

7. de Vos. Antoon. 1977. Game as food. Unasrfra. 29:2-12. 10. OECD. 1979. The•state of the environment: an appraisal of 13. FAO. 1977. FAO trade rearbook. 1976. (Vol. 30). FAQ, Rome. economic conditions and trends in OECD countries. OECD. 8. The New Canadian Oxford Atlas. 1977. Oxford University Press ENV/Min(79)1. 14. FAO. 1978. Thesrateoffoodandagrirnlture 19-77. FAO, Rome. (Canada). I I. Allen, Durward l. 1978. The enjoyment of wildlife. In Wildlife 15. F AO. 1971. Em·ironmental aspects t?f natural resources manage~ 9. King, F. Wayne. 1978. The wildlife trade. In: Howard P. in America (see ref. 9). menr:forestry. Cited by: FAO. 1978. (see ref. 14). Brokaw (editor). Wildlife in America. Council on Environmental Quality, US Fish and Wildlife Service. Forest Service, National 12. World Bank. 1978. Forestrr. sector policy paper. World Bank, 16. FAO. 1978. Forestry for local community development. FAO · Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, DC. Washington, DC. · Forestry Paper. 7.

ltl IUCN- UNEP- WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 5. Priority requirenients: ecological process

1. Reserve good cropland for crops. In thoroughly assessed, therefore, before contribution of crop pollinators and of view of the scarcity of high quality ar­ conversion is permitted. the natural enemies of pests to integrat­ able land and the rising demand for food ed pest control, the habitats necessary and other agricultural products, land for the organisms concerned should as that is most suitable for crops should be A general note on priority far as possible be retained. In intensive reserved for agriculture. This will reduce requirements (sections 5-7) production systems where the habitats the pressure on ecologically fragile mar­ Sections 5-7 set out the priority of the required organisms are too few to ginal lands which tend to degrade rapid­ requirements for achieving each of maintain them in adequate numbers, the ly if exploited beyond their productive the objectives of conservation, indi­ organisms should be propagated artifi­ capacities. However, this requirement cate some of the likely conflicts be­ cially. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides may conflict with urban, industrial, tween those requirements and also will still be needed, but they should be energy or transport policy. There are with other policy objectives, and pro­ used with care and should supplement many examples of prime farmland vide broad guidance on avoiding or rather than supplant good nutrient, soil drowned by dams or lost to airports, resolving such conflicts. and pest management practices. roads, factories or housing. Without Three criteria have been adopted for 4. Many tropical soils quickly lose careful planning and zoning, human set­ deciding whether a requirement is a tlements sited in farming areas are their fertility. Traditional systems of priority: significance; urgency; irre­ shifting cultivation restored fertility by bound to encroach on farmland as they versibility. expand. Such conflict should be antici­ leaving the land fallow for long periods, pated and where possible avoided. Since Significance is determined by asking but fertilizers are indispensable for con­ it is not possible to resite high quality such questions as: tinuous cropping. Manufactured fertiliz­ cropland but it is possible to be flexible how important is this requirement ers are beyond the means of many devel­ about the siting of buildings, roads and in relation to others for achieving oping country farmers because of their other structures, agriculture as a general the objective concerned? high cost, lOw prices for farm products, rule should have precedence. what proportions of the global, shortage of credit and a lack of fertilizer regional, national population de­ supplies. Since chemical fertilizers are 2. The requirement to reserve good pend on this requirement being derived from petroleum their cost is like­ cropland for crops may also conflict met? ly to continue to rise sharply with the with other conservation needs. There are growing cost of oil. The estimated unmodified ecosystems with great agri­ how important. is the requirement to the people most affected? 113 million tonnes of plant nutrients that cultural potential which should be pro­ are potentially available to developing tected to preserve genetic diversity and how much of a particular resource countries from human and livestock as a control area for baseline monitoring will be conserved ifthe requirement wastes and from crop residues should as and scientific research. Again, agricul­ is met? far as possible be used to fertilize the ture generally should have precedence, Urgency is a function of the rate at land 1. Properly managed, organic but only in the case of land with no which a significant problem will get wastes could help substantially to in­ serious limitation for agriculture, since worse if the requirement is not met crease agricultural production, restore such land is at a premium especially in and of the time required to meet that and maintain land in good condition, developing countries. In countries where requirement. and reduce aquatic pollution. In many land "most suitable" for agriculture Irreversibility is the key criterion: areas, even when inorganic fertilizers are nonetheless has moderately severe limi­ highest priority is given to significant, readily available, they should be used tations for agriculture, it is necessary to urgent requirements to prevent fur­ only in combination with organic ferti­ protect some areas as controls so that ther irreversible damage to living lizers. For example, the dominant kaoli­ the long term effects of agricultural and resources-notably the extinction of nitic clay soils of the humid tropics have other activities on such land can be as­ species, the extinction of varieties of low absorption capacity, and chemical sessed. Floodplains and wetlands are useful plants and animals, the loss of fertilizers need to be combined with or­ special cases. When drained or protected essential life-support systems, and ganic manures to be fully effective2. The from inundation they can provide pro­ severe soil degradation. use of organic wastes as plant nutrients ductive agricultural land. However, such and soil restorers can be combined with conversion may deprive important fish­ the production of biogas (methane). eries of essential support and may also 3. Manage cropland to high, ecological­ This process eases the problems of stor­ lead to the loss of other valued living ly sound standards. This requires soil and ing and delivering organic wastes, resources. Where floodplain agriculture water conservation, the recycling of reduces the loss of organic matter is practised the losses of agricultural nutrients, and retention of the habitats through decomposition, and provides production and of fisheries may not be of organisms beneficial to agriculture. gas for domestic uses. compensated by production from the To avoid aquatic pollution and to con­ irrigated agriculture that generally serve inorganic fertilizers, crop residues 5. If land is eroding so rapidly that it replaces them. The social, economic and and livestock wastes should, as far as must be retired, there is seldom any alter­ ecological costs and benefits of convert­ possible, be returned to the land. To native to the generally difficult tasks of ing floodplains and wetlands need to be maintain and promote the beneficial resettling the farmers concerned else-

Notes and references Materials as Fertilizers in December 1974. Cited by: Constan· Dasmann, Raymond F., and Duncan Poore. 1979. Ecological guide­ I. FAO. 1978. The state offood and agriculture 1977. FAO, Rome. tinesco, r. 1976. Soil conservation for developing countries. FAO lines for balanced land use, conservation and development in high Soils Bulletin. 30. mountains. IUCN. Gland. 2. Agbool.a, A.A., 0.0. Obigbesan and A.A.A. Fayemi. 1974. In· terrelat1onsh1ps between organic and mineral fertilizers. Paper Further reading FAO. 1977. Guidelines for watershed management. FAO Consenia­ presented at the F AO/SIDA Expert Consultation on Organic Constantinesco, I. 1976. Soil conserv~tion for developing coun­ tion Guide, I. tries. FAO Soils Bulletin, 30. es and life-support systellls

where or of absorbing them into other er be cleared. In other areas, uses com­ management goals for coral ecosystems sectors of the economy. Situations patible with watershed protection may and active floodplains (where they are where land retirement is the only solu­ be permitted provided the government is important for fisheries) should be main­ tidii can be avoided by promoting sys­ able to ensure that the primary manage­ tenance of the fisheries concerned. Fish­ tems of production adapted to ecologi­ ment goal is respected. For example, ing at sustainable levels using non­ cal conditions in which modern technol­ protective forest may be converted to a destructive methods (not, for example, ogy and techniques are integrated with tree crop (either for timber or for some dynamite) is of course compatible with traditional systems of resource manage­ other product, such as a tea plantation), this goal, and so too are recreation and ment. This is particularly important for if great attention is paid to hydrological tourism at sustainable levels. An addi­ communities whose shifting cultivation control. This demands high capital in­ tional major goal of coral reef manage­ practices have become unstable because put, professional skill and great con­ ment will often be the preservation of the rising population demands more in­ scientiousness. If the regulatory authori­ genetic diversity. The management of tensive production than the soil can sup-· ty feels any of these requirements is lack­ active floodplains is likely to be compli­ port without considerable improvement. ing, the forest should not be altered. cated by many competing uses which The techniques and inputs of sustainable Where watershed forests have already may be as or more important than fish­ permanent cropping-such as chemical been severely reduced, and siltation and eries: for example, agriculture and live­ fertilizers, improved seed, and soil con­ flooding have increased, efforts should stock raising. However such uses need servation measures-are usually beyond be made to restore the ecosystem by not be incompatible. the economic means of poor farmers. reforestation rather than to resort to But it is possible to shorten the fallow channelization or impoundment. Some­ 8. Control the discharge of pollutants. period of shifting cultivation gradually times, however, a government will have The discharge of pollutants and use of through mixed cropping practices, the little room for manoeuvre-as when a pesticides and other toxic substances limited use of inorganic fertilizers, and watershed forest is already being con­ should be controlled. Care should be recycling 0rganic materials. It is also verted to agriculture by local commu­ taken to avoid contamination of the possible to improve the efficiency of the nities. Reforestation and other land habitats of threatened, unique or eco­ fallow period by replacing natural cover rehabilitation measures, matched by nomically important species. Special at-

2. 5.

1.

Effects of poor watershed management Overgrazing, deforestation, misplaced cultivation, or carelessly built roads in the upper catchment area (1) can have devastating effects downstream. These can include: gullying and floods leading to destruction of farmland and villages (2); drops in flow during the dry season and consequent loss of crops (3); and siltation of irrigation systems and reservoirs (4), docks and canals (5) and coral reefs (6), leading to loss of water supply and hydroelectric power, costly dredging, and damage to fisheries.

with cover crops which can be used eco­ conservation-based rural development tention should be paid to substances nomically-such as pasture for livestock and intensification of production from that are highly toxic, or are released in in mixed agri-pll:storal systems, or tree better land, will then be needed. large quantities, or persist in the envi­ crops in mixed agri-silvicultural systems. ronment and accumulate in living or­ 7. Ensure that the principal manage­ ganisms. The impacts of such substances 6. Ensure that the principal manage­ ment goal for estuaries, mangrove on ecosystems and species should be ment goal for watershed forests and pas­ swamps and other coastal wetlands and monitored, regularly evaluated, and tures is protection of the watershed. This shallows critical for fisheries is the main­ reduced to levels that can be tolerated by is particularly important in the upper tenance of the processes on which the fish­ the ecosystems and species concerned. catchment areas where rivers originate eries depend. Other uses of these eco­ Since the effects on ecosystems and spe­ and where often rainfall is greatest. Es­ systems should not impair their capacity cies of the thousands of chemicals that pecially fragile or critical areas, notably to provide food and critical habitat enter the environment are largely un­ steep slopes with erodible soils and the for economically and culturally im­ known, general surveillance of the envi­ source areas of major rivers should nev- portant marine species. Similarly, major ronment should be undertaken.

McEachern, John, and Edward L. Towle. 1974. Ecological guide­ Ray, G. Carleton. 1976, Critical marine habitats: definition, de­ lines for island development. IUCN, Gland. scription. criteria and guidelines for identification 'and manage­ Odum, William E. 1976. Ecological guidelines for tropical coastal ment. In: IUCN. An internalional conference on marine parks and development. IUCN, Gland. resenes. Papers and proceedings of an international conference Poore, Duncan. 1976. Ecological guidelines for development in tropi­ held.at Tokyo, Japan, 12-14 May 1975. IUCN. Gland. cal ra;,1forests. IUCN, Gland.

C IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 6. Priority requirelllents: genetic diversity

I. Prevent the extinction of species. agement (see figure B). Such manage­ served by protecting the ecosystem in Priority should be given to species that ment should include protection from which it occurs naturally; are endangered throughout their range threats other than habitat destruction offsite,part ofthe organism-in which and to species that are the sole represent­ or degradation, notably overexploita­ the seed, semen or other element atives of their family or genus, accord­ tion (both deliberate and incidental) from which the organism concerned ing to the following formulation: the and the effects of introduced exotic can be reproduced is preserved; greater the potential genetic loss I the species. These measures may be assisted less imminent that loss need be to justify by participation in international pro­ off site, whole organism-in which a preventive action. The formulation is il­ grammes for the prevention of species stock of individuals of the organism lustrated in figure A. extinction4. Where an introduced exotic concerned is kept outside its natural habitat in a plantation, botanical gar­ ------imminence of loss den, zoo, aquarium, ranch or culture collection. Rare Vulnerable Endangered Of the three, the preferred measure is on Family site preservation. However, this is not sizet possible for domesticated species; and of Genus even wild species should be preserved off loss site as a safeguard against any failure in Species on site preservation.

~ highest priority 6. Off site preservation involves the following steps: exploration of the re­ ~ intermediate priority maining diversity of the target species; c::J lower priority collection, giving priority to materials 1 - 9 suggested order of priority likely to be lost if nothing were done; A. Formulation for determining priority threatened species. preservation in storage (part of the or­ ganism) or maintenance in a plantation, 2. Families and genera that are mono­ species is having adverse effects on culture collection, and so on (whole typic (consist of only one species) should native species, the introduced species organism); documentation, requiring the receive priority over polytypic ones, should be eliminated if possible. Given systematic description of collected ma­ since-theoretically-the smaller the the extreme difficulty of eliminating in­ terials (especially their place of origin family (or genus) the greater the gap be­ troduced species, however, every effort and their taxonomic and morphological tween the nearest related family (or should be made to prevent all introduc­ features) and the recording, organiza­ genus)2 and therefore the more distinct tions except those which, before the tion and retrieval of this information; that group of species is from others. introduction is made, can be shown to evaluation of agronomic qualities (such Other things being equal, an endangered provide economic, social and ecological as yield potential, cooking and nutri­ species should be given priority over a benefits substantially greater than any tional qualities), biotic qualities (such as vulnerable one; a vulnerable over a rare costs, and over which adequate control pest and disease resistance), and eco­ one; and a rare species over one that can be exercised. A proposed introduc­ edaphic qualities (such as drought re­ even if it is declining is considered insuf­ tion should be the subject of an environ­ sistance, temperature tolerance, respon­ ficiently threatened to qualify for one of mental assessment, including a full en­ siveness to different soil conditions); the three categories 3. Imminence of quiry into the likely and possible eco­ and utilization, combining genes from threat, however, is partly a matter of the logical effects. various sources into improved strains or state of knowledge of a species. Species varieties. not known to be threatened but with 4. Preserve as many varieties as pos­ highly restricted distributions should sible of crop plants, forage plants, timber 7. Special attention should be paid to therefore be closely monitored-with trees, livestock, animals for aquaculture, the preservation of genetic material for particular attention being paid to higher microbes and other domesticated organ­ forestry and for aquaculture. If forestry . taxa (families and genera). isms and their wild relatives. Priority and fisheries are to make as complete a should be given to those varieties that transition to domestication as crop pro­ 3. Prevention of extinction requires are most threatened and are most duction has done, the genetic base of sound planning, allocation and manage­ needed for national and international the two industries must be preserved. ment of land and water uses, supported breeding programmes. This requires This requires accelerated programmes of by on site (in situ) preservation in pro­ both off site and on site preservation off site preservation in protected areas tected areas and off site (ex situ) protec­ and may be assisted by participation in (see section 17), coupled with invento­ tion such as in zoos and botanical gar­ international programmes for the pres­ ries of existing protected areas, docu­ dens. Protected areas can preserve more ervation of genetic resources 5. menting, evaluating and utilizing the wild species, subspecies and varieties materials within them. Microorganisms than can off site protection; but to be 5. There are three ways of preserving are a special case, because of their vast fully effective both must be integral genetic diversity: numbers, great resilience and ability to components of rational resource man- on site-in which the stock is pre- adapt to environmental change, and

Notes and references 2. Although the degree of difference (the gap) between genera and 3. The definitions of the three categories of threat are: between species within genera varies both within and among endangered: in danger of extinction: survival unlikely if the I. The size of potential genetic loss is related to the taxonomic classes, the current taxonomic hierarchy provides the only con· causal factors (threats) continue operating; h!erarchy because, ideally at least. different positions in this venient rule of thumb for determining the relative size of a vulnerable: not yet endangered, but likely to be if the causal fac· hierarchy re0ect great~r or lesser degrees of genetic difference, potential loss of genetic material. The method is by no means tors (threats) continue operating: and hence difference m such variables as morphology beha- free of anomalies, but these reflect the wider problem of modern rare: world population is small and "at risk" but not yet en· viour. physiology, chemistry and ecology. ' taxonomy as a consistent means of classification. dangered or vulnerable: (by implication this refers to taxa with their very rapid rates of reproduction. 9. Unique ecosystems should be pro­ from them. Special attention should be Preservation of microbial strains is tected as a matter of priority. Only those paid to marine ecosystems which are necessary not so much to prevent extinc­ uses compatible with their preservation particularly poorly represented in pro­ tion but to aid utilization. Isolating should be permitted. In addition, a com­ tected areas. Priority should be given to from nature a strain with a particular plete range of ecosystems representative ecosystems that are particularly rich in desired property is tedious. Once isolat­ of the different types of ecosystem in species or have no adequately protected ed, therefore, such strains need to be each country should be protected so that areas. maintained in culture collections. the range of variation in nature is pre­ served. Only those uses that are compat­ 10. Determine the size, distribution and ible with the preservation of the ecosys­ management of protected areas on the tem and its component communities of basis of the needs of the ecosystems and plants and animals should be permitted the plant and animal communities they in areas protected for these purposes. are intended to protect. Generally, a Each country should review its existing large reserve is better than a small one. Preferable size and distribution patt~rns l~IB. The genetic resource management iceberg. Off site protec­ system of protected areas and ascertain tion (1) can preserve only a small proportion-the "lip of the are shown in the left-hand column of iceberg"-of genetic diversity. Protected areas or on site the extent to which the different kinds of protection (2) can preserve much more-but still very little figure C. compared with the potential of the sound planning, allocation ecosystem in each biogeographical pro­ and management of land and water uses (3). In practice, all vince are protected. Biogeographical three sets of measures are necessary. 11. Areas chosen for protection should provinces with no protected areas have as much internal variation as pos­ 8. Ensure that on site preservation pro­ should be given priority, followed by the sible. The necessary measures should be grammes protect: the wild relatives of provinces in which few of the ecosystem types are represented in protected areas taken to safeguard the support systems of economically valuable and other useful protected areas and to shelter the areas plants and animals and their habitats; the (see map 3 in the map section). Atten­ tion should be paid to the adequacy from harmful impacts: these measures habitats of threatened and unique species; should include the establishment of buf­ unique ecosystems; and representative of protection of each area. Global bio­ geographical classifications6 should be fer zones where special restraints on use samples of ecosystem types. Inventories may be applied. Research should be con­ of existing protected areas should be used together with more detailed na­ tional or regional classifications derived tinued into the questions of minimum made to determine what threatened, critical size and optimum distribution of unique and other important species may the protected areas required to safeguard already be protected adequately. Each better worse a given number and composition of spe­ country should identify the habitats of cies. Security for protected areas must be such species, and ensure their preserva­ A clearly provided for in national legisla­ tion in protected areas as a matter of tion. Legal provisions by which the status priority. Whenever feasible, each pro­ e of a protected area may be declassified tected area should safeguard all the only following a careful review by the critical habitats (the feeding, breeding, B legislature are required to give a degree nursery and resting areas) of the species of permanency to such status. concerned. Where this is clearly not •• feasible-as in the case of migratory or •• 12. Coordinate national protected area wide-ranging animals-a network of • programmes with international ones, par­ protected areas should be established, ticularly the biosphere reserves pro­ the effect of which would be to safe­ c gramme of Unesco's Man and the guard all the habitats of the species • • Biosphere Project 8 and the initiatives of concerned. If the species migrates or •• IUCN's Commission on National Parks ranges from one national jurisdiction to •• • and Protected Areas, so that a complete others, bilateral and multilateral agree­ • network of protected representative sam­ ments should be made as appropriate to ples of ecosystems may be established as set up the required network. Other uses • 0 soon as possible. One of the major ob­ of protected areas may be permitted jectives of the international network of provided they are compatible with pro­ •• • •• biosphere reserves is to conserve for pre­ tection of the habitats concerned. Not E sent and future use the diversity and in­ only should habitat be protected but any tegrity of plant and animal communities external source of the nutrients and oth­ ••• • •• within natural ecosystems, and to safe­ er essentials on which each habitat guard the genetic diversity of species on depends should also be protected or so F which their continuing evolution managed as to assure an adequate sup­ • depends. Countries are urged to contri­ ply of the essential concerned. Exploita­ bute to this network by designating sites C. Suggested geometric principles, derived- from island bi.o­ tion and other impacts (such as pollu­ geographic studies, for the design of nature reserves. In each representative of the biogeographical tion) along migration routes should also of the six cases labelled A to F, species extinction rates will be provinces or other major ecosystem lower for the reserve design on the left than for the reserve be regulated. design on the right. Source: 7. groups found in their territory.

so restricted a world range that it would be possible to endanger Resources (whose secretariat is at: Crop Ecology and Genetic tfon of coastal and marine em·ironmellls. IUCN. Gland: and: them or even make them extinct by, for example, a sudden Resources Unit, Plant Production and Protection Division, Udvardy. Miklos D. 1975. A classijica1io11 of the biogeographica/ change in land use in one area). FAO, via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome). FAO's forest prol'inces of the ll'o°r/d. IUCN, Gland. · genetic resources programme. and FA O's animal genetic 4. Notably those of IUCN's Survival Service Commission. resources programme. 7. Diamond, Jared M. 1975. The island dilemma: lessons of mod­ ern biogeographic studies for the design of natural reserves. Bio­ 5. Notably those of the International Board for Plant Genetic 6. For example: Ray, G. Carleton. 1975. A preliminary classifica- logical Conservation, 7: 129-146.

