BirdLife South Africa – Species factsheet Macaroni Penguin Eudyptes chrysolophus 2013 Regional Red List status Vulnerable 2000 Regional Red List status Near threatened 2013 Global Red List status Vulnerable Reasons for change in regional status Measured change in population size Family Spheniscidae Species name author Brandt 1837 Population size 279 000–290 000 pairs Distribution size (AOO) N/A Regional endemic (South Africa, Lesotho and No Swaziland) Justification Conservation status was assessed from the rate of decrease in estimates of numbers of Macaroni Penguins Eudyptes chrysolophus breeding at Marion Island against the IUCN criterion A2, because the decrease may not have ceased, the causes of decrease are not fully understood and they may not be reversible (Birdlife International 2000). The metric used was the percentage decline in three generations or 10 years (whichever is greater). The average generation for Macaroni Penguins is 11.4 years (M Taylor, BirdLife South Africa, in litt.). The estimates of numbers of Macaroni Penguins breeding at Marion Island decreased by 41% between 1976/77 and 2012/13 (see below), equivalent to a decrease of 38% in three generations, which merits a classification of Vulnerable. The modelled decrease in numbers breeding between 1994/95 and 2012/13 was 33% in 18 years (see below), which is equivalent to 63% in three generations. This suggests that the rate of decrease increased since the mid 1990s to a level that would justify a rating of Endangered. However, the decrease since the mid 1970s, a period equivalent to about three generations, has been used to assign the Red List status. Reasons for inclusion in the assessment The species was listed as Near Threatened in the 2000 regional Red List assessment (Barnes 2000), and is regarded as globally Vulnerable (BirdLife 2013). Taxonomic note The Royal Penguin E. schlegeli, which is found in the south-west Pacific Ocean, was previously treated as a subspecies of the Macaroni Penguin. The two species are similar, except for the amount of blue-black feathering on their cheeks and throat. Whereas these feathers are dark in macaroni penguins, they are white or pale grey in Royal Penguins, which also exhibit yellow-tinged feathers between the bill and eye. There are differences in measurements between these two penguins (Marchant and Higgins 1990, BMD, pers. obs.). The Macaroni Penguin is monotypic (Del Hoyo et al. 1992). Identification Length 71 cm; weight 5–6 kg. Macaroni Penguins are blue-black on their backs and white ventrally. Long orange, yellow and black feather plumes extend from the forehead along the sides of the head and meet above the eyes, forming a broad, loose crest. There is an obvious pink fleshy gape. The bill (larger in males than females) is red-brown, eyes dull red, legs and feet pink. Juveniles are similarly marked except for greyer eyes, chin and throat and the lack distinct crest feathers. A raucous, loud braying call is made at breeding colonies. The species is usually silent at sea (Marchant and Higgins 1990, Del Hoyo et al. 1992). Distribution The Macaroni Penguin has a more southerly distribution than most other crested penguins, breeding between about latitudes 45° and 65°S in the western Indian (Heard and McDonald, Kerguelen, Crozet and Prince Edward groups of islands) and South Atlantic (Bouvet, South Sandwich, South Georgia, South Orkney, South Shetland and Falkland groups of islands and in small numbers at islands off the Antarctic Peninsula) oceans. It also extends into the south-east Pacific Ocean along the coastline of southern Chile. The largest colonies are north of about 55°S (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Population justification In 2012/13, it was estimated that 266 971 pairs of Macaroni Penguins bred at Marion Island compared to 433 723 pairs in 1994/95 (Crawford et al. 2003, 2009, Department of Environmental Affairs, unpublished information). The decrease was best fitted by a linear regression, which suggested that the population in 2012/13 was 278 000 pairs (see below). An estimated 12 000 pairs bred at Prince Edward Island in 2008/09 (Crawford et al. 2009). Therefore, the overall population at the Prince Edward Islands is of the order of 279 000–290 000 pairs. Trend justification From counts of small colonies and at two large colonies (Bullard Beach and Kildalkey Bay) measurements of areas occupied and densities of nests, or in 1974–1977 counts of birds moulting made on aerial photographs, it was estimated that there were 449 892 pairs of Macaroni Penguins at Marion Island in 1974–1977 (Siegfried et al. 1978), 405 084 pairs in the 1983/84 breeding season (Watkins 1987) and 433 723 pairs in 1994/95 (Crawford et al. 2003). It was then estimated that by 2008/09 numbers breeding had decreased by 32% (Crawford et al. 2009). By 2008/09, there were significant decreases in numbers breeding at the small colonies and at both of the large colonies, where densities of nests also decreased