<> IUCN-UNEP·WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 7. Priority requirelllents: sustainable utiliza

1. Determine the productive capacities allowed to grow to a size which the spe­ 6. Equip subsistence communities to uti­ of exploited species and ecosystems and cies or ecosystem cannot support. lize resources sustainably. Where a com­ ensure that utilization does not exceed munity depending for subsistence whol­ those capacities. Species and ecosystems 4. Reduce excessive yields to sustain­ ly or partly on living resources effective­ should not be so heavily exploited that able levels. Industries, communities and ly regulates utilization so that it is sus­ they decline to levels or conditions from countries that are overexploiting living tainable, its regulatory measures should which they cannot easily recover. Such resources on which they depend would be supported. Where there is no regula­ levels and conditions vary depending­ be b_etter off in the medium and long tion or where traditional regulatory in the case of a species-not only on the term if they voluntarily reduced yields to measures have been rendered obsolete biology of the species but also on the levels that are sustainable. In this way (by, for example, growth in the commu­ quality of the ecosystems that support it. they could adjust to realistic levels of nity's population, the advent of more If the ecosystems are being altered by consumption and trade and avoid unex­ destructive methods of exploitation or of human activities (such as exploitation of pected drops in yield, instead of being commercial exploitation), the commu­ associated species, pollution, incidental surprised by them when they occurred. nity should be helped to devise and take) then the level from which the pop­ The economic distress that involuntary, enforce a set of effective regulations. ulation is unable to recover could be unscheduled cuts may cause is avoidable Should overexploitation have become substantially higher than the level pre­ sumed from study of the species alone. 2. Adopt conservative !llanagement ob­ jectives for the utilization of species and ecosystems. Management objectives should take adequate account of impor­ tant relationships between the exploited species or ecosystems and the species and ecosystems with which they are linked. They should allow for error, igno­ rance and uncertainty. When a single species (rather than a group of species or an ecosystem) is exploited, and the spe­ Coastal wetlands and marine fisheries. Coastal wetlands provide nutrients and nurseries for many important fisheries. The top cies is at the top of the food chain, illustration shows the flow of nutrients (highly simplified) from a mangrove swamp to offshore fisheries. The illustration below stocks should be kept at or above the shows aspects of the life history of several commercially valuable species of shrimp: the eggs (A) are laid offshore; the larvae (B) move inshore; juveniles (C) and adolescents (D) then shelter and feed in mangrove swamps, estuaries and lagoons; before level at which they provide the greatest returning to sea as adults (E). Source: 1. net annual increment. If the species is not at the top of the food chain, stocks should not be depleted to a level such by the planned reduction of utilization so acute that very severe regulation is that the population's productivity, or to sustainable levels. needed (including an outright ban of that of the populations of other species months or years on exploitation) efforts dependent on it, is significantly reduced. 5. Reduce incidental take as much as should be made to gain the understand­ When a group of species is exploited, possible. This can be done through the ing of the community and its participa­ catch levels should be fixed so that the establishment of protected areas or of tion in enforcement; and an alternative productivity of the species with the closed seasons (prohibiting fishing in at food, fuel or fibre should be offered. slowest recovery time (often predators at least one self-sustaining area or at times Commercial utilization and trade should the top of the food chain) is not signifi­ when the affected species is particularly be prohibited before the subsistence take cantly reduced. vulnerable, in the case of sea turtles, for is reduced. example, during both the nesting and 3. Ensure that access to a resource does the hibernating periods); or through 7. Maintain the habitats of resource not exceed the resource's capacity to sus­ modifications of fishing gear or methods. species. Where agriculture can supply tain exploitation. Measures to regulate Many of the commercially exploited more food, more economically and on a utilization can include: restricting the marine and freshwater fish communities, sustainable basis, than can the utiliza­ total take, the number of persons, ves­ however, occur in species complexes. It tion of wildlife, the conversion of wild­ sels or other units allowed to participate is impossible to exploit such complexes life habitat to farmland is rational. Of­ in exploitation and the times and places intensively without disturbing the species ten, however, the habitats of wildlife are of exploitation; and prohibiting or re­ ratios and threatening at least some spe- - destroyed for short-lived agricultural and stricting the use of certain methods and cies with severe depletion. In such cases, other developments with a net loss in equipment. Of these, a combination of reserves should be established in which welfare for the local communities. Espe­ quotas and restrictions on access to the commercial exploitation is prohibited. cially in areas with severe limitations for resource is usually essential. Quotas Subsistence exploitation may still be agriculture, the value of wildlife should alone are highly vulnerable to excessive compatible with species protection, be carefully assessed and the returns on increase in response to political pressure depending on fishing intensity and habitat management for more intensive, by vested interests, if those interests are methods. yet sustainable, wildlife utilization com-

Notes and references I. Clark, John. 1977. Coastal ecosystem management: a technkal manual for the conservation of coastal zone resources. John Wiley & Sons, New York. ti• on

pared with the returns on the destruc­ 10. Limit firewood consumption to sus­ sities must be more conservative than tion of habitat to enable some other use. tainable levels. Where vegetation is being where annual productivity is more con­ This requirement is most important in destroyed by cutting and stripping for sistent. In such regions nomadism and tropical forest areas, where rural com­ fuel immediate measures should be transhumance (the seasonal movement munities often depend on wildlife for a taken to: of livestock) are often the most sustain­ high proportion of their protein as well establish plantations for firewood, able strategies and, if still practised, as for other goods. It is also important large enough to meet higher levels of should not be abandoned without good to maintain the freshwater, coastal and demand than today's; reason. marine systems that supply food and provide alternative sources of fire­ shelter to aquatic animals, especially wood, to take pressure off the planta­ 12. Utilize indigenous wild herbivores, those that support fisheries. This tions and remaining vegetation; alone or in combination with livestock, requires control of human impacts in restore the vegetation; where the use of domestic stock alone will river basins (including the upper catch­ degrade the land. Native wild herbivores ment area) as well as in the coastal zone provide stoves that utilize firewood are adapted to make use of natural and at sea. more efficiently; grazing land without deterioration. In 8. Regulate international trade in wild provide alternative sources of energy extreme conditions they may be the only plants and animals. The most promising (such as biogas). species that can do so; and elsewhere they can provide an economically, eco­ way of doing this is through the Conven­ 11. Regulate the stocking of grazing tion on International Trade in En­ logically and socially desirable alter­ lands so that the long term productivity native or supplement to domestic live­ dangered Species of Wild Fauna and of plants and animals can be maintained. Flora (CITES). CITES now has a stock. The potential of wild herbivores The carrying capacity of grazing lands for subsistence and commercial use· worldwide membership of more than is determined by the annual production 50 states. To make its system of ex­ should be given priority attention. Two of plant growth in excess of what is main actions are needed: port/import controls fully effective other required by the plants for their metab­ trading nations should join (see also sec­ olism, health and vigour. Much of this assessment of social and economic tion 15). Those that have become mem­ excess production can be cropped by wild potential of game ranching, looking bers should take all necessary adminis­ animals or livestock without damage to at commercial utilization, subsistence trative measures to enforce the Conven­ the vegetation. Careless or excessive use, utilization, and domestication op­ tion at the national level. Species threat­ however, impairs the plants' capacity to tions, as well as at market potential ened by overexploitation that are not yet grow and reproduce. This in turn leads to for products; covered by CITES should be, if they are sometimes permanent destruction of the assessment of current and potential likely to enter international trade. vegetation or to a decline in the pro­ ecological impacts of trypanosomia­ 9. Allocate timber concessions with care portion of plants palatable to livestock or sis control in Africa, including con­ and manage them to high standards. The both. In arid regions, where rainfall and sideration of new developments in siting and management of timber opera­ plant growth are erratic, stocking den- control techniques. tions should be such that essential processes (especially watershed protec­ tion) are maintained. Unnecessary dam­ Summary of priority requirements (sections 5-7) age to trees that are not utilized should be avoided. Felling programmes should The requirements for achieving the objectives of conservation can be summarized be matched by planting programmes, as as follows: far as possible using the species ex­ the maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems ploited, so that what is taken out is primarily requires rational planning and allocation of uses and high quality replaced. Most timber companies are management of those uses; capable of taking all the necessary meas­ ures and should undertake to do so. It the preservation of genetic diversity primarily requires the timely collection of is advisable that governments equip genetic material and its protection in banks, plantations, and so on, in the case themselves to inspect and control the of off site preservation; and ecosystem protection in the case of on site conduct of logging operations before preservation; they take place. Similarly, if there is any the sustainable utilization of ecosystems and species requires knowledge of the likelihood that spontaneous settlement productive capacities of those resources and measures to ensure that utilization will occur in a forest area once it has does not exceed those capacities. been opened up for logging, govern­ ments should ensure they have a practi- , Both the last two objectives require the achievement of the first. Also, the genetic cable plan for assisting settlers to de­ composition of exploited ecosystems and of the life-support systems of certain pro­ velop the land sustainably, for providing cesses (for example, pollination and naturally occurring pest control) is probably firewood plantations or alternative fuels, important for their long term maintenance -so the preservation of genetic diver­ for securing essential processes and for sity may be required for the achievement of aspects of the first and third objectives. protecting important genetic resources.

<1l IUCN.UNEP-WWF 1980

Priorities for national action WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 8. A frallle\Vork for national and subnation

l. To ensure that.the objectives of con­ b. identify the main obstacles to achiev­ When resources are limited and time is servation are achieved as expeditiously ing the objectives and to removing or running out, it is essential to be sure that as possible and to speed the integration reducing the threats; and identify any the available resources and effort are ap­ of conservation with development, it is special opportunities· there may be plied to the highest priority require­ recommended that every country review for overcoming such obstacles; ments first, and only afterwards to lesser the extent to which it is achieving conser­ c. identify the measures required to priorities. Conservation is in exactly this vation, concentrating on the priority achieve the objectives and to remove situation, yet conservation organiza­ requirements and on the main obstacles or reduce the threats to the living tions have seldom attempted to agree· to them. The review should form the resources concerned; priorities. This is an understandable fail­ basis of a strategy to overcome the ob­ d. determine priority ecosystems and ing, since there are so many urgent prob­ stacles and meet the requirements. The species, the requirements for their lems to be dealt with, people have dif­ strategy may be at the national level or conservation, and how these require­ ferent perceptions of priorities, and at one or more subnational levels (pro­ ments could be met-providing plan­ there have been few universally accepted vincial, state, municipal), or there may ning and management guidelines criteria for what is important. However, be separate (but, it is hoped, complemen­ with. respect to such ecosystems and it is precisely because there are so many tary) strategies at several levels, depend­ species; requirements-most of them urgent, ing on the division of government re­ and many of them alone demanding.all sponsibilities for the planning and man­ e. analyze present and planned activi­ or more of the resources at conserva­ agement of land and water uses. ties, comparing them with c and d, tion's disposal-that priorities must be and identify gaps that need filling and determined and followed. The recom­ 2. The purpose of these strategies is to activities that need strengthening and ~ended criteria for determining priori­ supporting; focus attention on the relevant priority ties have been given in section 5: signifi­ requirements for conservation, to stimu­ f. estimate the .. financial and other cance; urgency, and irreversibility. late appropriate action, to raise public resources, and the legislative and ad­ consciousness, and to overcome any ap­ ministrative ·measures, required to athy or resistance there might be to tak­ carry out the actions identified in e, Strategic principles ing the action needed. National and sub­ and identify the organizations that 6. In addition, strategies to meet the national strategies are intended to pro­ should be carrying them out; vide a means of focussing and coordi­ priority requirements for the achieve­ g. propose ways of supplying the finan­ ment of conservation objectives should nating the efforts of government agen­ cial and other resources required and cies, together with nongovernmental take into account these four strategic of authorizing and equipping the ap­ principles: conservation organizations, to imple­ propriate organizations to carry out ment the World Conservation Strategy the required actions, identifying the Integrate. The separation of conser­ within countries. bodies that possess the necessary vation from development together resources and powers of decision; with narrow sectoral approaches to 3. Although the planning and execu-. living resource management are at tion of conservation strategies is primar­ h. set out a plan ofaction to bring about · the root of current living resource ily the responsibility of governments, the required political decisions and problems. Many of the priority re­ nongovernmental organizations should allocations of financial and other quirements demand a cross-sectoral, be fully involved to ensure that all the resources; interdisciplinary approach. resources available to conservation are 1. set out a programme of required deployed coherently and to the full and measures, including administrative Retain options. Our understanding of thus to accelerate the achievement of. and legislative measures, for the the dynamics and capacities of many conservation objectives. Indeed in some maintenance of essential ecological ecosystems, particularly tropical countries nongovernmental organiza­ processes and life-support systems, ones, is often insufficient to assure tions may wish to take the initiative. the preservation of genetic diversity, rational use allocation or high quality and the sustainable utilization of management. Scientific knowledge of Steps in a strategy ecosystems and species, noting par­ the productive capacities of most 4. It is recommended that each strate­ ticularly those priority requirements tropical ecosystems, as well as of gy proceed as follows: not yet met. their ability to absorb pollution and other impacts, is generally inade­ a. review development objectives in 5. Irrespective of its purpose, every quate. Land and water use, therefore, relation to each of the conservation strategy has certain functions: should be located and managed so objectives; and describe the extent to which each of the conservation objec­ to determine the priority require­ that as many options as possible are tives is or is not being achieved­ ments for achieving the objectives; retained. with particular emphasis on the to identify the obstacles to meeting Mix cure and prevention. Current priority requirements-and the status the requirements; problems are often so severe that it is of and threats to the living resources to propose the most cost-effective tempting to concentrate on them concerned; - ways of overcoming those obstacles. alone; impending problems could be a I conservation strategies

still worse, however, unless early ac­ poor legislation and organization s~rvation problems proliferates. A spe­ tion is taken to prevent them. Strate­ (I I); cies may b~ rescued, an area protected, gies for action should therefore be a lack of training and of basic informa­ or an environmental impact reduced judicious combination of cure and tion (12); b~t such successes will be temporary 0 ; prevention-of tackling current w1.ll be overshadowed by much greater problems and of equipping peoples lack of support for conservation (13); failures unl~ss every country's capacity and governments to anticipate and lack of conservation-based rural to conserve 1s greatly improved and per­ avoid future problems. development (14); manently strengthened. Focus on causes as well as symptoms. 8. The importance of these obstacles 9. Sp~~ial attention needs to be paid to When conservation puts itself into the ab1hty of government agencies to the position of dealing only with cannot be overemphasized. Few if any countries take adequate account of eco­ deal n<:>t only with current problems but symptoms it appears unduly negative also with potential ones since they may and obstructive. A late attempt to logical considerations when making policy or planning development. Few al­ often be beyond the capacities, man­ modify a development, whether suc­ dates and experience of the bodies re­ cessful or not, comes across as anti­ locate or regulate uses of their living resour~es so as to e?sure that they are sponsible. The mandates, capacities and development (hence anti-people) even procedures of the government agencies though this is seldom the case. The ecolog1cally appropnate and sustainable. Many lack either the financial or tech­ and other bodies responsible for devel­ result is either an outright defeat or opment and conservation should be ana­ because it generates hostility and mis~ nical resources, or the political will or adequate legislative, institutional ' or lyzed to assess the extent to which eco­ . conceptions, a victory that has within !ogical considerations are incorporated it the seeds of future defeats. Further­ publi~ SUJ?port for conservation (or any combmat1on .of these) to carry out fully mto the development process and ~~re, by the time symptoms appear ~he.ther conservation laws and organ- 1t 1s often too late to do anything the conservat10n measures required. The result is that the number of urgent con- 1zat1ons are strong enough to ensure that about them, because many ecologi­ the required conservation measures are cally unsound projects are the results carried out. The analysis should focus of already fixed policies and part of on the factors which help or hinder complex and expensive plans the pro­ meeting the priority requirements for ponents of which are understandably objectives conservation. Then, particular strengths reluctant to unravel (see figure A). and weaknesses should be brought to This said, it is also important not to the attention of the public, legislators neglect tbe symptoms. Although in­ and the policy making level of govern­ terventions are more effective the ear­ policies ment, together with specific proposals lier in the development process they for filling any serious gaps in planning are made, in practice they are needed decision making and management. ' at all stages. In addition it is some­ sectoral plans/ times not possible to deal with causes programmes 10. Although most conservation prog­ . \ ' smce many of them are complex and ress is to be won within government beyond the capabilities of conserva­ bodies and other organizations con­ tion organizations to influence. Ac­ cerned with development and conser­ tion directed at causes generally yields projects vation, the measure of such progress results only over the long term. Symp­ ~ill be improvements on the ground and toms may be so acute that action m the water: more secure and wide­

must be taken immediately. ecological spread maintenance of essential ecologi­ factors cal processes and life-support systems, Main obstacles preservation of genetic diversity, and A. The need to integrate conservation with development: an sustainable utilization of species and 7. The most effective way of prevent­ example. ing irreversible damage to living Attempts to minimize the ecological harm (and hence the ecosystems. The status of key species social and economic harm) of a dam rarely succeed if eco­ and ecosystems needs therefore to be res?urces is through overcoming the logical factors a!e considered only at the project stage. By then the dam 1s a key component of other major projects clos~ly moni_tored, and strategies adjust­ mam obstacles to achieving the require­ (like land cle~rance, Irrigation, and new settlements), them­ ments of conservation. These are dis­ selves essential parts of several sectoral programmes. These ed 1~ the light of any improvement, programmes are often expressions of social and economic deteno'.ation or absence of change. cussed further in sections 9-14 and are policies from which ec~logical considerations are entirely absent. Unless ecological considerations influence the Strategies are means, not ends in them­ (number in parentheses refers to the develo!>ment process along with social and economic con­ appropriate section): s1derat1ons - and unless there Is also an explicit policy to selves. But the process by which they are achieve conservation objectives - the prospects of avoiding forwarded is itself usually of value as ecological h'!rm and of making the best use of living re­ absence of conservation at the policy sources are dim. Thus when ecological factors are considered i~ ~an ~nfo'.m and educate, develop par­ making level (9); ~:mly at th~ point sh?w_n at the bottom of this picture their influence 1s usually hm1ted or negative. Instead for develop­ t1c1pat1on m and support for decision lack of environmental planning and ment policy to be ecologi~ally as well as eco~omically and making, change attitudes, and help to socially sound, the empty circle at the top of the picture needs of rational use allocation (10); filling as shown. foster a conservation ethic.

<:> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 9. Policy making and the integration of con

1. Development that is inflexible and ihal or cosmetic adjustments are pos­ Action required little influenced by ecological considera­ sible. If, however, a bold decision is Anticipatory environmental policies tions is unlikely to make the best use of taken to uphold conservation and 6. Policies that attempt to anticipate available resources. By causing ecologi­ arrest an ecologically unsound scheme, significant economic, social and ecologi­ cal damage it is likely also to cause eco­ it may be at the cost of major confronta­ cal events rather than simply react to nomic and social damage. The most ef­ tions with vested interests, social conflict them are becoming increasingly neces­ fective way society can avoid such prob­ and a waste of human and financial sary for the achievement of several im­ lems is to integrate every stage of the resources. portant policy goals: the satisfaction of conservation and development pro­ basic needs, such as food, clothing, sani­ _cesses, from the initial setting of poli­ 4. The bias of living resource agencies tation and shelter; the development of a cies to their eventual implementation towards production rather than mainte­ high quality environment; the optimum and operation. This section proposes nance is often a response to competition use of available resources; and the con­ that this be done through the adoption within governments for scarce financial trol of pollution and other forms of en­ of anticipatory environmental policies resources, and the consequent pressure vironmental degradation. Achievement and of a cross-sectoral conservation on all sectors to show results that can be of these goals requires not merely poli­ policy. directly related to economic perfor­ mance. Under the circumstances, agen­ cies that promote recycling, reduce the The problems cies with the dual task of regulating and production, marketing and disposal of ·products dangerous to the environment, 2. To achieve the objectives of conser­ promoting resource development are and make economic use of residual vation governments need to dispel any likely to find it difficult to balance the wastes. It also requires policies that ac­ notion that conservation is a limited, in­ two requirements. This difficulty is exac­ tively promote human health and well­ dependent sector largely concerned with erbated by the lftck of a well-defined, being, the protection of the living wildlife or with soil; and that ecological generally agreed measure of conserva­ resource base, and the adoption of factors are impediments to development tion performance. Economic perfor­ resource-conserving settlement patterns, which in some cases may safely be over­ mance can be measured in terms of transport systems and modes of trade looked and in others may be considered gross domestic product; employment and consumption. Such anticipatory en­ simply on a project by project basis, not in terms of the percentage of the labour vironmental policies2 involve actions to as a matter of policy. Unfortunately force employed; agricultural, forestry ensure that conservation and other envi­ these beliefs are implicit in the way poli­ and fisheries production in terms of ronmental requirements are taken fully cies generally are made and operated. crop, timber and fish yields and the in­ into account at the earliest possible stage Such a narrow interpretation of conser­ come derived from them. While such vation has at least three important con­ easily measured production may be won of any major decision likely to affect the sequences. First, the ecological effects of at the cost of diminishing the resource environment: They are not intended to replace reactive or curative policies; a particular development policy are sel­ base, and although conservation can dom anticipated and hence the policy is bring real benefits by securing that simply to reinforce them. resource base, the costs and benefits are not adjusted in time to avoid expensive 7. Adoption of anticipatory environ­ not readily related 1. mistakes. Second, those sectors directly mental policies may pose difficulties. By responsible for living resources (notably 5. Not all governments have explicit their nature they require action before agriculture, forestry; fisheries, and wild­ conservation policies;. and the policies damage to the environment has created life) are often impelled to concentrate on that exist tend to be narrowly sectoral. a demand· for it. They also incur the production at the expense of mainte­ Consequently opportunities for the joint costs of planning, research and preven­ nance, with the result that otherwise planning and realization of the conser­ tive action and sometimes of delays or renewable resources are dissipated and vation requirements of agriculture, modifications to particular develop­ the resource-base of future utilization is forestry, fisheries, wildlife, and so on, ments. Yet in general these difficulties undermined. Third, because of a pre­ may be overlooked. Indeed, the policies are heavily outweighed by the advan­ vious lack of conservation, the policies of the sectors concerned may conflict. tages. Anticipatory policies enable socie­ of other sectors may be frustrated. The Similarly, the interests of sectors not ties to avoid the high and usually energy sector's forecasts of the life of a usually thought of as deriving benefits recurring costs of environmental mis­ hydroelectric power station, for exam­ from living resource conservation may takes-mistakes that can frustrate devel­ ple, may be completely falsified by poor be neglected. Health is an example: con­ opment objectives, waste resources, and watershed management. servation can advance the achievement impair the very capacity for develop­ 3. Even when ecological factors are of health objectives not only by ensuring ment. Measures to prevent environmen­ considered, it is seldom at the critical a healthier environment-for example tal degradation taken at the design stage policy making stage when the basic pat­ through the maintenance of clean air of products and development projects tern of development is often fixed. Con­ and water-but also by preserving alike are normally more cost-effective sideration at the project stage, although genetic resources needed for the produc­ than measures taken once a problem has often necessary, is no substitute for tion of medicines. Policy makers in the arisen when they may require redesign, proper consideration at the policy health and industrial sectors need to be restructuring, the banning of a product stage-for by the project stage economic satisfied that the genetic resource-base or the abandonment of a partially com­ and social requirements will normally of domestic pharmaceutical manufac­ pleted project. Anticipatory measures have been set so firmly that only mini- ture can be secured. are often not only beneficial to society-

Notes and references their broad powers to protect the environment. sometimes may 2. OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Develop­ find it difficult to persuade, for example, the forestry department ment). 1979. Discussion paper on anticipatory environmental I. !his lack of an acceptable measure of conservation performance to utilize forests sustainably or the agricultural department to policies. OECD. ENV/Min(79)4. is prohahl:,.. l'lH.' ufthc main rl.!asons wh) Cl'ntral agencies, despite regulate the use of agricultural chemicals. servation and developlllent

avoiding high external economic, social policies of agencies responsible for living formance. Instruments for the imple­ and health costs~but also profitable to resources should also require that each mentation of anticipatory environmen­ the enterprise concerned. To avoid sector's conservation responsibilities are tal policies include: taxes, charges and delays environmental factors should be discharged with the conservation needs financial incentives (to encourage taken into account when a project is first of other sectors in mind. choices compatible with the mainte­ formulated and subsequently in parallel nance of a healthy environment); tech­ with project development. 11. For example, the policy goals of nology assessment; design and product forestry should include: regulation; environmental planning; Cross-sectoral conservation policy to increase yields of goods and serv­ and procedures for rational use alloca­ 8. It is recommended that governments ices from forests, such as wood tion. The latter two instruments are adopt a cross-sectoral conservation products, water, wildlife, recreation, regarded as crucial for the integration of policy to: education and research, provided conservation with development and are commit themselves to achieving the that the subject of the next section. Coordi­ objectives of conservation; - such yields are sustainable, and nating mechanisms are considered in section 11. define the conservation requirements that and responsibilities ·of the various - the resource base (essential ecolog­ 14. Although the deficiencies of gross government sectors in relation to ical processes and genetic diversity) domestic product as a measure of nation­ those objectives; is secured; al welfare are generally acknowledged, indicate a timetable or target dates for to manage the forest estate on the national accounting systems and many meeting the requirements and carrying principle of stewardship, with com­ policy decisions are still couched in out the responsibilities. mitment to maintain in perpetuity strictly monetary terms. Consequently ecological processes, watersheds, the costs of conservation and of meas­ 9. Depending on the constitutional soils and genetic diversity; ures to enhance human welfare in other structure of the country concerned and to assist other sectors (such as agri­ ways may often appear to outweigh the on the distribution of planning responsi­ culture, rural development) to make benefits, since the costs are entirely cal­ bility and powers of decision over efficient, ecologically sound use of culable in money while the benefits are resource use, conservation policies may forest goods and services. not3. In order for governments to take· be required at more than one level of adequate account of the costs of des­ government. The roles and responsibili­ 12. Similarly, the policy goals of agri­ troying, degrading or depleting Jiving ties of each level of government should culture should include: resources and of the benefits of conserv­ be made clear and effectively related to ing them, it is recommended that non­ to supply food and other agricultural those of the levels of government above monetary indicators of conservation products in sufficient quantity and of and below it. In addition, national performance be selected for inclusion in acceptable quality, consistent with policies should include specific guidance national accounting systems. This is eas­ on the giving and receipt of aid and tech­ - the maintenance of the resource ier said than done, but suitable indica­ nical assistance, as well as on interna­ base, particularly soils, water, the tors might be: tional agreements relevant to conserva­ habitats of organisms necessary for extent of most suitable agricultural tion. Several agencies may be respon­ pollination and integrated pest land that has not been lost to non­ sible for preparing national positions control, and the genetic diversity of agricultural activities or degraded by with respect to international organiza­ crops, domestic animals and their poor farming practices; wild relatives; tions and these should be harmonized: silt load of rivers as a proportion of consistent positions should be developed to maintain and enhance the quality the size of the river basin (an index of for the governing bodies of United and attractiveness of rural areas; erosion); Nations and other intergovernmental to recycle nutrients, ensuring that proportion of unique species and of organizations on which the government crop residues and livestock wastes are unique varieties of domesticated sits. returned to the land, controlling pol­ plants and animals and their wild lution, and assisting where practi­ 10. As a matter of policy, agencies re­ relatives whose survival is secured; cable in the recycling of urban proportion of ecosystems and species sponsible for living resources should be wastes. as much concerned with maintenance as that are being utilized sustainably. with production. The need for food, fuel This list is illustrative; but all are pos­ and fibre and other natural products, as Integrating conservation and development sible measures of the state of important well as for foreign exchange, may tempt 13. Conservation can be integrated national assets (good soil, secure catch­ living resource managers into encourag­ with development through the instru­ ment areas, and genetic and other ing or permitting overexploitation of the ments used to implement anticipatory renewable resources). Nevertheless, fur­ resources in question or the undermin­ environmental policies, through the es­ ther consideration needs to be given to ing of the ecological processes and tablishment of coordinating mechan­ the selection of ecological indicators to genetic diversity on which they depend. isms to ensure that a cross-sectoral con­ ensure that their measurement and This is highly likely if policy goals are servation policy is applied, and by the . monitoring is practicable and that in concerned mainly with production and adoption of national accounting systems combination they provide a reasonable only incidentally with maintenance. The to include measures of conservation per- reflection of conservation performance.

3. Although many conservation measures can be justified at least in part in monetary terms, they often bring other benefits relating to values-utilitarian, intrinsic. aesthetic, symbolic, ethical­ that cannot be so quantified, if at all.

<> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 10. Environlllental planning and rational use

1. Tlris section proposes the integra­ sible uses of that ecosystem but also with ecosystem use (agriculture, forestry, tion of conservation and development certain uses of other ecosystems. For ex­ fisheries, and so on), economics and through environmental planning and ample, a coastal wetland might be as­ sociology. rational use allocation-specifically sessed for its suitability as a nature d. Evaluation is in terms relevant to the through ecosystem evaluations, environ­ reserve for birds (if protected), as a har­ physical, economic and social context mental assessments, and a procedure for bour (if dredged) or as farmland (if of the area concerned. Such factors as allocating uses on the basis of such eval­ filled in); but the wetland might also be the regional climate, standards of liv­ uations and assessments. an important nursery area and source of ing of the population, availability nutrients for a valuable fishery else­ The problems and cost of labour, need for employ­ where, with which only the first use ment, the local or export markets, 2. Environmental planning and the al­ would be compatible. Any evaluation systems of land tenure that are social­ location of uses on the basis of investiga­ would be incomplete if such interrela­ ly and politically acceptable, an.'1 tion and planning are essential if opti­ tionships were not taken into account. availability of capital, form the con­ mum use is to be made of available text within which evaluation takes resources. Without them, the prospects 4. Certain principles are fundamental to the approach and methods employed place. Assumptions about such fac­ of sustainable development will be im­ tors should be stated explicitly. paired, sometimes permanently. For ex­ in ecosystem evaluation I : ample, dams may be sited so that they a. Ecosystem suitability is assessed and e. Suitability refers to use on a sustained drown and destroy highly productive classified with respect to specified basis. The possibility of degradation land or important areas of genetic diver­ kinds of use. The concept of ecosys­ and depletion should be taken into sity. Pollution emission standards may tem suitability is meaningful only in ·account when assessing suitability. be set so low that acid rairi reduces the terms of specific kinds of use, each For example, there might be forms of productivity of forests and fresh waters, with its own requirements. The use highly profitable in the short run or pathogens and heavy metals contami­ characteristics of each ecosystem are but likely to lead to soil erosion, pro­ nate food (such as shellfish) rendering compared with the requirements for gressive pasture degradation, or it unmarketable or, if it is marketed, each use. adverse changes in river regimes directly damaging human health. Indus­ downstream. Most changes of use, tries and settlements may be built on the b. Evaluation requires a comparison of other than protection, involve a loss best farmland or on land "reclaimed" the outputs obtained and the inputs of equilibrium in the ecosystem from coastal wetlands, thus reducing the neededfor each different use. An eco­ concerned, sometimes a radical loss, productivity of agriculture and fisheries. system that is not being used may still as when a forest is converted to farm­ be useful: for example, an unex­ land; but there should be a strong Action required ploited tract of forest will moderate probability that the new equilibrium Ecosystem evaluation the local climate, regulate water flow, will be Jong-lasting. Essentially, this 3. Every use of the land, fresh waters and so on. Conversely, even non­ requires that the resultant impacts on and the sea has its own site require­ consumptive uses may require the ecological processes (such as soil ments, as well as different degrees of expenditure of resources other than regeneration), genetic diversity and compatibility with other uses. Equally, those present in the ecosystem con­ the productivity of ecosystems and every ecosystem has its own characteris­ cerned: a nature reserve preserving species should be assessed as accu­ tics which make it more or less suitable genetic diversity requires measures rately as possible. for a particular use. The function of eco­ for its protection; a recreation area requires roads and other infrastruc­ f. Evaluation involves comparison. Com­ system evaluation is to assess the charac­ parison can be between an existing teristics of ecosystems and match them ture. Suitability for each use is asses­ sed by comparing the required inputs use and a potential use, between to the most appropriate uses. Ecosystem potential uses, or between a poten­ evaluation is carried out in many guises with the outputs obtained. The input­ output comparison should be quan­ tial consumptive use and a non­ under many names: land evaluation, consumptive use. Comparison can land capability assessment, land suit­ tified only to the extent that quanti­ fication does not distort what is being also be broad or fine: for example, ability assessment, and . so on. Some­ between agriculture and forestry, be­ times a rather limited range of potential compared and does not attempt to compare what is not comparable. tween two or more farming systems, uses is considered: for example, agricul­ or between one crop and another. ture, livestock production, wildlife pro­ While inputs (such as labour, money, duction, forestry. Often only land areas fertilizers) can normally be expressed 5. Ecosystem evaluations should be are assessed. Here the term ecosystem without distortion in money terms, prepared as a matter of priority and be evaluation (EE) is preferred to land eval­ many outputs cannot. Quantification, used to influence all policies from the uation for two reasons: to make clear therefore, should be done with great earliest possible date. An interim EE that marine and freshwater areas should care and any assumptions should be may be necessary in countries in the be evaluated as well as land areas; and stated explicitly. middle of a multi-year planning cycle­ that the areas being evaluated are c. An interdisciplinary approach is for example, a five year or ten year eco­ dynamic ecosystems with linkages of required. The evaluation process nomic or development plan. The prep­ varying strength to other ecosystems. A requires the integration of contribu­ aration ofEEs should be based on avail­ particular use of an ecosystem may be tions from ecology and related able knowledge and should not b~ incompatible not only with .other pos- natural sciences, the technologies of deferred because of lack of knowledge.

NoteS and references 2. This definition is adapted from: Munn, R. E. (editor). 1975. En­ 3. OECD. 1979. How to include environmental concerns in the decision-making process. OECD. ENV/Min(79)6. I. These principles are adapted from: FAO. 1978. A framework for vironmental impact assessment: principles and procedures. 5. land evaluation. FAO Soils Bulletin, 32. SCOPE Report, allocation

The degree of detail and area of cover­ lows. First, uses should be allocated ten­ an endangered species should as far as age possible will vary greatly from coun­ tatively according to their compatibility possible be managed to protect that try to country. It is preferable to achieve with each ecosystem's capacity to supply habitat. coverage at the expense of detail rather particular goods and services (or fulfil 10. The allocation procedure outlined than the other way round. In due course particular functions). The ecosystem is an integrating mechanism. It enables the evaluation can be completed in evaluation, elaborated as necessary by policy makers to confront simultaneous­ greater detail area by area. Areas sched­ environmental assessments, will achieve ly ecological, social and economic cri­ uled or proposed for development this first step. Next, uses should be allo­ teria and therefore to make informed should be given priority. cated tentatively a second time on the choices before resources are irrevocably basis of current and projected patterns of committed. It can suggest those develop­ Assessment of environmental effects demand on each ecosystem as reflected 6. An assessment of environmental ef­ ment opportunities likely to be both by current use. Here, demand equals productive and sustainable, and show fwts is an activity designed to identify, present uses of, plus impacts on, ecosys­ predict, interpret and communicate in­ where trade-offs between one policy and tems. Current uses of each ecosystem another may be expected to be large or formation about the effects of an ac­ should be identified, and projected in­ tion-be it a policy, programme, legisla­ small. If all policies were adjusted at this creases and changes in demand indicat­ point, many resource conflicts could be tive proposal, engineering project or ed. At this stage demand for non-living other operation with environmental im­ minimized, and others resolved without resources (construction materials, min­ social or economic disruption. plications-on human health and well­ erals, oil, gas, space for roads and build­ being, including the wellbeing of eco­ ings) as well as energy consumption and 11. Use allocations, together with eco­ systems on which human survival settlement patterns should be included. system evaluations, environmental as­ depends2. Environmental assessments sessments, and other supporting data are a means of ensuring that ecological 9. Finally, the results of allocation by and opinions, should be made available and social information is included with supply characteristics (the EE) and of al­ to the public so that the political process physical and economic information as location by demand characteristics is properly informed. The public should the basis for making decisions. should be compared to reveal conflicts be given adequate time and opportunity 7. Environmental assessments should and compatibilities between the two. In to consider relevant information and to be an integral part of the planning of all the case of compatible uses care should influence decisions. Research needs major actions (both public and private) be taken to define precisely what those should be identified concurrently with . requiring government authorization. · uses are and to ensure that management the preparation of ecosystem evalua­ They should be carried out at the same systems are available to manage the tions and use allocations. Use alloca­ time as engineering, economic and areas concerned on a multiple-use basis. tions should be evolutionary in nature, socio-political assessments; and should Management requirements to ensure being modified from time to time in the examine alternatives to the proposed ac­ retention of those characteristics of the light of events, new knowledge, and tion. Major actions should be inter­ ecosystem that permit multiple-use changes in perceived needs, aspirations preted as including tax and fiscal poli­ should be noted. Conflicts should be and values. The results of policies, eco­ cies, as well as other policies which by reconciled where possible by zoning and system evaluations, use allocations, and influencing investment can have a signif­ scheduling. Where this is not possible of other actions and decisions-whether icant impact on the environment. It their resolution will be a matter of politi­ or not they are directly concerned with should be the responsibility of govern­ cal judgement. However, uses that conservation-should be monitored and ment agencies to assure the quality of depend on unique or irreplaceable eco­ regularly evaluated. The assumptions environmental assessments. If an assess­ system characteristics should have prior­ behind all such actions and decisions ment is prepared by the proponent of an ity over other uses. For example, an eco­ should be stated explicitly so that they action-whether a private party or a system supporting a critical habitat of can be tested. government agency-there should be a USE ALLOCATION ASSESSMENT RESEARCH AND MONITORING mechanism for independent review. To Ecosystem evaluation (EE) ----1 Environmental assessment may be necessary with respect I 1. Make broad inventory of ecosystems evaluating quali- to certain ecosystems/uses. avoid delays environmental assessments tatively their characteristics. Identify gaps in knowledge. · 2. Tentatively allocate uses according to these charac- should be prepared as early as possible tertstics (that is, each ecosystem's intrinsic capacity to in decision making, from the prelimi­ supply particular goods/services). Make public. · nary study stage onwards, examining ac­ Demand allocation ceptable actions in increasing detail as 3. Tentatively allocate uses according to current and --j Environmental assessment normally essential. projected demand (uses of and impacts on ecosystems). Identify gaps In knowledge. I their formulation proceeds. Experience Make public. suggests that the costs of environmental Comparison of allocations and decisions on use assessments vary considerably but need 4. Compare allocations and identify compatibilities and not be high: in the USA, for example, conflicts. Make public. 5. Arrange for multiple-use management of relevant H Environmental assessment mandatory. I they range from 0.05% to 2% of the ecosystems to take advantage of compatibilities. Rank gaps in knowledge for research priorities and design 3. 6. Reconcile conflicts by zoning and scheduling; where and launch research programme. value of the project assessed this is not possible decide use on the basis of environ- mental assessments, public comment and political judg- A procedure for allocating uses ment. 8. To make optimum use of available I Continue to improve EE, modifying use allocation as Monitor results. I living resources, it is recommended that required...... land and water uses be allocated as fol- The relationship between the allocation of land and water uses and assessment, research and monitoring.

<:> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 11. Iniproving the capacity to ll1anage: legisl

1. In addition to the integration of weakened-especially if the views of provincial (or state) and local (or muni­ conservation and development, sound conservation units are not reflected in cipal). Since ecosystems and species sel­ living resource management requires ef­ the official positions of the larger admin­ dom observe institutional or political fective legislation, organization, training istrations of which they are part. On the boundaries it is most important that and information. This section covers the other hand, the consequences may be there be close coordination among these first two needs; training and informa­ positive: the presence of a conservation levels. It is also most important that the tion are covered in the next section. It is administration within a number of dif­ jurisdictions of the different levels of recognized that governments differ ferent government departments means government be clearly defined. Conser­ greatly in their constitution, organiza­ that conservation arguments and posi­ vation opportunities can be missed and tion and responsibilities. These two sec­ tions may be brought to bear in many problems left unresolved when disputes tions, therefore, present only general more policy areas than they would be if over which government is responsible principles for adaptation by govern­ lumped in a single department. This is for what cannot be settled. . t ments according to their needs. more likely to be the case if the man­ 6. Another widespread problem, espe- dates of each department specify conser­ The problems cially in developing countries, is the lack vation. It is therefore not essential to of skilled personnel. Often this is due to 2. The development of conservation combine these and closely related agen­ inadequate training facilities (see next law, like that of environmental law in cies such as public health in departments section); but low salaries (in comparison general, until recently has been some­ of environment and natural resources, with the private sector) and poor ad­ what piecemeal and haphazard-in re­ but it is necessary to provide a coordi­ ministrative organization are also sig­ sponse to sectoral needs and, sometimes, nating mechanism for living resource nificant factors. As an example of this to emergencies. Consequently, legisla­ agencies in order to bridge gaps and re­ last, the few trained foresters available tion concerning living resources in many duce conflicts and duplication. Similarly, may be located only in national and pro­ countries is marred by gaps, duplication while the combination of use and pro­ vincial capitals. In Thailand, because and even conflicts. A still more common tection of a resource is perfectly rational, field staff are paid less than headquar­ and especially serious problem, howev­ the mandates of agencies charged with ters staff, and because of the hardship er, is the failure to implement laws and the two duties should specify conserva­ of life in the field, more than half the regulations whatever their quality. tion, making it clear that unsustainable trained foresters work in the capital 1. Sometimes lack of implementation is exploitation of the resource concerned due to the law being so stringent that would be a breach of the mandate. Action required people must flout it to survive. General­ 4. The need for cross-sectoral coordi­ Legislation ly, however, it is because the law implies nation is particularly important in the 7. Each country should review and a governmental commitment and infra­ cases of soil conservation and the con­ consolidate its legislation concerning liv­ structure or a degree of public under­ servation of marine living resources. ing resources to ensure that it provides standing and support that simply do not Few developing countries have the organ­ sufficiently for conservation. Each coun­ exist. Legislation may, for example, izational capacity to check the rapidly try should also review-and if necessary authorize the sale of pesticides only increasing loss of land and water strengthen-its capacity to implement upon a written affidavit that the pesti­ resources by erosion and to prevent fur­ its conservation legislation, both exist­ cide has been tested-yet the facilities ther loss through effective soil and water ing and required. Ideally, a commitment for testing may be inadequate 1. Often conservation measures2. Still fewer to conserve the country's living re­ budgets are entirely inadequate for en­ countries (whether developing or devel­ sources should be incorporated in the forcement, penalties are weak, and juris­ oped) are able to manage efficiently their constitution or other appropriate legal dictional conflicts between agencies or use of the sea. Like the land, the sea is instrument. The commitment should lay between central government and local an area of multiple use. It is used for down the obligation of the state to con­ government prevent the law from being food production, transport, mining and serve living resources and the systems of implemented. quarrying, oil production, recreation which they are part, the rights of citizens 3. Two common failings of organiza­ and waste disposal. Unlike the land, to a stable and diversified environment, tion are a lack of coordination among however, very little attempt is made to and the corresponding obligations of agencies responsible for living resources, manage for multiple use. Such regula­ citizens to such an environment. and mandates that charge the same tory bodies as exist are generally 8. There should be specific legislation agency with both the exploitation and concerned with a single resource, such as aimed at achieving the objectives of con­ the protection of a resource. Living fish. As a result, the seas and their living servation by providing for both the sus­ resources are commonly the responsibil­ resources are increasingly being overex­ tainable utilization and the protection of ity of several different agencies: for ex­ ploited and degraded. living resources and of their support sys­ ample, agriculture, forestry, fisheries, 5. The capacity to manage living tems. Comprehensive conservation legis­ wildlife, rural development, water. The resource use can also be weakened by lation should provide for the planning of consequences of such fragmentation the division of conservation responsibili­ land and water uses and should regulate vary. On the one hand, conservation ar­ ties among different levels of govern­ both direct impacts on the resource, such guments may be diluted and positions ment-normally central (or national), as exploitation and habitat removal, and

Notes and references 2. FAO. 1977. Soil conservation and management in developing 1977. Development of soil and water services in developing 1. US Agenc) for International De\elopment. 1979. f.iiriml/lllrntal countries: report of an expert consultation held in Rome 22- countries- specific requirements and possibilities for assistance. and natural resource management in de1•e/oping cmmtries: a 26 November 1976. FAO Soils Bulletin. 33. In FAO Soils Bulletin, 33. report to Congress. Volume I: Report. USAID, Department of 3. These recommendations are based on those of the working State, Washington. DC. group of the expert consultation cited in ref. 2: and on: Gil, N. ation and organization

indirect ones, such as pollution or intro­ 11. The following principles should coordinate operations. If soil or water duction of exotic species. In addition, it form the basis of organization within management services already exist with­ should include requirements to under­ government to achieve conservation: in some agencies, they should be take ecosystem evaluations, environ­ a. the different agencies with responsi­ brought into a single unit, combining: mental assessments, and like mechan­ bilities for living resources should aspects of land use and of soil and farm isms to ensure the incorporation of have clear mandates and such man­ management relevant to conservation, ecological considerations into policy dates should specifically include erosion control, soil conservation, land making. The law should also provide for conservation; consolidation, range management, irri­ the participation of citizens in the elabo­ b. there should be a permanent mech­ gation and drainage, flood control, ration of policies, for the provision anism for joint consultation on and surface water storage, groundwater of sufficient information for participa­ coordination of both the formulation resources, and so on. It is recommended ti.on to be effective, and for legal and the implementation of policies; that the unit include a section respon­ recourse to implement these rights. In sible for comprehensive watershed plan­ addition there is a need to revise tradi­ c. such a mechanism can be achieved ning. Since a full-scale unit, as out­ tional concepts of the law of remedy, by giving new authority to existing· lined here, would initially be beyond which currently envisage compensation agencies or by establishing new units the reach of many countries, it would be only for economic loss, narrowly defined, in existing agencies; by setting up sensible to form a small comprehensive and do not provide for indirect or long comprehensive agencies responsible watershed planning service as a first term damage to individuals and commu­ for all living resources; or by setting step. This service could start off with nities through the depletion of species up cabinet-level units to ensure that relatively small projects covering a few or the destruction or degradation of all sectors concerned carry out their lesser watersheds, allowing it to acquire ecosystems. conservation responsibilities; expertise and accumulate greater re­ d. each agency should be required by sponsibilities over a period oftime3. 9. Special attention should be paid to statute to disclose and explain its the enforcement of conservation law. positions to the public; 14. New organizations are needed-or Enforcement is a multidisciplinary activ­ e. policies and decisions should be im­ mechanisms need to be established to ity that should begin with the design of plemented; sufficient financial and coordinate existing organizations-so legislation. It is necessary but not suffi­ other resources should be provided to that marine living resources can be cient to provide adequately trained and make this possible. managed comprehensively rather than funded personnel to implement and along sectoral lines. The basic unit of police the law. It is also important to 12. The more limited the availability of management should be the ecosystem. make sure in advance that the law is trained planners and managers the more There should be close cooperation ecologically, economically and socially important it is to avoid dispersing them among the organization or organiza­ feasible. Public education programmes among agencies with narrow mandates tions responsible for the living resources may be required both before and after and conflicting aims. To encourage of one ecosystem and those responsible the law comes into force to help the recruitment at the technical level it may for ecosystems linked to that ecosystem public understand and support it. If the be necessary to provide professional rec­ by significant exchanges of nutrients or law imposes undue hardship on a partic­ ognition to technicians., Where dispari­ movements of species. There should also ular segment of society, then measures ties between private sector and public be close cooperation between marine to relieve that hardship may be needed. sector salaries increase the shortage of management bodies and the authorities The effects and the effectiveness of the trained personnel, public sector salaries responsible for contiguous areas of the law should be monitored so that, if should be increased. Similarly, the sal­ land, since impacts on freshwater sys­ necessary, the law or its enforcement can aries offield personnel should be at least tems and on coastal habitats greatly af­ be improved. as high as those of headquarters staff­ fect marine living resources. Coordina­ indeed they may need to be higher to tion should be especially close between Organization compensate for poor conditions. organizations responsible for fixing IO. Governments should review the sta­ 13. Because soil and water conserva­ catch levels, closed seasons and other tus, organization and funding of agen­ tion involves environmental planning fisheries regulations and those charged cies with responsibilities for living and many kinds of land use (for exam­ with ensuring the integrity of the habi­ resources. They should take the neces­ ple, agriculture, livestock raising, fores­ tats on which the marine living resources sary steps-including changes in legisla­ try, mining, road building) a special or­ depend. Great care should be taken to tion-to ensure that conservation poli­ ganization is needed to promote and ensure that coastal wetlands, shallows cies are implemented and that the agen­ coordinate conservation measures. It is and other critical marine habitats are cies concerned have the resources and therefore recommended that a soil and properly protected from pollution and the staff to carry out promptly and fully water conservation body be established other forms of inappropriate modifica­ ecosystem evaluations, environmental at the policy making level. If no related tion. Full account should be taken of the assessments and any other measure organization exists, a high level technical effects of changes in ecosystems on the required for the conservation of living unit should be set up in association with species utilized and of changes in catch resources. the policy making body to initiate and levels on ecosystems.

o IUCN· UNEP· WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 12. llllproving the capacity to lllanage: train

The problems matters as the extent to which coastal should be strengthened as appropriate. 1. A major constraint on the imple­ wetlands can be modified, the pollution Training is required at three levels: pro­ mentation of conservation measures is a absorption capacities of fresh waters, fessional; technician ; user. and the most favorable cropping pat­ lack of trained personnel. In many coun­ 6. At the professional level there is a terns for integrated pe~t control. tries the lack of environmental lawyers, need both for specialists (individuals for example, means that out-of-date 3. Although a great deal is known able to make detailed studies, surveys, laws are not revised or another country's about many species and ecosystems, and designs for specific practices) and legislation is duplicated without being what we know about the biosphere is for generalists (individuals with a broad adapted to local conditions 1. There is less than what we do not know. The grasp of the theory and practice of con­ often an acute need for people trained in dynamics of many important ecosystems servation--either within a sector or living resource management, such as and the relationships among ecosystems cross-sectorally-and with an overall foresters, and watershed managers. In­ are also poorly known. It is therefore understanding of the various disciplines donesia, for example, currently has on­ seldom possible to predict accurately the involved). Appropriate university or col­ ly 400 foresters, or one forester per effects of human actions on a great lege courses are required to meet ei­ 3000 km2 of forest (or fewer than one many ecosystems-at least not in a way ther need. The .interdisciplinary courses per timber concession)2. The list of that might be useful to a policy maker­ required for the training of generalists scientists and professionals needed by without special and often lengthy may well have to involve several facul­ developing countries is long: ecologists, research. The same generalization ap­ ties-as indeed will the training of some geologists, hydrologists, public health plies to determining sustainable yields specialists, such as soil conservationists, engineers, environmental economists, from multi-species fisheries. Such lack of where the subject demands knowledge environmental planners, and so on. knowledge often causes difficulties be­ of a number of disciplines (such as, in Even where professional staff are avail­ tween policy makers and resource the case of soil conservation for exam­ able there is an acute shortage of techni­ man~gers on the one hand and the ecol­ ple, agriculture; range management, cians: scientists, for example, may find ogists .and other scientists that advise forestry, civil engineering, hydrology, themselves having to maintain their own them on the other. The former expect a ecology). Research components of equipment3. Sometimes the shortage of clarity and precision of advice that is university courses should be relevant to technicians is exacerbated by the short­ premature (and, if attempted, may well the student's own country and prefera­ age of professionals, because successful make the advice wrong); the latter can­ bly should be carried out there. Univer­ trainee technicians may decide to con­ not avoid stressing the real and impor­ sities providing courses for foreign tinue their education so that they can tant uncertainties that exist. students should make every effort to achieve the higher status and salaries of provide for this requirement. the professions 3. 4. Governments and resource users are scarcely ever in a position to defer action 2. Many countries also lack adequate pending the outcome of a protracted information. Generally this is because research programme. Yet action based the countries' data gathering capabilities on inadequate knowledge carries a grave are weak, but even when they are satis­ risk that it will fail or be unnecessarily factory information flow is hampered by destructive. Unacceptable consequences poor data retrieval and distribution sys­ of lack of knowledge are best avoided tems. As a result of such deficiencies (as far as possible) by good planning and countries lack the information base management, so that development activ­ necessary for rational resource planning ities can be so located and conducted and management: for example, the ex­ that risk is reduced. At the same time tent of forest cover and the rate of its management needs to be more research­ removal; aquatic pollution levels and as­ oriented and research more manage­ similative capacities; and species inven­ ment-oriented so that the most urgently tories for protected areas. Comprehen­ required knowledge is generated most sive air and water monitoring systems quickly. are so expensive and sophisticated that Trainees at the Garoua College of Wildlife Management, only developed countries can afford Action required Cameroon. Photo: Andrew Allo/Parks. them 3; but not enough is known about Training the dynamics of tropical ecosystems to 5. Each country should review the 7. At the technician level there is an develop less expensive but equally reli-· capacities of its universities and other acute need for people trained to operate able systems using indicator species. The centres of higher education to train pro­ in the field as agricultural and fisheries level of applied research on ecosystems fessionals and technicians in the exper­ extension officers, wildlife and protected and their modification needs to be tise and skills necessary for planning and area managers, soil conservation work­ stepped up considerably if policy makers managing the use of living resources. ers, foresters, and so on. This need is are to be given better advice on such National and regional training facilities probably most effectively met by a com-

Notes and references 3. US Agency for International Development. 1979. Environmental policy. In: International Whaling Con~mission. Twenty-sevenlh and natural resource managemenl in dei•eloping countries: a report report

bination of institutional and in-service scientific and research programmes. eluding assessment, research and moni­ training. Institutional (post-secondary They should establish national councils toring. Accordingly managers should be school) training both enables the student to encourage universities and other concerned as much with generating new to enhance his or her basic educational bodies to increase and coordinate their knowledge to improve management of skills (where necessary) and provides living resource research activities and to the resources for which they are respon­ recognition of status through the confer­ relate research to conservation action on sible as they are with implementing ral of diplomas. In-service training en­ the ground. Research programmes management decisions made in response ables the student to acquire rapidly es­ should cover three broad overlapping to current knowledge. Often this will sential practical experience. To help areas: mean increased emphasis on experimen­ countries build up cadres of trained per­ inventory-this includes research on tal management, for example by delib­ sonnel, overseas organizations operating the distribution of ecosystems and erately overexploiting one stock and un­ in developing countries should include species in each country; derexploiting another to test whether counterpart training in every project. otherwise untestable assumptions about functional-this includes research on the state of the exploited population are 8. Finally at the user level, farmers, ecosystem dynamics and relation­ valid 4. Experimental management is like­ pastoralists, fishermen, loggers, planta­ ships, the effects of human activities ly to be the most rapid and reliable, and tion operators and other land and water on ecological processes and vice ver­ frequently the only way of determining users need to be trained in production sa, baseline monitoring, and other what production systems (whether of methods that are both sustainable and basic ecosystem, species and popula­ agriculture, livestock production, forest­ more productive in the long term than tion studies; ry, fisheries, or combinations of these) present practice. This requires that ex­ management-oriented-this includes are both highly productive and sustain­ tension services be staffed with sufficient research into standards, techniques able. A non-experimental, passive ap­ numbers of extension workers to main­ and technologies that will improve proach to management, by contrast, tain effective contact with land/water the planning and management of liv­ may lead to the adoption of systems that users and of specialists to provide exten­ mg resource use. are either unnecessarily conservative sion workers with adequate technical (with the desire for sustainability leading support. To be successful, extension serv­ 11. Inventories and functional studies to a loss of output) or recklessly exploit­ ices must take great pains to explain to provide essential information for ecosys­ ative (with the desire for output leading land/water users the need, purpose and tem evaluations, for decisions on the op­ to collapse of the resource) 5. expected results of any measures they timum distribution and management recommend. Demonstration, normally objectives for protected areas, for deci­ International research involving the more responsive members sions on where particular conservation 13. Much research necessary for the of the community, will be most im­ measures are most needed, and for many management of living resources can be portant for convincing the community at other aspects of planning and manage­ conducted most ·cost-effectively either large of the value of such measures. ment. Important studies falling under by international organizations or by these headings include: field studies, in­ national organizations working within Research cluding mapping; of the location, extent internationally coordinated research 9. Although there will always be a and severity of erosion; mapping of the programmes. The latter are particularly need for more knowledge, it is most im­ relationships between the distribution of. useful, not only for the study of large­ portant that the considerable body of important, rare or threatened species, scale phenomena such as climate and knowledge that already exists be used. ecosystems and their support systems, biogeochemical cycles but also as a Too often the need for additional study and of actually or potentially damaging means of avoiding unnecessary duplica­ is put forward as an excuse for not tak­ human activities; research on those tion of research effort. Examples of such ing conservation action. By contrast, social and institutional factors contri­ programmes include Unesco's Man and development projects are too often in­ buting to living resource problems, con­ the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and itiated without sufficient study of their tributing to the solution of such prob­ the work of the Scientific Committee potential impacts. Environmental as­ lems, or acting as obstacles to solutions. on Problems of the Environment sessment of development projects and (SCOPE) of the International Council of other actions may reveal the need for 12. Although such studies are not so Scientific Unions (ICSU). MAB pro­ research. Whether such actions should directly management-oriented as are, for vides a valuable opportunity for an inte­ be deferred pending the outcome of the example, investigations of the produc­ grated research programme into ecosys­ required research will depend on the cir­ tive capacity of a fishery so that a catch tei;ns and ecological processes, using cumstances of each case. Prior relevant level can be set, or of the assimilative the world-wide network of biosphere research can reduce the necessity for capacity of a river so that a pollution reserves, to provide a strategic ecologi­ such hard choices. standard can be fixed, they make a sub­ cal information base. SCOPE provides, stantial contribution to management ef­ amongst otber things, an international 10. Governments should place living fectiveness. Indeed management in the research agenda concerning essential resource research high in their national broadest sense can be regarded as in-· ecological processes.

mud Rei'iew of Ecology and SystemaNcs. 9: 157-188: and: Holl­ ing, C.S. (editor). 1978. Adaprfre environmental assessment and mallaf?ement. John Wiley and Sons. New York.

c JUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 13. Building support for conservation: parti

1. Ultimately the behaviour of entire to persuade people of the contribu­ At whatever stage it is involved, the pub­ societies towards the biosphere must be tion of conservation to development lic should be given time and information transformed if the achievement of con­ or the relevance of conservation to sufficient for it to influence decisions. servation objectives is to be assured. A the concerns of, say, business people, new ethic, embracing plants and animals trade unionists or health officials. Benefits of public participation as well as people, is required for human There is a wealth of emotional ap­ societies to live in harmony with the peals directed at affluent audiences in rural areas natural world on which they depend for and of didactic explanations of how More information is acquired about survival and wellbeing. The long term ecosystems work. But the cases for local needs, problems, capabilities task of environmental education is to the maintenance of ecological life­ and experience; effective planning foster or reinforce attitudes and behav­ support systems and for the preserva­ and implementation require specific iour compatible with this new ethic. tion of genetic diversity are too often information of the sort only local made anecdotally and without suffi­ people can provide efficiently. The problems cient documentation to convince the Better plans can be made that are 2. Lack of awareness of the benefits of sceptical. Furthermore, they have not more realistic about what is possible, conservation and of its relevance to been documented fully enough or de­ what will be done, and what suits ac­ everyday concerns prevents policy mak­ scribed with sufficient precision to tual conditions best. ers, development practitioners and the provide guidance to policy makers To the extent that local people are general public from seeing the urgent on what ecological processes and involved in decision making and have need to achieve conservation objectives. genetic resources are indispensable had some voice in what is to be done Ultimately, ecosystems and species are and should be secured as a matter of with local resources, they may con­ being destroyed because people do not priority. tribute labour and funds, as well as see that it is in their interests not to des­ Action required land and materials. troy them. The benefits from natural Public participation Implementation will be smoother and ecosystems and their component plants quicker once understanding and as­ and animals are regarded by all but a 4. Local community involvement and consultation and other forms of public sent have been generated through few as trivial and dispensable compared participation-as people usually co­ with the benefits from those activities participation in planning, decision mak­ ing and management are valuable means operate more willingly in decision~ that entail their destruction or degrada­ in which they have participated. tion. Until people understand why they of testing and integrating economic, should safeguard ecosystems and species social and ecological objectives. They Talent for management and adminis­ they will not do so. also provide a safeguard against poorly tration can be developed in the rural considered decisions and an indispens­ sector to complement that of the 3. There are two distinct problems: able means of educating both the public government. Public participation in conservation/ in the importance and problems of con­ Integration of activities and services development decisions is seldom ade­ servation, and policy makers, planners will be more effective and complete. quate. Consequently the decisions and managers in the concerns of the Maintenance of investments in roads. may not reflect sufficiently the ex­ public. Participation tends to build pub­ canals, terraces, buildings and other perience and wishes of the people af­ lic confidence and improve the public's facilities is usually better where the fected, and the benefits of the pro­ understanding of management objec­ local people have been consulted and gramme or project may be fewer than tives. It provides additional data for involved in their creation. expected. planners and policy makers. Public par­ Political support will be greater Although there has been progress, ticipation is particularly important in rural development, for without the ac­ where the facilities and services creat­ there is insufficient environmental ed under government auspices are education. Informal education pro­ tive involvement of the people-includ­ ing identification by them of the prob­ those identified by rural people as grammes, directed at the adult pub­ more important and valuable. lic, are haphazard; and formal pro­ lems that most need tackling and how to deal with them-little can be achieved The judgment of the people affected grammes, directed at schoolchildren by development programmes is es­ and students, are still too few and in­ (see box for a list of the advantages of public participation in rural areas). sen.tial for the evaluation of such adequate. Relatively little can be programmes. achieved and few achievements will 5. The extent of public involvement last while the contribution of conser­ in the development planning process Source: I. vation objectives to development and depends on both the attitude of the the requirements of achieving those government and the interest of the com­ Environmental education campaigns and objectives remain poorly communi­ munity. Ideally, however, public partici­ programmes cated. Despite the enormous growth pation should be at all stages of the 6. If the users of living resources of conservation literature, there are development process from policy mak­ (farmers, fishermen, foresters, industries few information materials designed ing to project formulation and review. based on living resources, recreational