significantly (Crawford et al. 2009). In 2012/13, 266 971 pairs bred at Marion Island (see above). Therefore, between 1976/77 and 2012/13, a period of 36 years, estimates of the numbers breeding decreased by 41%. Numbers breeding at Marion Island were available for each season between 1994/95 and 2012/13 (Crawford et al. 2003, 2009, Department of Environmental Affairs, unpublished information). In this period, the overall decrease was best modelled by linear regression (n = 19, r = 0.861, p < 0.001), which estimated the population in 1994/95 to be 416 000 pairs and that in 2012/13 to be 278 000 pairs, a decrease of 33% in 19 years. Ecology During October, Macaroni Penguins return to breed at Marion Island, in colonies which range from small numbers of birds to the two large colonies that presently each hold > 100 000 pairs and formerly held > 200 000 pairs (Crawford et al. 2003, 2009). Breeding areas usually have little or no vegetation due to erosion by birds (BirdLife International 2013). Traditional paths are used to access colonies (BMD, pers. obs.). At Marion Island, Macaroni Penguins mostly breed for the first time when four years old (Crawford et al. 2003). Males arrive for breeding several days earlier than females (Crawford et al. 2006). Both sexes undertake substantial fasts during courtship and breeding (Marchant and Higgins 1990). Pairs lay two eggs from late October to mid November, but only the larger second (B) eggs produce fledged chicks, which leave the island by the end of February (Williams 1980a, 1980b, Crawford et al. 2003). Incubation takes 34–39 days (Williams 1981). After breeding, Macaroni Penguins go to sea to fatten for about a month before returning to islands to moult, when they remain ashore for 20–30 days to replace all their feathers (Williams et al. 1977, Brown 1986). They then depart to over-wintering grounds to regain condition. At Marion Island, Macaroni Penguins feed mainly on crustaceans (euphausiids and amphipods), fish (mostly myctophids) and cephalopods (Brown and Klages 1987, Crawford et al. 2003, Pichegru et al. 2011). The composition of prey changes as chicks develop (Brown and Klages 1987). The median trip duration of birds feeding chicks was 22.8 hours and most dives were < 10 m (Pichegru et al. 2011). Threats Inadequate breeding success has been a factor in the decrease of Macaroni Penguins at Marion Island (Crawford et al. 2003). Overwintering conditions are thought to influence the proportions of Macaroni Penguins skipping breeding and breeding success; feeding conditions during breeding also may influence breeding success (Crawford et al. 2006). Global change may have altered the availability of prey to Macaroni Penguins (Crawford et al. 2003). In winter, Macaroni Penguins from Marion Island forage mostly to the south of the island, sometimes approaching the edge of the sea ice (J-B Thiebot et al., unpublished information). No fisheries target the main prey of Macaroni Penguins at the Prince Edward Islands, but should they be introduced they could decrease prey availability (BirdLife International 2013). Long-line fisheries at winter feeding grounds have inflicted limited incidental mortality on Macaroni Penguins (BMD, unpublished information). Recoveries of fur seals Arctocephalus spp. at the Prince Edward Islands (Hofmeyr et al. 2006, Bester et al. 2009) could increase competition for prey and lead to increased predation of penguins by seals. Increasing seal herds also could block access to breeding sites thereby inhibiting colony growth, as happened at Bouvet Island (Isaksen et al. 1997). Giant petrels Macronectes spp. and Subantarctic Skuas Catharacta antarctica and Lesser Sheathbills Chionis minor also inflict mortality (BMD, pers. obs.). In 1992, 1993 and 2004 disease, including avian cholera Pasteurella multocida, killed substantial numbers of Macaroni Penguins at Marion Island (Cooper et al. 2009). Oil spills could kill large numbers of Macaroni Penguins. Conservation measures underway At Marion Island, there are strict guidelines in place for offloading diesel. Poultry products supplied to the over-wintering teams at Marion Island, or used during relief voyages to the island, do not contain bones and are irradiated in order to reduce the risk of introducing avian diseases. A contingency plan is in place to guide responses to outbreaks of disease at the Prince Edward Islands. No access is allowed to Prince Edward Island except for bona fide research and conservation purposes every 4–5 years. The Prince Edward Islands Marine Protected Area was proclaimed in 2013. Research questions It will be difficult but important to understand how food availability for Macaroni Penguins fluctuates at both summer and winter feeding grounds, and to what extent the penguins compete with other predators for prey. Further information is required on the foraging distributions, especially during breeding, and on adult and immature survival and age at breeding of Macaroni Penguins at Marion Island.