Notes and references I. Adapted from: World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Rural Development. 1979. Rerieir and analysis of agrarian nform and rural del'elopment in the del'e/oping countries since the 111 ;d 1960s. WCARRD/TNF3. FAO, Rome. cipation and education

users, and so on) are unaware of the tion to the achievement of the policies jectives and their contribution to human need to conserve the resources they are and goals that most concern the target survival and wellbeing. Jn addition, spe­ using, an education campaign should be audience. There is a particular need for cial areas should be set aside for train­ prepared for them ; the same goes for well documented accounts of the extent ing, demonstration and education in other groups that may have an impact and manner in which societies at dif­ ecology and conservation (for use by on living resources, even if they do not ferent stages of development depend on schools, universities and the general use them so directly, if they are unaware the achievement of each of the three ob­ public). Such conservation education of the need to manage their activities in jectives of conservation. Also needed are areas, besides serving their essential edu­ ways that are as compatible as possible . collections of case histories of sucessful cational function, could also help take with conservation. If, however, govern­ conservation and sustainable develop­ pressure off reserves protecting particu­ ment does not recognize the need to ment projects. larly fragile or unique ecosystems. Pub­ meet the conservation requirements IO. Whenever possible, education pro­ lic concern for popular animals (such as concerned, special efforts will be needed grammes should be included in all con­ whales) should be used to foster better to direct information on the importance servation and resource-use projects in understanding of the ecosystems of of such requirements to the appropriate order to improve local understanding which those animals are part, and of legislators and decision makers. and support for conservation and to en­ how people both affect those ecosystems 7. Advantage should be taken of cir­ hance the projects' prospects of lasting and benefit from them. cumstances when pro-conservation deci­ success. These programmes should sup­ 13. Certain living resource issues need sions are evidently the most profitable plement programmes to train and equip much greater public exposure. As a mat­ within the time-frame of concern of · local communities in improved ter of priority, an intensive public educa­ legislators and decision makers, namely: resource-use practices. Existing agricul­ tion campaign, explaining the effects of when the leaders are personally con­ tural and other extension services should introduced species, should be directed at vinced that conservation policies are be used to promote conservation; and the pet trade and consumers, recrea­ the right course to pursue; literacy programmes should include tional hunting and fishing groups, when the electorate is so convinced conservation material. governmental agricultural, wildlife and and makes it clear that it will vote for 11. School curricula should include en­ fisheries administrations, and at other those policies; vironmental education both as an intrin­ bodies responsiple either for allowing or when influential groups within the sic part of other subjects (so that conser­ for promoting introductions. Also un­ country are educated in and commit­ vation attitudes can influence all activi­ derstanding of and support for sustain­ ted to conservation policies; ties) and as a separate subject (so that able exploitation should be built up among both users and consumers of when pro-conservation decisions are ecology can be taught more formally and its concepts more readily grasped). living resources; this is especially neces­ an effective way of achieving other sary with respect to those resources that policy objectives. Inexpensive teaching materials (text­ books, audio-visual aids, posters, are exploited commercially. 8. Organizers of education pro­ pamphlets, and so on) should be pre­ 14. The need for environmental educa­ grammes should determine the mam pared. The materials should explain eco­ target groups of such programmes, tion is continuous because each new logical concepts and the objectives of generation needs to learn for itself the define precise programme objectives, conservation, using local examples and select the media and techniques that importance of conservation. As such, in­ wherever possible. The effectiveness of dividual campaigns and programmes are most effective with the target groups. teaching materials should be regularly Results, together with the techniques should not be regarded as ends in them­ evaluated. Environmental education selves but as part of a long term, itera­ and materials used, should be regularly should also be an important part of the tive process. It should also be recognized evaluated against the stated objectives. out-of-school activities of children. The most important target groups are: that any educational campaign is in Wildlife clubs should be encouraged; competition for public attention with legislators and administrators; and environmental education included many others, including advertising cam­ development practitioners, industry in the activities of youth groups. paigns. To win and retain as much of and commerce, and trade unions; 12. As well as focussing on special in­ this attention as possible, it is essential professional bodies and special in­ terest groups, the several mass media for conservation to be seen as central to terest groups; (radio, television, newspapers and human interests and aspirations. At the communities most affected by con­ periodicals) should be fully used to same time, people-from heads of state servation projects; reach the general public. Advantage to the members of rural communities--­ schoolchildren and students. should be taken of those occasions when will most readily be brought to demand the public comes into contact with conservation if they themselves recog­ 9. Education programmes directed at plants and animals-in national parks nize the contribution of conservation to any of the first three groups require and other protected areas, in zoos and the achievement of their needs, as per- clear, succinct information materials botanical gardens, and in natural history , ceived by them, and the solution of their showing the contribution of conserva- museums-to explain conservation ob- problems, as perceived by them.

© IUCN-UNEP·WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 14. Conservation-based rural dev,elopnient

1. Probably the most serious conserva­ pressure of numbers. Often, because resource base and improve the quality of tion problem faced by developing coun­ they come separately and not as part of life. A widespread requirement is the tries is the lack of rural development. In a coordinated rural development pro­ restoration of overexploited and heavily their struggle for food and fuel growing gramme, such developments ultimately degraded living resources. Unfortunate­ numbers of desperately poor people find exacerbate the problems of the rural ly, many rural communities are so poor themselves with little choice but to strip poor. For example, improved veterinary that they lack the economic flexibility large areas of vegetation until the soil it­ care, new wells, and the opening up of that would enable them to defer con­ self is washed or blown away. Often the previously uninhabitable land by the sumption of the resources in need of res­ rural communities responsible for this eradication or control of diseases such toration. Conservation measures that destruction do not need to be told it is a as trypanosomiasis have enabled pasto­ require deferral of consumption will mistake: they are made acutely aware of ralists to increase their livestock num­ need to be complemented by measures it by an increasing lack of food, fuel, and bers and have provided them with new that at least will maintain the rural other necessities. What such communi­ areas of grazing land in part compensa­ comunity's standard of living and pre­ ties need is to be equipped to win their tion for areas lost to farmers. However, ferably will improve it. livelihoods in sustainable ways. This sec­ when these welcome developments have tion recommends means of helping rural not been accompanied by effective pro­ Restoration and compensation communities to conserve, as the essen­ visions for better pasture management­ 6. If soil and vegetation need to be re­ tial basis of the development they so and they seldom have been-the even­ stored, they must be given a respite from sorely need. tual result is usually heavy overgrazing intensive use. This requires integrated and often irreversible soil degradation. actions. In dryland areas these might in­ The problems Similarly, the change from shifting culti­ clude: the reduction of livestock num­ 2. More than 2,000 million people vation to settled arable farming---essen­ bers (possibly through price supports (about half the world's population) live tial when the cultivation/fallow cycle that encourage sale to market); increas­ in the rural areas of developing coun­ becomes unstable and. pressure on soil ing the efficiency of food production on tries, and despite urban migration this and vegetation increases--<:an cause still nearby irrigated and rainfed farms; the number is expected to grow to almost greater erosion unless farmers are employment of local people in replant­ 2,900 million by the end of the century 1. equipped to apply the necessary soil ing and reseeding schemes; and the pro­ Most rural people live by farming, fish­ conservation measures. In rural devel­ vision of alternative settlement areas ing and forestry or closely related activi­ opment, as in development generally, and alternative sources of water, fuel, ties. Many are extremely poor, some the narrow sectoral approach is almost food and other services (health, educa­ 1,200 million people being classified by invariably self-defeating. tion, job training, and so on). The full the United Nations as "seriously poor" understanding and participation of local 4. Unlike urban commumttes, the (of whom almost 800 million are "desti­ people in the formulation and imple­ rural poor are dispersed over very wide tute")2 with 500 million suffering from mentation of these plans is crucial for areas. Therefore, rural people are less malnutrition 3. In their effort to satisfy success. The problem of persuading advantageously placed than their urban their needs for food and fuel, the rural local people to participate is made easier compatriots to bring their problems to poor strip the land of trees and shrubs if they can be shown the successful the attention of government. For the for firewood, clear steep and unstable results of earlier projects. For this rea­ same reason, their problems are less slopes for cultivation, overgraze pas­ son, the areas most likely to respond to amenable to the kinds of development rehabilitation should be given priority tures, and overhunt and overfish the that governments with a narrow tax­ local wildlife. As a result, the daily sur­ and used as demonstration projects. base, inadequate institutions, poor vival decisions of the poor and hungry delivery of services to rural areas, and a disrupt their own life-support systems, 7. The protection of a large number of vociferous urban population, usually in­ impair ecological processes and destroy relatively small areas is especially valu­ itiate. It is ostensibly easier, and certain­ able in drylands to reveal what species genetic and other renewable resources ly more visible, to plan, finance and just as surely as do too many of the are present, to provide for seed produc­ manage a few large-scale projects-such development decisions of the rich and tion and to demonstrate ecological as a colonization scheme, or a dam + powerful in government and industry. recovery. Demonstrations of the benefits irrigation + hydroelectricity-than to of restoring the full natural cover and 3. It is extraordinarily difficult for promote and oversee many village-scale productivity of the vegetation may be governments to deal with these prob­ projects. Yet the planning and manage­ necessary to persuade local people that a lems because of their huge scale, because ment of most large-scale projects leave relaxation of pressure on grazing lands there are so many people and produc­ much to be desired, they are often short­ is essential. Protected areas and other tion units with which to deal-millions lived or marred by harmful side-effects, conservation measures, however, may of villages and hundreds of millions of and they yield few benefits to the rural restrict access to fuel, food, forage and households and small farms-and poor. other products. If substitutes are not because of the pace of change. Develop­ then provided to compensate for the loss ments such as improved health services, Action required of these resources, the local community better veterinary services, new wells, and 5. There is an urgent need for rural is likely to frustrate the conservation higher yielding crop varieties, bring fur­ development that combines short term measures concerned. Compensatory ther changes to a situation that is al­ measures to ensure human survival with ,measures might include pasture im­ ready changing rapidly due to sheer long term measures to safeguard the provement, the establishment of fuel-

Notes and references dl'velopment in the developing countries since 1he mid 1960s. and basic needs: And: World Bank. 1978. World development WCARRD/JNF J. FAO. Rome. report. Both cited by ref. I. I. World Confrrem.:e on Agrarian Reform and Rural Develop· 3. An estimated 455 million people in developing countries were ment. 1979. R('1'ie11· and anal.ni.1 of" agrarian reform and rural 2. International Labour Office {ILO). 1972. Employment, growth malnourished during the period 1972-1974, the number having wood plantations, and the prov1s10n through prov1s10n of local advantages To provide demonstrations and training of credit or alternative food, fuel or such as increased opportunities for em­ there needs to be a rapid strengthening fibre, as appropriate. If the measures ployment and commerce. Similarly, to of extension services. It is particularly concerned take time to bear fruit they foster local support and understanding, important that extension services be in­ must be supplemented by measures the local community should be involved terdisciplinary, multisectoral, and sensi­ bringing immediate benefits. For exam­ in the protected area from the start-by tive to the social and cultural charac­ ple, if a protected area or a watershed being adequately consulted on manage­ teristics of the area. Advice to farmers forest is threatened by wood-cutting for ment and by being given any employ­ on how to improve yields or assistance fuel, it will be necessary not only to es­ ment or other economic opportunities to pastoralists to maintain better herds tablish a fuelwood plantation but also to associated with the protected area. Every should be provided within an ecological provide an alternative source of fuel that effort should also be made to explain why framework with particular emphasis on can be used at once. It would also be areas are being protected and what the soil and water conservation. prudent to provide the community short and long term advantages to the concerned with the means of conserving local community are likely to be. Any Traditional knowledge fuel supplies, such as more efficient feature of the protected area that may 10. Rural communities often have pro­ cookers. make it unique to the community or found and detailed knowledge of the ecosystems and species with which they are in contact and effective ways of en­ suring they are used sustainably. Even when a community is growing in num­ bers and is clearly destroying a part of its environment it should not be as­ sumed that all of this knowledge has dis­ appeared or become invalid or that the traditional ways of regulating use have atrophied. Such assumptions tend to be self-fulfilling-with the result that a sub­ sistence society with a prospect of devel­ oping harmoniously with its environ­ ment is more readily transformed into a poor cash society, hostile to attempts to regulate use and predisposed to degrade the environment still more severely. 11. Many traditional methods of living resource management are worth retain­ ing or reviving, either in their original or in modified forms. For example, field ex­ periments with traditional cropping sys­ A Masai herdsman and his cattle at a water hole in Amboseli, Kenya. The perennial waters of this national park are vital to all the region's animal life during the dry seasons. Photo: Robert C. Milne/Parks. tems in various parts of the world have demonstrated that many of these sys­ 8. A rural community and a protected nation should be stressed, and people en­ tems bring high yields, conserve area may be entirely compatible, de­ couraged to regard the area as a source of nutrients and moisture, and suppress pending on the community's relation­ local or national prestige. pests4. The efficiency of traditional ship with the ecosystems concerned and cropping systems can often be increased on the protected area's function. Many 9. For conservation-based rural devel­ not by introducing completely different protected areas benefit local people di­ opment to be successful, there will need ones but by identifying those elements rectly by assuring a regular supply of to be more research into sustainable sys­ which could be improved and making water or by providing habitat for wild­ tems of producing food and other goods the appropriate improvement. For ex­ life which may be hunted outside the from the rural sector, as well as training ample, Indonesian combinations of corn protected area; examples are the Royal and incentive programmes to encourage and rice have been shown to be both Chitwan National Park in Nepal and and equip rural communities to adopt more resistant to pests and more respon­ the Amboseli National Park in Kenya. those systems known to work now. sive to applications of nitrogen fertilizer However, the community should also be Among possible incentives are credit than are monocultures5. The original able to share in new benefits, such as in­ and marketing services adapted to the strategy of the so-called "Green Revolu­ come from recreation and tourism. Al­ needs of the small farmer and fisherman tion" of replacing tropical polycultures though local communities may benefit and tax reductions or exemptions. An (growing a number of crops together) indirectly from tourism if receipts by the indispensable incentive and ultimately with temperate-style monocultures is it­ national treasury are spent on such the one most likely to work is demonstra­ self increasingly being replaced by a new services as roads, water supply and tion within the communities concerned strategy: to retain the most productive health facilities, local commitment to a that the new systems provide a higher elements of tropical polycultures and protected area can only be assured quality oflife using the resources at hand. improve the remainder.

grown by 50 million in three years. See: FAO. 1977. The fourth lizing mixed cropping under indigenous conditions: the example 5. International Rice Research Institute. 1974. (see ref. 4). world food survey. of northern Nigeria. Journal of Development Stud;es, 11: 1-21; 4. See, for example: International Rice Research Institute (lRRI). Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 1974. An· 1974. Annual report/or 1973; Norman, David W. 1974. Rationa- nual report 1974. <> IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980

Priorities for international action WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 15. International action: lavv and assistance

1. Some living resources can be con­

Notes and references Natural Resources, the Convention on Nature Protection and 2. There are several regional and bilateral agreements covering Wild Life Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, the Con­ migratory species, notably: the Agreement on Conservation of I. Jn addition to the four global conservation conventions de­ vention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific, and the Polar Bears; the US-USSR Agreement on Migratory Species; scribed in the texti there are several regional agreements, notably: Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds between the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Habitats. Canada and USA, later supplemented by a similar treaty be- CITES by their national (scientific and Nations Conference on the Human En­ resources it is likely to affect, and should management) authorities. They should vironment. Although soft law is unen­ endeavour to ensure that: monitor trading in shops and through forceable it is of great value because it the proposed development is com­ newspaper and other advertisements; provides a set of generally agreed stand­ pat!ble with the recipient country's and they should ensure that the annual ards of international behaviour and nattonal conservation policy and reports and any proposals submitted by paves the way for the codification of strategy (if they exist); national authorities to the CITES secre­ such standards in a more binding form. tariat properly reflect conditions, in­ the proposed development is the forming the CITES secretariat should International assistance most appropriate response to the this not be the case. Conservation or­ 11. The funds spent by multilateral capabilities of the ecosystems concerned; ganizations with monitoring experience and bilateral development assistance ag­ could provide a useful service to other encies (more than $27,000 million an environmental assessment is car­ organizations by helping them to set up in 1976)3 can do a great deal towards ried out. their own monitoring systems. restoring the environment, tackling en­ 13. Nations lacking the capacity to vironmentally induced poverty, and Migratory Species Convention prepare or carry out national conserva­ enabling countries to make the best use tion strategies, ecosystem evaluations or 9. Migratory species, as defined by the of their resources, if the projects they environmental assessments or lacking Migratory Species Convention, are "the support are environmentally sound. It is adequate conservation laws, means of entire population of any species or lower recommended that such agencies make enforcing them, or organizations to ef­ taxon [such as a subspecies] of wild ani­ every effort to: fect the full range of required conserva­ mals, a significant proportion of whose direct funds to reforestation, the tion measures, should seek appropriate members cyclically and predictably restoration of degraded environ­ multilateral or bilateral assistance. cross one or more national jurisdictional ments, and the protection of water­ boundaries". The Migratory Species sheds, of mangroves and other criti­ How to join the four global Convention obliges parties to protect cal habitats for marine resources, and conservation conventions endangered migratory species and to en­ of genetic resources essential for Membership in international conventions re­ deavour to conclude agreements for the development; quires the deposit of appropriate diplomatic conservation of migratory species whose assess all projects for their ecological instruments (signed by the head of state or government, or by the minister in charge of status is "unfavourable". Existing re­ implications and ensure that they are gional and bilateral agreements on foreign affairs) with the designated Depositary ecologically sound; of the Convention. migratory species2 have demonstrated I. Convention on Wetlands of International that international conventions are the assist governments to design ecologi­ Importance, Especially as Waterfowl Habitat only effective means of protecting ani­ cally appropriate policies and to es­ (Wetlands Convention) mals that cross national boundaries. The tablish and maintain effective conser­ (concluded at Ramsar, 2 February 1971) vation infrastructures. Depositary: Director General of Unesco, Paris Migratory Species Convention, which is Instruments: a. signature without reservation potentially a strong one, is therefore of 12. Assistance should be made avail­ as to ratification; b. signature subject to great importance. Governments should able to enable requesting nations to ratification, followed by ratification: or join the convention without delay and develop the capacity to carry out c. accession. national conservation strategies, ecosys­ 2. Convention Concerning the Protection of the national and international organizations World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World should assist them to implement it. tem evaluations and environmental as­ Heritage Convention) sessments, and to implement cross­ (concluded at Paris, 23 November 1972) Development of new law sectoral conservation policies through Depositary: Director General of Unesco, Paris 10. Because of their force, strong inter­ appropriate legislation, training and Instruments: a. ratification or acceptance (by Unesco members); orb. accession (by all other national agreements are very important organization. Development agencies states). for the implementation of the World should assist governments on request to 3. Convention on International Trade in En­ Conservation Strategy. The more effec­ establish the laws, institutions and dangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora tive conventions need the constant, vig­ (CITES) procedures to enable them to conserve (concluded at Washington, 3 March 1973) orous support of governments, non­ their country's living resources. Devel­ Depositary: Federal Department for Foreign governmental organizations, and inter­ oping industries based wholly or partly Affairs of the Swiss Confederation, Bern national organizations; and the weaker on living resources should be encour­ Instruments: a. ratification, acceptance or approval (by states having signed before 31 De­ ones need strengthening. Action should aged and equipped to ensure that the cember 1974); or b. accession (by all other not be restricted to conventions, howev­ resources are exploited sustainably and states). er. Attention should also be paid to that the genetic diversity on which ulti­ 4. Convention on Conservation of Migratory some of the other ways in which inter­ mately they depend is preserved. Devel­ Species of Wild Animals (Migratory Species Convention) national law develops: for example, the opment assistance agencies have a (concluded at Bonn, 23 June 1979) exploration of new concepts such as the special responsibility to help-through Depositary: Foreign Office of the Federal Re­ application of environmental assessment the provision of appropriate advice public of Germany, Bonn procedures at the international level; and technical assistance-the recipient Instruments: a. signature (until 22 June 1980), nation ensure that financial assistance followed by ratification, acceptance or ap­ and the elaboration of "soft law" such proval; orb. accession. as the Declaration of the United makes the best use of the living

tween the United States and Mexico; the US·Japan Convention 3. Stein, Robert E., and Brian Johnson. 1979. Banking on the bio­ for the Protection of Migratory Birds and Birds in Danger of sphere? Emiironmental procedures and practices of nine multilater­ Extinction and their Environment; and the Japan·Australia al development agencies. Lexington Books, Lexington. Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds.

o !UCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 16. Tropical forests and drylands

Tropical forests and establishment of parks and through the establishment of protected l. Tropical forests are an important reserves in those areas; areas; but this will not be possible with­ renewable resource, acting as a reservoir strengthening of administrations re­ out greatly accelerated rural develop­ of genetic diversity, yielding a continual sponsible for protection and man­ ment outside the protected areas. Hence supply of forest products if managed agement of natural forests; what is needed is a ·combined rural sustainably, helping to regenerate soils development/protected area programme. reforestation including well designed and protect them from erosion, protect­ 4. Similar measures are required in ing areas downstream from floods and and strategically located forests to meet immediate needs for raw Asia, where priority should be given to siltation, buffering variations in climate, the exceptionally rich lowland (below and providing recreation and tourism. If materials, to serve as model ex­ amples for the development of neigh­ 300 metres) dipterocarp forests of tropical forests are exploited-as gener­ Borneo, peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra ally they are-with scant regard for their bouring areas, and to replace areas of forest already destroyed. and the Philippines, and in the Americas, ecological characteristics, the resource where priority should be given to the cannot renew itself. Hence while temper­ 3. Madagascar, the relict .forests of western Amazon basin, the Pacific coast ate forests seem to have reached a state Ethiopia and East Africa's mountains, areas of Colombia and Ecuador, and of equilibrium t, tropical forests are con­ and Ivory Coast are Africa's priority coastal and southeastern Brazil. The tracting rapidly as a result of expanding areas for genetic resource preservation softwood (coniferous) forests of south- shifting agriculture, spontaneous settle­ ment, planned colonization, clearance Priority tropical forest regions for plantations and ranching, cutting for fuel, and logging. It has been estimated Available estimates and projections of the global rate of tropical forest degrada­ that tropical rain forests are being felled tion and destruction are extremely unreliable and unsatisfactory. The most and burned at the rate of 110,000 km2 a recent, and the only one based on a country-by-country analysis, was prepared year; at this rate all of this forest type for the timber industry in order to assess the area of forest likely to be available to will have disappeared within 85 years2. it. It is not concerned with other uses (such as the preservation of genetic diversi­ Tropical forests are not uniform, how­ ty) or the impact of logging operations on those uses4. ever; nor is their rate of disappearance. Accordingly, the study considers logged-over forests as closed forests "as long as The most valuable, and the richest in they are not alienated for non-forestry purposes". Plantations established on species, are lowland rain forests-and clear-cut areas for purposes other than production of wood for industry are ·these are being destroyed_ .at a much retained within the "natural forest" category. A distinction is made between "op- faster rate. Many, like the lowland· . erable" or "productive" (for production of wood for industry) forests and "inop­ forests of Southeast Asia, are believed erable" forests. "Inoperable" forests include: protected forests (parks, wildlife unlikely to survive to the end of this reserves, and so on); forests on terrain that is too steep or wet; and forests, such century3. as most mangroves, "permanently without industrial wood potential". It is as­ 2. International action to conserve sumed that depletion will not affect these "inoperable" forests very much because tropical forests is required most urgently of their inaccessibility or their formal protection 4. Experience suggests this as­ in West and East Africa, South and sumption to be invalid. Southeast Asia, Central America and Nevertheless; the study is valuable because its country-by-country analysis Mexico, and parts of South America enables it to provide an approximate regional breakdown showing where rates (see box on this page and map 1 in the of destruction are fastest. This shows that the regions listed in the table below map section for details). In West and are the most acutely affected by tropical forest depletion (for definition of the East Africa the most important needs regions see map 1 in the map section): are: establishment of fuelwood planta­ TOTAL CLOSED "OPERABLE" HARDWOOD tions and of industrial plantations FORESTS FORESTS (existing and planned plantations area projected to % of area projected to % of will not even approach compensat­ be lost 1975-2000 1975 area be lost 1975-2000 1975 area ing the region for the projected loss 1,000 ha 1,000 ha of its natural forests)4; 54.7 in those countries that have estab­ West Africa 6,600 47.1 6,600 lished national parks or nature Centrally-planned reserves to protect genetic resources, tropical Asia 6,300 29.1 6,000 35.3 27.9 strengthening of such parks or South Asia 16,400 23.0 13,600 reserves, notably by allowing local East Africa and 3,200 50.4 people to benefit from buffer zones islands 3,300 17.8 and by making surrounding areas Insular Southeast 21,600 16.5 20,000 26.3 priorities for rural development; Asia Central America 10,900 13.4 4,600 23.9 in those countries that have not es­ Tropical South tablished parks or reserves, or where America 64,200 12.0 57,300 13.3 they are insufficient, identification of Continental South- areas of greatest genetic importance east Asia 4,100 10.6 4,000 13.3 and where human pressure is least,

Notes and references 2. Sommer, Adrian. 1976. Attempt at an assessment of the world's 4. Lanly, J.P .. and J. Clement. 1979. Present and future forest and 1. In terms of area only. They are still undergoing genetic impover- tropical forests. Unasylva, 28: 5-24. plantation areas in the tropics. FO: MISC/79/l. F AO, Rome. ishment. 3. Myers, Norman. 1979. The sinking ark. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 5. United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD). 1977. eastern Brazil are projected to decline forestry departments of the main tropi­ 11. The problem, therefore, is not one from 5.8 million hectares in 1975 to cal forest countries and representatives of not knowing what to do but of getting 0.8 million hectares in the year 2000 (a of the international timber trade to agreed action done. National and inter­ loss of 86 % ) 4. Softwood forest depletion govern the granting of concessions and national organizations should make spe­ is also serious in Central America (a loss the conduct of all extraction operations. cial efforts to persuade multilateral and of 20%) and the Caribbean (a loss of bilateral assistance agencies to support 22%). Since the pine species of these Drylands implementation of the Plan of Action. In regions provide the genetic raw materials 8. Drylands-areas where rainfall is countries where centuries of intensive for the forestation programmes of many · low and evaporation and transpiration human use have devastated the vegeta­ other tropical countries, urgent conser­ are high-cover about a third (50 million tion of large areas of dryland, there is vation measures are required 4. km2) of the earth's land surfaces. Unless much to rehabilitate but little left to pre­ used with care and skill, they are ex­ serve in the unexploited state. Emphasis 5. Regions where depletion pressures tremely prone to desertification-the should be on rehabilitation in areas of are less acute also need action, although gradual destruction or reduction of the high human and animal population its emphasis will be somewhat different. land's capacity for plant and animal densities. Because of the high densities, In such regions there is time to establish· production. Desertification threatens the the supply of alternative food, fuel, and networks of protected areas designed future of some 628 million people, of employment, however difficult, is man­ systematically to safeguard a compre­ whom about 78 million are now directly datory. Some immediate reduction of hensive range of the genetic diversity of affected by a drop in productivity of the firewood pressure is possible by use of tropical forests, especially of the tropical land on which they depend 5. Regions al­ more efficient wood stoves and better in­ rain forests. These regions are: the ready in the grip of desertification or at sulation of dwellings. The areas con­ Caribbean, Central Africa, developing high to very high risk cover 20 million km2 cerned are marked on the World Map of Oceania, and parts of tropical South -an area twice the size of Canada 6. The Desertification (see map 2 in the map America and of continental Southeast problem areas are arid and semi-arid section). In other countries, the emphasis Asia. In these regions also there should lands, 95% of which are threatened with should be on protecting some of the be greater scope for experimental re­ desertification (compared with 28% of many remaining unexploited areas. Then search and management to develop sub-humid lands)5. there are still other countries which have productive, sustainable systems for the both large areas of degraded dryland 9. Desertification is a response to the utilization of tropical forests. and large areas which have yet to be inherent vulnerability of the land and intensively exploited. Emphasis in these 6. In all regions there is an acute need the pressure of human activities. Pres­ should be on both rehabilitation and to: protect areas of unusual genetic sure of human numbers and numbers of protection. diversity; promote rural development livestock, together with unwise develop­ based on production systems that enable ment projects, the extension of rainfed 12. Several international activities al­ a high proportion of forest cover to be agriculture into unsuitable areas, inade­ ready under way should be encouraged retained; develop systems of commercial quate management of irrigated agricul­ and expanded: exploitation that utilize products other ture, overgrazing, and overcollection of Promotion of schemes for rehabilita­ than timber (for example, drugs, gums firewood, have already degraded vast tion of natural vegetation, including and resins, natural silk); ensure that areas and caused great human suffering. the selection of prime areas for felling and planting programmes are These pressures continue. demonstration projects such as the sustainable. The cooperation of devel­ UNEP/Unesco Integrated Project on oped countries is required to make sure 10. The United Nations Conference on Desertification (Nairobi, 29 August- Arid Lands, and similar work by Iran that their demand for tropical forest and the USSR. Enlightened pro­ products does not exceed the capacity 9 September 1977) synthesized into a Plan of Action6 a wide range of activities grammes such as these should be en­ of tropical forest countries to supply couraged and expanded, and the them non-destructively. addressing the complex biological, so­ cial, economic and political factors in­ results monitored, widely publicized 7. Efforts should be continued: to volved, based on the development of and used for demonstration. Partic­ develop more efficient means of using proper land use, including conservation ular encouragement should be given to schemes that reflect concern for tropical woods and other forest prod­ and enhancement ofliving resources and ucts; to reduce waste and incidental de­ water resources. It envisaged the success­ biological diversity. struction during exploitation; to stabilize ful halting of desertification throughout Identification and promotion of prime markets in tropical timbers; to develop the world by the end of this century areas for protection, including support plantations (using areas already cleared) through national programmes assisted for the Unesco/UNEP project to to meet forthcoming world needs for by intergovernmental and nongovern­ establish a comprehensive series of wood products. Suitable case studies are mental organizations coordinated by biosphere reserves in arid and semi­ required to demonstrate the economic UNEP. The funds necessary were seen arid regions. and other benefits to be derived from as coming from enhanced levels of multi­ Encouragement and support of re­ well planned and zoned multipurpose lateral and bilateral assistance rein­ search in the ecosystems of arid and use of tropical rain forests for the pro­ forced if possible by arrangements such semi-arid lands with the object of im­ duction of timber and other forest pro­ as a special anti-desertification fund and proving systems of management to duce, wildlife management, recreation, an international taxation scheme. There restore the potential of these lands scientific use, and so on. A code of prac­ is growing concern at the lack of im­ and enable them to be used in a sus­ tice should be drawn up jointly by the plementation of this Plan of Action. tainable manner.

Desertijication: an oi'erviell'. A/CONF.74/l; and: UNCOD. 6. United Nations. 1978. United Nations Conference on Desertifica· Further reading 1977. World mop of desertification. A/CONF.74/2. tion: round·up. plan of action and resolutions. United Nations. Unesco/UNEP/FAO. 1978. Tropical forest ecosystems: a state of New York. knowledge report ..Unesco, Paris.

"IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 17. A global progralllllle for the protection

I. Programmes to preserve genetic Concentrations of economic or useful tropical rain forests; resources tend to be conducted along varieties drylands; narrow sectoral lines: crops, forage 4. Global priorities for crops have Mediterranean-type ecosystems; plants, timber trees, livestock, microor­ been established by the International ganisms, animals for ·aquaculture, wild­ wetlands, especially freshwater ones Board for Plant Genetic Resources (notably in Europe). life, and so on. This is justifiable in the (IBPGR)l which has also determined case of off site preservation since each regional priorities for South Asia and 7. Similarly, the three most serious sector does have different requirements Southeast Asia2. Although on site pro­ threats to vertebrates are habitat de­ and therefore needs different collecting tection is seldom specified, several struction, overexploitation, and the ef­ programmes. However, it is not the best regional IBPGR reports recommend it fects of introduced species (respectively approach to the on site protection of and it is clearly essential for the wild affecting 67%, 37% and 19% of threat­ wild species. Since only a small propor­ relatives of many crops, these often be­ ened vertebrate species). Concentrations tion of the earth's surface is likely to be ing the major source of pest and disease of species threatened by habitat destruc­ available for long term protection, each resistance and other important adapta­ tion closely overlap concentrations of protected area should be so sited and tions. On site protection of such species species threatened by the effects of in­ managed as to protect as much genetic and varieties preserves their ability to troductions. Vertebrates threatened by material as possible. This requires co­ continue adapting to any change in the habitat destruction are concentrated in ordination among all the sectors populations of the pathog~ns affecting the following ecosystem groups s: concerned, as well as accurate knowl­ them. The IBPGR has identified ten edge of the locations of the species, sub­ high priority regions for the collection fresh waters, especially in North species and varieties most in need of and preservation of crop genetic America and in Africa; protection. As the basis of continuing resources: Mediterranean, West Africa, islands, especially in the tropics; evolution, wild gene pools are the com­ Ethiopia, Southwest Asia, South Asia, tropical rain forests; mon heritage of mankind. They there­ Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Mexico fore need an international cross-sectoral and Central America, the Andean zone, wetlands; programme for their protection on site. and Brazil. These, therefore, are also the tropical dry or deciduous forests. This section outlines an approach to priority regions for selecting protected such a programme. areas. However, more detailed analysis More than half the vertebrate species 2. It is recommended that each sector of the distribution of the wild relatives threatened by habitat destruction and identify those species, subspecies and of priority crops is needed before this 70% of the vertebrate species threatened varieties most in need of on site protec­ can be done. by the effects of introduced species are concentrated in ten areas: tion; their distribution; and those areas 5. Priorities for trees have been pro­ where their distribution overlaps. Such posed by the F AO Panel of Experts on fresh waters in North America and Mexico, West and Central Africa, areas of overlap--or concentrations of Forest Gene Resources 3. More than 130 priority species, subspecies and varie­ tree species have been identified as in Southern Africa; ties-should be selected as priority areas need of on site protection, most of them islands in Caribbean, Western Indi­ for protection. In some cases the areas in six regions: Africa, Southeast Asia, an Ocean, South Pacific, Hawaiian may be protected already. In all cases, Australia, Mexico, Caribbean and Cen­ Islands; governments should be encouraged to tral America, and Eastern USA and commit themselves to safeguarding the tropical forests in Southeast Asia, Canada. Priorities have not been estab­ Madagascar, South America. protected areas; and those commercial lished for aquatic animals, livestock, or sectors which use the resources con­ microorganisms. In the case of livestock, cerned should be persuaded to contri­ however, traditional domesticated Ecosystems of exceptional diversity bute to the financial costs of protection. breeds are likely to remain more impor­ 8. Terrestrial · ecosystems of excep­ 3. There are essentially three types of tant for breeding than wild relatives; tional diversity include tropical rain concentration of genetic resources: and microorganisms are unlikely to need forests (especially those of peninsular concentrations of wild and weedy special measures for on site protection, Malaysia, Borneo, Sulawesi, Sumatra, relatives of species of economic or off site preservation in culture collec­ Philippines, New Guinea, Central and useful value; tions being entirely adequate. South America, and Madagascar), the concentrations of threatened species tropical dry forests of Madagascar, (regardless of economic or useful Concentrations of threatened species the Mediterranean-type ecosystems of value); 6. The most serious threat to plant spe­ South Africa and Western Australia, and cies is habitat destruction. Plants threat­ very rich island systems such as New ecosystems of exceptional diversity. Caledonia and the Hawaiian Islands6. In addition, ecosystems (regardless. of ened in this way are concentrated in the following ecosystem groups4: Marine ecosystems of exceptional diver­ their diversity) that are unrepresented or sity include the coral ecosystems of the poorly represented in protected areas islands, especially oceanic islands in Inda-Malay archipelago, the Western should also be given priority. the tropics and subtropics; Pacific, the Northeast Pacific, the South-

Notes and references the National Biological Institute, Bogor, Indonesia, 4-6 July 4. Lucas, Gren, and Hugh Synge. 1978. Threatened higher plants. 1978: Report. IBPGR, Rome: and IBPGR. 1977. A cooperative JUCN General Assembly Paper GA.78/10 Add. 5. IUCN. I. IBPGR. 1976. Priorities among crops and regions. IBPGR, regional programme in Sm11hrnst Asia: a proposed organiza­ 5. Allen, Robert, and Christine Prescott-Allen. 1978. Threatened Rome. tional framework and plan ,~(action. IBPGR, Rome. vertebrates. JUCN General Assembly Paper GA.78/IO Add. 6. IUCN. 2. IBPGR. 1978. Report of JBPGR Workshop on South 1-sian 3. FAO. i977. Rt•pol'l 'ff/1£' Fourth Sessi{)/1 '!(Ifie FAO Panel of Plan/ Genetic Resources. IBPGR, Rome; IBPGR Reg10nal Experts 011 Forest Gene Resources (Canherra, Australia, 9-11 6. Goode, Ronald. 1974. The geography of the flowering plants. Committee for Southeast Asia. 1978. First meeting, hosted by March 1977). FO: FGR/4/Rcs. FAO, Rome. Longman, London. of genetic resource areas

east Pacific, the Caribbean, and the a dozen exist for tropical rain forests. particular plant or animal species should Southeast and Southwest Atlantic. In Nevertheless, the most critical gaps, sponsor the establishment and mainte­ addition, the Gulf of California, Gulf with fewer than six biosphere reserves, nance of protected areas for the preser­ of Mexico, Red Sea, Sea of Okhotsk, are in the following ecosystem groups: vation of the relevant species, its rela­ Sea of Japan, and China Sea are impor­ subtropical rainforests; tives and varieties. Such areas should be tant for their unique species 7. Excep­ regarded as crop and commodity banks tionally diverse freshwater ecosystems temperate needleleaf forests; on which the industrial sector concerned include the rivers of Amazonia, the riv­ cold winter deserts and semi-deserts; can draw for the development of new ers of West and Central Africa, the lakes strains of plant or animal with whatever tropical grasslands.and savannas; of East and Central Africa, the Caspian properties of productivity, pest or dis­ and Aral Seas and Lake Baikal in the temperate grasslands; ease resistance, responsiveness to dif­ USSR, the Mississippi drainage of river and lake systems. ferent soils and climates, nutritional North America, the rivers of India, and quality, and so on, may be required. the fresh waters of Borneo, Java and Financing the global programme 14. Similarly, industries and other Sumatra 7. I 1. Protecting genetic resources is an commercial enterprises that depend on Ecosystems that are unrepresented or international responsibility and the costs naturally occurring chemical compounds poorly represented. in protected areas and benefits of doing so should be either for raw materials or for product shared equitably. Many countries par­ ideas should sponsor the establishment 9. Review of the distribution of pro­ ticularly rich in genetic resources are and maintenance of protected areas for tected areas of the lands shows that developing ones that can ill-afford to the preservation of representative sam­ 35 of the 193 biogeographical provinces bear alone the burden of their on site ples of ecosystem types, unique ecosys­ listed9 have no national parks or equiv­ protection. An international mechanism tems, the habitats of unique and of alent reserves and a further 38, while is needed by which those countries with threatened species, and other ecosystems having at least one park or reserve, are an especially heavy responsibility can be essential for the preservation of genetic inadequately covered (see map 3 in the compensated. The assistance provided diversity. Such areas should be regarded map section). Representative samples by the IBPG R in the case of crop genetic as potential product banks on which the of the ecosystems in these provinces resources is a start in this direction; but industrial sector concerned (for exam­ should be given protection as soon as all types of genetic resources should be ple, pharmaceuticals) could draw for possible. In addition, all the other prov­ covered, and contributions should come the development of new or improved inces need to be examined for the quali­ not only from governments and interna­ products. ty of their coverage. In many of them tional organizations but also from the only a small proportion of ecosystem­ 15. Many businesses benefit from wild commercial enterprises which benefit plants and animals, often in ways that types are covered by protected areas, directly from living resources. and the protection of many of them is may easily be overlooked. For example, inadequate. Special attention should be 12. Commercial participation should alginate compounds from brown sea­ paid to concentrations of unique species be regarded not as conferring special weeds are used in shampoos, soaps, within each province and to areas of ex­ rights of use but in recognition of shared cosmetics, paints, dyes, paper products, ceptionally high diversity-notably low­ responsibility. Unfortunately, commer­ fire-extinguishing foams, building mate­ land forests (those below 300 metres in cial plant breeders and seed suppliers rials (insulation products, sealing com­ tropical rain forests), tropical and sub­ increasingly are patenting varieties and pounds, artificial wood), and the lubri­ tropical cloud forests, and isolated demanding royalties on their use even cants and coolants used in drilling for mountains. It is not possible to indicate though the varieties are as much products oiJll. Every industry, therefore, should priorities for marine or freshwater eco­ of freely obtained genetic diversity as analyze its resource base to determine systems; but these are much more poor­ they are of commercial investment. As a what living resources it uses and for ly represented in protected areas than result, many countries may have to pay what purpose, and the extent to which are terrestrial ones and deserve a corre­ twice over for genetic material-once for each resource's combination of desired spondingly higher priority. the new variety and once for protecting properties, cost and availability is uni­ the material from which it is derived. que to that resource. Each industry 10. Similarly, although the establish­ Plant breeders' rights and the standard­ should then work with the governments ment of an international network of bio­ ization of plant varieties should be so and the other commercial sectors sphere reserves has progressed well, limited that neither has the effect of concerned to ensure that the particular there is still a long way to go before the restricting the free exchange and use of plants arid animals are exploited sustain­ network is complete. The 162 biosphere genetic materials or of reducing genetic ably, that their genetic diversity is pre­ reserves so far designated occur in 76 diversity. served, and that the ecological processes of the 193 biogeographical provinces 10. of which they are part are maintained. Some 50 biosphere reserves have been Commercial sponsorship of on site Such measures would go some way set up for mixed mountain and highland genetic resource protection towards ensuring the quality and avail­ systems; about 30 are representative of 13. Industries and other commercial ability, at reasonable prices, of valuable temperate broadleaf forests; and only enterprises based on, or regularly using, raw materials.

7. Swift, Camm Churchill, 1979. World Conservation Strategy-­ National Parks and Equivalent Reserves. IUCN, Gland; JUCN. 9. Udvardy, Miklos D. F. 1975. A c/ass(ftcation of the hiogeograph­ Fishes: a report prepared for the International Union for Con­ 1977. World Directory of National Parks and other Protected ical provinces of the world. IUCN, Gland. servation of Nature and Natural Resources. Mimeo. IUCN, Areas, Vols I and II, IUCN, Gland. The CNPPA has em­ Gland. barked on a full review of the coverage of terrestrial biogeo­ 10. As of September 1979. The 162 biosphere reserves occur in 40 graphical provinces in protected areas. Until this review has countries and cover a total area of more than I million krn 2. 8. The review, made by I UCN's Commission on National Parks been completed the protection status of these provinces will not and Protected Areas (CNPPA), used IUCN's files and the fol­ be fully known. Similar reviews are needed for fresh waters, 11. Naylor, J. 1976. Production, trade and utilization of seaweeds lowing source documents: IUCN. 1980. United Nations List of caves and cave systems, and the sea. and seaweed products. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 159.

!l IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 18. The global conilllons

1. A commons is a tract of land or wa­ feeding grounds of whales, salmon, and 7. In addition, all nations engaged in, ter owned or used jointly by the mem­ so on, the spawning grounds of tuna, or considering, deep sea mining activi­ bers of a community. The global com­ unique areas and areas of unusual spe­ ties-or any other activities with cur­ mons includes those parts of the earth's cies diversity-should be devised, pro­ rently unpredictable effects on open surface beyond national jurisdictions­ moted and adopted. An appropriate in­ ocean ecosystems-should: notably the open ocean and the living ternational organization shoulq prepare precede commercial mining operations resources found there-or held in com­ a discussion document, possibly as a or similar activities by commission­ mon-notably the atmosphere. The only prelude to an expert consultation, on ing a comprehensive ecological survey land mass that may be regarded as part priority species and ecosystems and on to determine the impact of such of the global commons is Antarctica, al­ ways and means of conserving them. activities; though several countries have claimed These might include the introduction of designate appropriate areas of the deep parts of it (the claims are currently more effective measures to regulate ex­ sea bed as baseline reference and re­ frozen under the Antarctic Treaty)l. ploitation and the establishment of sanc­ source zones in which no mining or tuaries where the habitats of cetaceans other significant disturbance will be The open ocean and its living resources and other marine creatures are protect­ allowed, ensuring that the size and 2. Much of the open ocean remains ed 4 and exploitation is prohibited. shape of each area is such that its frontier country in which people can ex­ 5. The International Whaling Com­ stability will be maintained; ploit living resources as they please as mission has imposed a moratoriums on establish guidelines for scientific re­ long as they have the technology to the taking, killing, or treating of whales, search to ensure minimum disruption do so. While the open ocean is not as except minke whales, by factory ships or of the natural state of such areas, and biologically rich as continental shelf whale catchers attached to factory ships. provide for full exchange of informa­ areas, it includes unique ecosystems and The moratorium should be extended to tion on the results of research. provides some (and in some cases all) of all commercial whaling until: the critical habitats of several culturally The atmosphere and climate the consequences for the ecosystems and economically important groups of 8. The behaviour of the atmosphere, animals, notably whales and tunas. Spe­ concerned of removing large por­ tions of the whales' populations, and like that of the ocean, is indifferent to cies that are confined to the open ocean political boundaries. Impacts on the at­ should be regarded as the common such populations' capacity for recov­ ery, can be predicted; mosphere in one country can affect the resource of all humanity; species that living resources of other countries, both move between the open ocean and wa­ permitted levels of exploitation are directly and by altering climate. Such ters under national jurisdiction are safe, and an effective mechanism impacts are increasing. Acid rain caused shared resources. Special provision for exists for detecting and correcting by excessive emissions of sulphur diox­ the conservation of both groups of spe­ mistakes in the management of any ide, mainly in Europe and North Ameri­ cies is therefore needed, but no satisfac­ stock; ca, has reduced the productivity of many tory mechanism exists. member nations of the IWC are no lakes, rivers and forests in countries oth­ longer purchasing whale products er than the sources of the pollution 7. 3. Living resource exploitation in the from, or transferring whaling tech­ The accumulation in the atmosphere of open ocean is regulated only in the case nology and equipment to, or other­ other gases-such as carbon tetrachlo­ of two groups of species: tunas and wise supporting, non-member na­ ride and methylchloroform (used in in­ whales2. There is no protection of the tions, or pirate whaling ships. dustrial solve~ts), nitrous oxides from habitats of open ocean species and 6. The dumping of wastes at sea is reg­ the decomposition of nitrogen com­ hitherto none has been needed. Howev­ pounds, the chlorofluoromethanes (used er, with the advent of deep sea mining ulated by the Convention on the Preven­ tion of Marine Pollution by Dumping of in refrigerators, air conditioners and and the increasingly intensive use of aerosol sprays) and carbon dioxide-is ocean space generally, protection is now Wastes and Other Matter and by regional conventions for which it pro­ potentially a still more serious problem required. The designation by the Inter­ because of its possible effects on climate. national Whaling Commission (IWC) of vides the framework6. Those states not yet party to this convention are urged to For example, it has been estimated that an Indian Ocean Sanctuary in which all if chlorofluoromethanes continue to be commercial whaling is prohibited, while join it. It is also important to control the effects of deep sea mining (including oil released at current rates, the ozone layer an encouraging step forward, needs to could be reduced by up to 15% by the be matched by international measures to exploitation); for this to be done -it is necessary to learn what those effects are. middle of the next century, which in turn protect the habitats of the whales, dol­ could impair human health and the pro­ phins and porpoises in that area3. Accordingly, an internationally agreed area should be established, in which ductivity of the biosphere 8. 4. Means of ensuring the conservation deep sea mining is prohibited, as a base­ 9. Major alterations of the land sur­ of open ocean species and ecosystems­ line area to aid the long term evaluation face-such as forest clearance, massive particularly ecosystems supporting the of the effects of deep sea mining. water impoundments and irrigation sys-

Notes and references the Atlantic by the International Commission for the Conserva­ 4. Cetaceans are whales, dolphins and porpoises. A cetacean sanc­ tion of Atlantic Tunas (!CCAT). Whaling is regulated by the tuary is an area in which designated cetacean populations spend I. Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway and International Whaling Commission (IWC). all or critical parts of their life cycles, where they are not subject the United Kingdom have claimed parts of Antarctica. These to killing, capture or harassment by humans, and where other seven claimants, and Belgium, Japan, South Africa, USA and 3. The Indian Ocean Sanctuary comprises the waters of the North­ human activities affecting them are prohibited or controlled so USSR are the signatory powers of the Antarctic Treaty. Brazil, ern Hemisphere from the coast of Africa to 100° E, including that there will be no deterioration in those environmental quali­ Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, the German Democratic the Red and Arabian Seas and the Gulf of Oman; and the waters ties necessary for the welfare of the cetaceans. Priorities and Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands, of the Southern Hemisphere in the sector from 20° E to 130" E, technical, legal and management considerations for cetacean Poland and Romania have acceded to the treaty but do not have with the southern boundary set at 55° S. The prohibition on com­ sanctuaries are reviewed in: IUCN/WWF/UNER. 1979. Pro. full consultative status. mercial whaling in this area app1ies for IO years from 1979, with ceedings of a workshop on cetacean sanctuaries, Tijuana and 2. fishing for tuna in the east central Pacific is regulated by the the provision for a general review after 5 years, unless the I WC Guerrero Negro, B. C., Mexico, 4·9 February 1979. Mimeo. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (l-ATTC) and in decides otherwise. !UCN. terns and the expansion of urban and Pacific Oceans-see map). Much Southern Ocean should so regulate the area~-also have the potential to alter of this area-that is the entire area south krill fishery as to prevent: local or regional climates, for example of 60° S latitude except for the "high irreversible changes in the popula­ by changing heat and moisture exchange seas"-is under the nominal control of tions of krill; between the surface and the atmos­ the 13 parties to the Antarctic Treaty. irreversible changes in the popula­ phere 8. The most acute climatic prob­ tions of the baleen whales and those lem, however, is carbon dioxide accum­ seal, fish and bird species which feed ulation as a result of the burning of fos­ on krill, as well as in the Southern sil fuel~, deforestation and changes in Ocean ecosystem as a whole; land use. At present rates of increase, the atmospheric concentratioTI"of carbon overcapitalization of krill fishing dioxide may produce a significant warm­ fleets, which could make it more diffi­ ing of the lower atmosphere before the cult to agree on a reduction of the middle of the next century, particularly krill take should this prove necessary, in the polar regions. This warming and could have severe impacts on would probably change temperature fisheries outside the Southern Ocean, patterns throughout most of the wo~ld, due to the need to redeploy the krill benefitting some regions and damagmg fleets during the Antarctic winter. others, possibly severelys. An independent observer system should 10. Since it would be necessary to be provided for in such regulations. redirect many aspects of the world econ­ omy, including energy production and I 4. The Antarctic Treaty powers and agriculture, to halt or reduce further at­ Antarctic Convergence Ice shelves nations fishing or intending to fish the Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. mospheric carbon dioxide accm:iula­ Southern Ocean should exercise extreme tion accelerated research at the nat10nal Under this treaty, Antarctica may be restraint on catch levels until under­ and' international levels is required to used only for peaceful purposes-princi­ standing of this uniquely productive determine more precisely the likely cli­ pally scientific research. Conservatio_ri ecosystem improves. All harvesting matic and other effects and their socio­ of the living resources of the land 1s should be on an experimental basis as economic consequences. There is also a provided for by the "Agreed Measures part of a scientific research programme general need for better climatic data, for for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna to improve knowledge of krill and of the clarification of the relative roles of and Flora" which are excellent but have Southern Ocean as a whole. Baseline human and natural influences on cli­ not yet been ratified 10. areas where no krill or other living or mate, and for improved understanding non-living resources may be taken 12. Currently the potential of krill should be set aside and given complete of the impact of climate change on (Euphausia superba), a tin·y shrin:w-li~e human activities. Research into all these protection, so that impacts outside can creature, swarming in huge quantities m be monitored and evaluated correctly. issues is the main thrust of the World the Southern Ocean, is attracting a great Climate Programme sponsored by the The dimension and location of these deal of interest: it is said that the catch areas should be established according to World Meteorological Organization, could rise from about 50,000 tonnes and this programme deserves the the best available knowledge of the eco­ in 1977/1978 to 60 million tonnes or systems concerned. Current research ef­ strongest support of all nations. I~ ad~i­ more-thereby doubling the world's cur­ forts should be strongly supported; and tion, the immediate problem of acid ram rent annual fish catch II. However, krill requires not merely continued research the collection, analysis and dissemina­ are the major food of five species of great tion of biological information should be but·a reduction by European and North whales, including the endangered blue American countries of sulphur dioxide mandatory. An International Decade of whale and humpback whale, and are also Southern Ocean Research, focussing emissions. It is most important that important for three species of seals, many particularly on ecological processes, states join and implement the Conve~­ seabird species and several species of fish. should be initiated as a matter of urgen­ tion on Long-range Transboundary Alf Unless krill harvesting is extremely care­ Pollution 9. cy. Investigation of the po~sible e~vir?n­ fully and conservatively regulated, its mental impacts of tounsm, sc1ent1fic effects on other Southern Ocean species Antarctica and the Southern Ocean research, mining and oil exploitat~on, I I. Antarctica and the Southern could be devastating. A convention to and so on should be continued. Smee Ocean are defined as all land and sea regulate the taking of the living resources oil degrad~s: extremely slowly i~ condi­ south of the Antarctic Convergence (the of the Southern Ocean is being nego­ tions such as those of Antarctica and well-defined but fluctuating line where tiated, and is expected to be followed by a since operating hazards are very high, the cold surface waters of the Southern regime for mining and oil exploitation. the feasibility of oil exploration and ex­ Ocean sink beneath the warmer waters 13. Any regime for the exploitation ploitation in particular shoul? be ap­ of the cold-temperate Atlantic, Indian of the living marine resources of the proached with the utmost caution.

5. The JWC agreed the moratorium at its 31st Annual Meeting, 9- dumping agreements are the Oslo (European) Convention for 9. The Convention, adopted in Geneva on 13 Nov~mber 1~79, 13 July 1979. the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping from Ships and obliges parties to make every effort to r:duce air. pollution, Aircraft; and the Barcelona (Mediterranean) Protocol for the especially the discharge of pollutants earned by wmds across 6. The Convention, adopted in London on 29 December 1972, prevention of pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by dumping frontiers. came into force on 30 August 1975. The depositary governme.nts from ships and aircraft. are Mexico, USSR, United Kingdom and USA. The Convention IO. Monitoring of 1he state of conservation_, a~d scientifi~ advice prohibits the dumping of certain substance~ (a "black list." of 7. Likens, Gene E., Richard F. Wright, James N. Galloway and on conservation, is provided by the Sc1ent1~c Comm1tte~ on which includes organohalogen compounds, mercury, cadmium, ThomasJ. Butler. 1979. Acid rain. Scientific American, 241 (4): Antarctic Research (SCAR) of the Internat10nal Council of persistent plastics, oil and high-level radioactive wastes) and 39-47. Scientific Unions. strictly controls the dumping of other su?stances (a "¥~ey list" of which includes arsenic, lead, copper, zmc, organos1hcon ~om· 8. World Climate Conference. 1979. Declaration and supporting 11. Everson, Inigo. 1977. The living resources of the Southern Ocean. pounds, cyanides, fluorides, and pesticides). Two reg10nal documents. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva. FAQ, Rome.

<> JUCN- UNEP- WWF 1980 WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY 19. Regional strategies for international river

1. The purpose of regional strategies is International river basins table regional improvements, however­ to stimulate national action where it is 3. There are more than 200 interna­ such as the Danube fisheries conserva­ most needed, to help solve common tional river basins: 57 in Africa, 48 in tion agreement, the Great Lakes water problems, and in particular to advance Europe, 40 in Asia, 36 in South America quality agreement, the Rhine salinity the conservation of shared living and 33 in North and Central America 1 and chemical pollution agreements, and resources (see box). Each regional (see map 4 in the map section). They developments in the Mekong Basin strategy, which should be prepared include river basins experiencing the Commission and the Lake Chad Basin along the lines of national strategies, most severe soil erosion in the world (the Commission. should aim for at least four products: amount of sediment load in relation to 6. To evaluate these experiences, with agreements on the joint conservation the size of the drainage basin is a meas­ a view to their adaptation in other of shared living resources; ure of the intensity of erosion-see regions, an appropriate international or­ model examples of how common table below). ganization should undertake a review of problems can be tackled successfully; the conservation needs and problems of River Drainage Average annual international river basins, as a prelude joint organizations where appro­ basin suspended load thousand million tonnes/ to joint research and action plans by the priate and where more cost-effective km 2 tonnes km2 riparian countries concerned, possibly than several national organizations Huang (Yellow) 673 1,887 2,804 along the lines of UNEP's regional seas (for example, for training, for Ganges* 956 1,451 1,518 programme (see below). Priority should research a11d monitoring, or for Brahmaputra* 666 726 1,090 be given to international river basins the management of shared living Yangtze 1,942 499 257 Indus* 969 435 449 scheduled for major development or resources); Ching 57 408 7,158 subject to severe erosion. Regions most improved information for national Amazon* 5,776 363 63 susceptible to erosion are those in the decision making. Mississippi 3,222 312 97 Irrawaddy* 430 299 695 tropics receiving medium to high rain­ Each "region" should be an ecological Missouri 1,370 218 159 fall; there is also a positive correlation unit in which by definition many of the Lo 26 190 7,308 between heavy sediment loads and close Kosi 62 172 2,774 proximity of mountains to the sea3. living resources will be shared: Obvious Mekong* 795 170 214 examples, and priority candidates for Colorado* 637 135 212 International seas regional strategies, are international riv­ Red* 119 130 1,092 Nile* 2,978 111 37 7. Most large maritime nations and er basins and seas. * International river basin. several smaller ones have extended their 2. Soil and water conservation and the Major rivers of the world ranked by sediment load. Source: 2. national jurisdictions by declaring Ex­ conservation of marine living resources clusive Economic Zones (EEZs) for 4. · Joint use of watercourses has always 200 nautical miles from their shores. not only require a cross-sectoral ap­ depended on cooperation among the proach at the national level, they fre­ Others are likely to do the same. These riparian states, and some of the oldest moves mean that the international quently demand international coopera­ international organizations were created tion as well. This is certainly the case agreements covering most regional fish­ to manage river navigation on the Rhine eries commissions must be renegotiated. with international river basins and seas. and the Danube. The use of interna­ International river basins are drainage Several have been already. The new tional inland waters has steadily expand­ powers and resources of coastal states basins or catchment areas shared by two ed: new industrial, urban and agricul­ or more states and communicating provide an outstanding opportunity to tural demands on water quantity have ensure that the new organizations neces­ directly with the sea or inland lakes. In~ risen more or less simultaneously with a sary for the responsible exercise of those ternational seas are either semi-enclosed dramatic decline in water quality in seas shared by two or more states or powers are designed and authorized to most international basins. Forest clear­ manage living resources as ecological more open seas in which areas under the ance, hydroelectric installations, irriga­ jurisdiction of two or more states are entities, along the lines set out in sec­ tion and water supply works and pollu­ tion 11. There are signs, however, that closely linked by currents or by animal tion in one country can rob another of migrations. Both in international river ecological considerations are being given water, increase its costs of making water insufficient weight and that this oppor­ basins and in international seas the liv­ suitable for different uses, and destroy, ing resources of one country are likely to tunity will be missed. degrade or deplete its valuable ecosys~ be affected by events in another-such 8. The establishment of EEZs adds to 0 terns and species. as pollution, alteration of habitats, or the incentives for coastal states to pro­ overfishing. Hence international cooper­ 5. Failure to reconcile the competing tect the habitats critical for fisheries ation is generally necessary for pollution interests of upstream and downstream since they now control the fisheries-at control and for rational utilization of users has generated considerable politi­ least of non-migratory species-which resources. Cooperation also provides cal friction in many parts of the world. the habitats support. By protecting the opportunities to improve efficiency and Where traditional interstate basin com­ habitats, and by seeing to it that the fish­ achieve economies through joint action missions exist, they are often ill-adapted eries themselves are exploited on a sus­ as well as for international technical and to the new challenge of water conserva­ tainable basis, they will assure both a financial assistance to support that tion and integrated environmental regular high quality protein supply and action. management. There have been some no- often a substantial income. Many spe-

Notes and references Nations. 1978. Register of international rivers. Water Supply and 2. Holeman, N. 1968. The sediment yields of major rivers of the I. Centre for Natural Resources, Energy and Transport of the Management, 2: J-58. world. Water Resources Research, 4:737-747. Cited by: FAO. Department of Economic and Social Affairs of !he United 1978. (see ref. 3). basins and seas

cies, however, move between one EEZ 11. Regions likely to benefit most from and another, and between EEZs and the marine conservation strategies are: Shared resources ocean beyond national jurisdiction. In regions that depend heavily on marine Shared resources are -defined here as addition, as the results of oil spills regu­ living resources (whether for food or ecosystems and species shared by two larly demonstrate, currents carry pollu­ foreign exchange); regions in which . or more states (including species that tants from one EEZ to another. There­ countries have gained major fisheries move between one national jurisdic­ fore the need for international coopera­ (bigger than 50,000 tonnes per year) as a tion and another) and ecosystems tion and for ecologically sound manage­ result of extending national jurisdictions and species that depend on or are af­ ment remains unchanged. to 200 nautical miles from shore; or fected by events in another. They in­ 9. New or improved bilateral and mul­ regions where international conservation clude ecosystems and species of inter­ tilateral management agreements are programmes have already begun. The national river basins and many coast­ needed to ensure that marine pollution first two are shown on map 5 in the al ecosystems and associated fish­ is controlled and marine living resources map section; the last include the regions eries; and they also include migratory exploited sustainably. Regional efforts to covered by UNEP's regional seas pro­ species. It is strongly urged that all regulate pollution of the sea-notably gramme: the Mediterranean, the Gulf states observe the Draft Principles of those being made by governments in as defined by the Kuwait Action Plan, Conduct in the Field of the Environ­ cooperation with UNEP's regional seas the Red Sea (with the Arab League ment for the Guidance of States in programme-should be intensified, and Educational, Cultural and Scientific the Conservation and Harmonious similar efforts should be initiated wher­ Organization-ALECSO), the Carib­ Utilization of Natural Resources ever groups of nations share common bean (with the United Nations Eco­ Shared by Two or More States, pre­ bodies of water. Experience with UNEP's nomic Commission for Latin America pared by UNEP and recommended regional seas programme has shown that -ECLA), West African waters, East by its Governing Council to the there is great scope for regional agree­ Asian waters, the Southwest Pacific, General Assembly of the United ments, elaborated by specific technical and the Southeast Pacific. Nations for adoption. These princi­ protocols, and backed up if neces­ ples stress the need for states to: sary by the establishment of regional 12. In addition, because the Arctic cooperate in controlling, prevent­ organizations. environment takes so long to recover ing, reducing or eliminating ad­ from damage, the Arctic should be con­ verse environmental effects that 10. Regional strategies should pay sidered a priority sea. Within their Arctic particular attention to: the status of may arise from the utilization of territories the Arctic nations should shared natural resources; fisheries and other living resources and systematically map critical ecological measures to ensure they are utilized avoid environmental damage that areas (terrestrial as well as marine), draw could have repercussions on the sustainably; the protection and main­ up guidelines for their long term man­ tenance of the critical habitats (feeding, utilization of the resource by an­ agement, and establish a network of other sharing state; breeding, nursery, and resting areas) of protected areas to safeguard represen­ make environmental impact assess­ economically or culturally important tative, unique and critical ecosystems. ments before engaging in any activ­ species and of threatened or unique Since various conservation problems in ity with respect to a shared natural species; the preservation of genetically the Arctic relate to areas or populations resource that may significantly af­ rich areas such as coral reefs; the pro­ beyond national jurisdiction or which fect the resource or the environ­ tection and maintenance of the support are of common concern to two or more ment of another sharing state; systems of critical habitats and of ge­ of the Arctic nations, a meeting to netically rich areas; measures to control identify and discuss such problems give other sharing states in advance pollution and as far as possible to pre­ would probably facilitate conservation the details of any plans to begin or vent accidents such as oil spills; provi­ in the region. Among items of common change the conservation or utiliza­ sion for a rapid and effective response concern are: tion of a shared natural resource, to such accidents. The causes, magnitude and consult with them and provide measures (including joint research) and consequences of environmental additional pertinent information to improve protection of migratory problems should be evaluated; critical on request; habitats, genetically rich areas and their species breeding within the Arctic and wintering inside or outside the region; engage in joint scientific studies support systems should be mapped and assessments; (showing, where known, the rough tim­ studies of the impact of fisheries and compensate for damage to shared ing and periodicity of the processes other economic activities in the natural resources or arising out of involved and the extent to which critical northern seas on ecosystems and the utilization of such resources; habitats have been observed to change non-target species; and provide persons in other states with variations in climate and other the possibility of developing agree­ who have been or may be harmed environmental factors); and present and ments among the Arctic nations on by such damage with equivalent projected uses of and impacts on the the conservation of the region's vital access to and treatment in the ecosystems and species concerned should biological resources, based on the same administrative and judicial be analyzed so that compatibilities and principles and . experience of the proceedings as are available to conflicts may be revealed and decisions Agreement on Conservation of Polar nationals. made accordingly. Bears.

3. FAO. 1978. 111e stall' r~f food and agriculture 1977. F AO, Rome.

"IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 WORLD _CONSERVATION STRATEGY 20. To-wards sustainable developlllent

1. Development and conservation op­ by improving the lot of the hundreds of 6. Living resource conservation is es­ erate in the same global context, and the millions of people now living in abject sential for the achievement of several underlying problems that must be over­ poverty and despair" 1. development targets, for example: in­ come if either is to be successful are creased growth in food production; identical. 4. The lack of progress so far in achiev­ development and efficient expansion of ing these aims thwarts conservation as environmentally benign forms of energy; 2. Much habitat destruction and over­ much as it does development. Hence it more efficient use of raw materials; exploitation of living resources by indi­ is as necessary for conservation as it is prevention and reduction of desertifi­ viduals, communities and nations in the for development that during the 1980s: cation, of soil degradation and loss, developing world is a response to rela­ a. trade be liberalized, including the and of living resource overexploitation; tive poverty, caused or exacerbated by and attainment of an acceptable level of a combination of human population removal of all trade barriers to goods from developing countries; health for all. Conservation is entirely growth and inequities within and among compatible with the growing demand for nations. Peasant communities, for ex­ b. the flow of finance and development assistance be increased, including as a "people-centred" development, that ample, may be forced to cultivate steep, achieves a wider distribution of benefits unstable slopes because their growing minimum the renewal of the objective of0.7% of the gross national product to whole populations (better nutrition, numbers exceed the capacity of the land health, education, family welfare, fuller and because the fertile, easily managed of developed countries as official development assistance; employment, greater income security, valley bottoms have been taken over by protection from environmental degrada­ large land-owners. Similarly, many de­ c. the proportion of development assis­ tion); that makes fuller use of people's veloping countries have so few natural tance going to low-income countries labour, capabilities, motivations and resources and operate under such unfa­ (those countries with per capita in­ creativity; and is more sensitive to cul­ vourable conditions of international comes of $300 or less-in which live tural heritage. trade that often they have very little two-thirds of the poor in developing choice but to exploit forests, fisheries countries) be increased to at least Coordination and follow-up and other living resources unsustainably. two-thirds and preferably to three­ 7. The organizations most involved in In many parts of the world population quarters; the preparation of the World Con­ pressures are making demands on re­ d. the international monetary system be servation Strategy (IUCN, UNEP, sources beyond the capacity of those reformed; WWF, FAO and Unesco), recognize the need to carry out international action to resources to sustain. Every country e. a code of conduct for transnational implement the Strategy and to stimulate should have a conscious population poli­ companies be adopted; cy to avoid as far as possible the spread and support national action. For its of such situations, and eventually to f. there be much more rapid progress part, IUCN will promote the implemen­ achieve a balance between numbers and on disarmament (expenditure on tation of the World Conservation environment. At the same time, it is es­ arms and military activities currently Strategy, particularly of national strate­ sential that the affluent constrain their absorbs $400,000 million a year); gies and of action at the international demands on resources, and preferably g. economic and social growth be accel­ level; will monitor implementation as reduce them, shifting some of their erated, especially in the poorest coun­ closely as possible; will publish regular wealth to assisting the deprived. To a tries, ensuring that economic and news of implementation and will issue a significant extent the survival and future social goals are mutually supporting, full progress report every three years. of the poor depends on conservation and emphasizing better health, better The progress report will cover: and sharing by the rich. housing, al).d higher educational what governments and organiza­ levels and skillsl. tions are doing to implement the 3. During the 1980s, the Third United Strategy; Nations Development Decade, the efforts 5. Achievement of equitable, sustain­ of the international community to re­ able development requires implementa­ whether what they are doing is likely move the main obstacles to development tion not only of the measures indicated to alleviate the problem or achieve and to raise the living standards of the above but also of the World Conservation the objective concerned; poor in a sustained and rapid manner Strategy. Accordingly it is strongly - in due course, the extent to which will focus on the new International De­ recommended that the objectives of the three conservation objectives velopment Strategy. The ultimate aims the World Conservation Strategy-the have been achieved. of this strategy are "(a) to redress the maintenance of essential ecological 8. The problems posed by the destruc­ inequities in the relations between richer processes and life-support systems, the tion, degradation and depletion of living and poorer nations; (b) to establish a preservation of genetic diversity, and the resources are many and complicated. more dynamic, more stable and less sustainable utilization of species and The resources available to tackle them vulnerable world economy, in which all ecosystems-be included in the new In­ are small and priorities for their use are countries have opportunities to partici­ ternational Development Strategy. Na­ not always determined with sufficient pate on a fuller and more equal basis; tional development plans and multi­ care. There is a need to deal with the (c) to stimulate accelerated economic lateral and bilateral programmes to causes of many of these problems rather growth in the poorer countries of the assist them should provide for the re­ than with the symptoms. There are world; and (d) to reduce and eventually quirements and actions listed in the box many competent, interested organiza­ overcome the worst aspects of poverty opposite. tions with seemingly divergent but basi-

Notes and references l. Committee for Development Planning. 1979. Report on the Fifteenth Session ( 26 March-5 April 1979). Economic and Social Council Official Records, 1979. Supplement No. 7. United Nations, New York. cally compatible aims that would be governments, intergovernmental bodies, much greater effect. If this is done, then better able to tackle the problems if they private organizations and individuals to the prospects for conservation-and for cooperated more along agreed lines. It is cooperate with each other and jointly sustainable development-will be much hoped that this Strategy will help deploy the limited means available to enhanced.

Checklist of priority requirements, national actions and international actions Numbers in parentheses refer to the sections and paragraphs in which the requirement or action is explained. 1. Priority requirements f. advance assessment of the likely en­ b. implementation of international a. reservation of prime quality crop­ vironmental effects of all major ac­ conservation conventions (15.5- land for crops (5.1-5.2); tions (10.6-10.7); 15.9); b. adoption of management practices g. adoption of a procedure for allo­ c. multilateral and bilateral assistance to maintain the productivity of crop­ cating land and water uses based on for reforestation, the restoration of land, grazing land and forests (5.3- ecosystem evaluation and environ­ degraded environments, and the 5.5; 7.9; 7.11-7.12); mental assessment (10.8-10.11); protection of the support systems of c. prevention of soil degradation, and h. review and strengthening of legisla­ fisheries and of genetic resources restoration of land where soils are tion concerning living resources to (15.11); already degraded (5.5); ensure that it provides sufficiently d. multilateral and bilateral assistance d. protection of watersheds, especially for conservation, paying particular for the design and implementation upper catchmel)t areas (5.6); attention to enforcement (11.7- of ecologically appropriate policies 11.9); e. maintenance of the support systems and the establishment and mainte­ of fisheries (5. 7); i. review and improvement of the sta­ nance of effective conservation pro­ f. control of pollution (5.8); tus, organization, funding and staff­ cedures, laws and organizations ing of agencies with responsibilities (15.11-15.12); g. prevention of species extinctions for living resources (11.10-11.12); (6.1-6.3); e. cooperative programmes for conser­ h. preservation of as many varieties as J. establishment of a soil and water vation of tropical forests (16.1-16. 7); possible of domesticated and other conservation body at the policy f. cooperative programmes for conser­ economic or useful plants, animals making level (11.13); vation of drylands (16.8-16.12); and microorganisms and their wild k. establishment of new organizations · g. a cooperative programme for the on relatives (6.4-6. 7); or of special measures to coordinate site protection of the wild relatives existing ones for the comprehensive i. establishment of a comprehensive of economic or useful species, of management of marine living re­ threatened species, and of ecosys­ network of protected areas, securing sources (11.14); the habitats of threatened, unique tems of exceptional diversity ( 17.1- 1. review and strengthening of training and other important species, unique 17.15); ecosystems, and representative sam­ facilities at the professional, techni­ cian and user levels (12.5-12.8); h. conservation of the species and eco­ ples of ecosystem types (6.8-6.12); systems of the open ocean (18.2- m. increased research to improve the J. regulation of living resource utiliza­ 18.7); tion so that it is sustainable (7.1-7.4; management of living resources (12.9-12.13); i. implementation of the Convention 7.6; 7.8; 7.10); on the Prevention of Marine Pollu­ k. reduction of incidental take (7 .5); n. greater public participation in deci­ tion by Dumping of Wastes and sions concerning living resources Other Matter, of the Convention on 1. maintenance of the habitats of uti­ (13.4-13.5); lized species (7. 7); the Regulation of Long-range Trans­ o. environmental education campaigns boundary Air Pollution, and of anal­ m. careful allocation and management and programmes, particularly for of timber concessions (7.9). ogous regional conventions (18.6- the users of living resources, legisla­ 18.10); tors and decision makers, school­ 2. Priority national actions j. control of deep sea mining (18.7); a. preparation and implementation of children and students (13.6-13.14); national and/or subnational conser­ p. rural development combining short k. support for the World Climate Pro­ vation strategies (8.1-8.10); term measures to ensure human sur­ gramme (18.8-18.10); b. adoption of anticipatory environ­ vival with long term measures to 1. conservation of the living resources mental policies (9 .6-9. 7; 9 .13); safeguard the resource base and im­ of Antarctica and the Southern c. adoption of a cross-sectoral conser­ prove the quality of life (14.5-14.11 ). Ocean (18.11-18.14); vation policy (9 .8-9 .12); 3. Priority international actions m. regional strategies for the conserva­ d. inclusion of non-monetary indica­ a. review of the coverage and effective­ tion ofthelivingresources of interna­ tors of conservation performance in ness of international law relevant tional river basins (19.1-19.6); national accounting systems (9.14); to living resources, and development n. regional strategies for the conserva­ e. preparation of ecosystem evalua­ of new law to remedy any deficien­ tion of the living resources of inter­ tions (10.3-10.5); cies (15.4-15.10); national seas (19.1-19.2; 19.7-19.12).

<> IUCN· UNEP· WWF 1980

WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY

Map Section

The maps in this section are not precise but illustrative. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this section do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, UNEP or WWF concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. 1. Tropical forests

0

\)

·······~

0 C> 0 0

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Source Schmithusen, JG>sef. 1976. Atlas zur Biogeographie. Bibliographisches lnstitut, Mannheim/Wien/Zurich. D Tropical lowland rain forest . Tropical montane rain forest.

Tropical semievergreen and monsoon forest. •~ ...... Mangroves. Regional boundaries (see section 16).

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© IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 2. Deserts and areas subject to desertification

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Source United Nations Conference on Desertification. 1977. Desertification Map of the World. UNEP/FAO/Unesco/WMO. Risk of desertification. Hyperarid zones (deserts) . Very High.

• High . •. •... . .• Moderate.

c:>. 0

© IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 3. Priority biogeographical provinces of the land for the establishment of protected areas

··········-~· 14 "

~ 0

...... _ ...... _ ...... •l)•• ...... , ...... 13 ...... ' ' ' \ . I' ~~------~- I , - --~---~

Sources IUCN. 1980. United Nations fist of national parks and equivalent reserves. IUCN, Gland. Udvardy, Miklos D.F. 1975. A classification of the biogeographica/ provinces of the world. IUCN, Gland. High priority: biogeographical provinces with no national 1. Tropical humid (rain) forests. parks or equivalent reserves. 2. Subtropical and temperate rain forests. 3. Temperate needle-leaf forests. 4. Tropical dry or deciduous forests (including monsoon Priority: biogeographical provinces in which national parks forests). • or equivalent reserves protect a total area smaller than 1000 km2 (or smaller than 100 km2 in the case of oceanic 5. Temperate broadleafforests (including subpolar D deciduous thickets). island provinces). 6. Evergreen sclerophyllous (Mediterranean-type) forests. 7. Warm deserts and semideserts. 8. Cold-winter deserts and semideserts. 9. Tundra and barren arctic desert. 10. Tropical grasslands and savannas. 11. Temperate grasslands. 12. Mixed mountain and highland systems. 13. Mixed island systems. Lake systems.

o, 0'

a • CJ

© IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 40 International river basins

0 4 Bann~~I Foy1~· w~ Oco e:J_- Erne eu, y I' Eane ~·

Garonne~~:~' hli'. Bidasoa i

0 00 Q

SENEGAL •o Gambia Geba · Coruba Great Scarci Little Scar Moa Mano-Morro Lola St. Paul St. John Cestos Cava fly Sassandra Komoe Bia Ta no

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Valdivia Puelo Yelcho Palena Aysen Baker Pascua Source Serrano Centre f~r Natural Resources, Energy and Transport of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs ·of the United Nations. 1978. Register of rnternational rivers. Water Supply and Management, 2: 1-58. 2 D NILE River basin more than 1,000,000 km • 2 D YUKON River basin 100,000 - 1,000,000 km •

2 Ebro River basin less than 100,000 km •

/ Basin outline.

0 • C7

ll IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980 5. Major consumers and exporters of seafood and gainers of large fisheries

Northeast

j; USA I

W. central E. central

0 00 0

E. central

·l>·. Sao' & Pr

Samoa

French Polynesia ~ !

Southeast Southwest Southwest

Southeast Countries consuming 10 g or more of protein per person Countries earning US$ 300 million or more from seafood per day from seafood or deriving 15% or more of total exports or deriving 10% or more of their export earnings protein supply from seafood or 30% or more of total animal from seafood exports (1975 figures). 2 protein supply from seafood (1972-1974average).

Countries consuming 5-9:9 g of protein per person per Countries earning US$ 100-299 million from seafood day from seafood or deriving 10-14.9% of total protein exports or deriving 3-9.9% of their export earnings from supply from seafood or 20-29.9% of total animal protein seafood exports (1975 figures). 2 supplytrom seafood (1972-1974average).

Marine boundaries are those of the FAQ statistical regions. Countries gaining fisheries bigger than 50,000 tonnes per year by extension of national jurisdictions over fisheries to 200 nautical miles. 3 Borders of the countries concerned are printed in a solid line.

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... -···· .. ·:-._ '' ······ ...

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Sources 1. FAO. 1977. Provisional food balance sheets, 1972-1974 average. FAD. Rome. 2. FAO. 1977. FAO trade yearbook, 1976 (Vol. 30). FAO, Rome. 3. FAQ. 1978. Review of the state of world fishery resources. Committee on Fisheries. Twelfth Session, Rome, 12-16June1978. COFl/78/lnf. 4. "'IUCN-UNEP-WWF 1980

~ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Re­ sources) is a network of governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), scientists and other conservation experts, joined together to promote the protection and sustainable use of living resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has more than 450 member governments and NGOs in over 100 countries. Its six Commissions consist of more than 700 experts on threatened species, protected areas, ecology, environmental planning, environmental policy, law and administration, and environmental education. IUCN: • monitors the status of ecosystems and species throughout the world; • plans conservation action, both at the strategic level through the World Conser­ vation Strategy and at the programme level through its programme of conserva­ tion for sustainable development; • promotes such action by governments, intergovernmental bodies and nongovern­ mental organizations;' • provides assistance and advice necessary for the achievement of such action.

re~~~, ® UNEP (the United Nations Environment Programme) was established in 1972. Its mandate is to keep the world environmental situation under review in order to ensure that emerging environmental problems of international significance receive appropriate consideration by governments, and to safeguard the environment for the benefit of present and future generations. It is the first global UN body with headquarters in a developing country (Kenya). UNEP plays a catalytic and coordinating role with the organizations of the United Nations family and administers a fund, based on voluntary government contribu­ tions. The Fund of UNEP assists in promoting activities related to environmental assessment and management. Within UNEP's programme, the following priority areas have been identified: environmental health, terrestrial ecosystems, environ­ ment and development, oceans, energy and natural disasters. The ultimate aim of UNEP's activities is to promote development that is environ­ mentally-sound and sustainable.

~ WWF (World Wildlife Fund) is an international conservation foundation, based in Switzerland and with national organizations on five continents. WWF's scope is the conservation of the natural environment and the ecological processes essential to life on earth. WWF aims to create awareness of threats to the environment and to generate and attract on a worldwide basis the strongest possible moral and financial support for safeguarding the living world and to convert such support into action based on scientific priorities. WWF ensures that its programme has a sound scientific basis by close collaboration with IUCN, with whom it shares a joint world headquarters. Since its founding in 1961, WWF has channelled funds to more than 2,000 projects in over 130 countries, served as a catalyst for conservation action, brought its influ­ ence to bear on critical conservation situations, and provided a link between con­ servation needs, the scientific resources necessary to meet them, and the govern­ ments and other authorities whose action is needed. WWF, with its distinguished international and national trustees, also prpvides a bridge for the conservation movement to the business community.

International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1196 Gland, Switzerland