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Advances in Cervical Screening Technology Mark H THE 1999 LONG COURSE ON PATHOLOGY OF THE UTERINE CORPUS AND CERVIX Advances in Cervical Screening Technology Mark H. Stoler, M.D. Department of Pathology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia take into account that each annual test is an inde- The Pap smear unquestionably is a successful pendent event. Consequently, in an appropriate screening test for cervical cancer. However, recent target population, the risk for missing serious dis- advances in technology have raised questions re- ease with three annual consecutive screenings is garding whether the conventional Pap smear is still approximately 1%. At least half of false-negative the standard of care. This article relates issues of Pap smears are due to inadequate sampling. Either screening and cost-effectiveness to the state of the the cells are not collected or they are not present on art in thin layer preparations, cytology automation, the slide. One third to one half are due to errors in human papillomavirus screening, human papillo- the screening process involving locator or inter- mavirus vaccines, and other cervical screening ad- preter error. Much of the discussion on available juncts. Perhaps nowhere in medicine is clinical de- new technology that follows is focused on lowering cision making being more strongly influenced by the false-negative rate, addressing issues of sam- market and other external forces than in cervical pling, sample preparation, or screening/quality cytopathology. control. The following background data are derived from KEY WORDS: Advances, Cancer, Cervix, Human several sources, primarily the U.S. Census Bureau, papillomavirus, Neoplasia. the American Cancer Society (ACS), the College of Mod Pathol 2000;13(3):275–284 American Pathologists (CAP), and several online cancer databases (6). They are included to provide some perspective on the advances to be discussed. SCREENING CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES Of the approximately 272 million people in the The Pap smear is the best example of a successful United States, 139 million are female. If we assume cancer screening (1, 2). Since the late 1940s, the that the major target population for cervical cancer coincidence of evolving technology, an accessible screening includes only women between the ages of target organ, and a relatively long preinvasive de- 15 and 70, then the target population size is re- velopment time for this disease with a historically duced to approximately 95 million. A common es- bad outcome provided the impetus for cytologic timate of the volume of Pap smears performed an- screening. As is often noted, the Pap smear has nually is approximately 50 million. Therefore, only never been subjected to a formal clinical trial to approximately half of the population is getting an- determine its efficacy. Rather, early anecdotal pos- nual screening. Of course, this estimate does not itive experience, combined with pressing clinical reflect issues of maldistribution whereby a popula- need, leads to its widespread implementation (3–5). tion subset is highly screened with multiple repeat Approximately 500,000 cases of cervical cancer examinations versus a fairly large subset of poor, occur each year. In contrast to the situation in the uninsured, or ethnic minorities who have never screened populations, cervical cancer still ranks as been screened or are screened inadequately. An the first or second most frequent carcinoma in estimate of the distribution of cytologic diagnoses women (fighting for number 1 with breast cancer) extrapolated to the U.S. population, taking into ac- worldwide. In addition to these features, the effec- count reasonable estimates of the Pap smear false- tiveness of treatment of the preinvasive form of negative fraction per diagnostic category, is pre- cervical cancer combined with the low morbidity of sented in Table 1. treatment facilitated the decrease in cancer in The American Cancer Society estimates that screened populations. The widely quoted 20% there will be 12,800 cases of cervical carcinoma in false-negative grade for a single Pap test does not the United States with approximately 4,600 deaths. In unscreened populations, cervical cancer inci- Copyright © 2000 by The United States and Canadian Academy of dence ranges from 30 to 40 in 100,000 to as high as Pathology, Inc. VOL. 13, NO. 3, P. 275, 2000 Printed in the U.S.A. 1 in 1,000, compared with the current U.S. rate of Date of acceptance: November 8, 1999. approximately 5 in 100,000. Hence, screening has 275 TABLE 1. Estimated U.S. Prevalence of Cervical Pathologies Multiplied by Estimated Corrected for Divided by % Frequency 50 Million %FNF FNF Frequency 0.52 (Females) Pap Smears ASCUS 2.8 20 3.36 1.68Eϩ06 3.23Eϩ06 LSIL 1.97 10 2.17 1.09Eϩ06 2.10Eϩ06 HSIL 0.51 10 0.55 2.75Eϩ05 5.29Eϩ05 SCC 0.026 5 0.027 1.35Eϩ04 2.60Eϩ04 AdCa 0.0046 10 0.005 2.50Eϩ03 4.81Eϩ03 ASCUS:LSIL NA NA NA 1.54 NA ASCUS:SIL NA NA NA 1.23 NA LSIL:HSIL NA NA NA 3.96 NA Data based in part on a CAP study of 1,741,515 smears from 338 laboratories and extrapolated to U.S. population. (Cancer data corrected for American Cancer Society numbers.) FNF, false negative fraction; ASCUS, atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance; L/HSIL, low-/high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion; SCC, squamous cell carcinoma; AdCa, adenocarcinoma. effected up to a 90% reduction in the incidence of dressed problems of improving sample collection, cervical cancer. Likewise, Gustafsson et al. (7, 8) specimen preparation, screening locator errors, fa- performed a careful study of worldwide databases tigue, and so forth to drive down the false-negative to get an estimate of the incidence rate of cervical fraction while increasing the sensitivity and speci- cancer in various populations before the effects of ficity of this screening test. Some newer technolo- screening. They analyzed more than 83,000 cases, gies attempt to “threaten” the primacy of the Pap and their studies provide a good statistical profile of smear for cervical cancer screening. In the future, cervical cancer worldwide. The mean age at peak given the advances in our understanding of cervical incidence of diagnosis is 54 Ϯ 8 years, and the mean cancer pathogenesis, widespread human papillo- range from the earliest onset of cervical cancer mavirus (HPV) vaccination may make cervical can- (26 Ϯ 3) to peak is 28 Ϯ 7 years. The shape of the cer screening a thing of the past for our children or curve of cancer incidence is interesting and sug- grandchildren. What follows addresses the cur- gests that either exposure to the cancer-causing rently available technologies and the questions of agents decreases with age or target cells are less whether these technologies help us do better in susceptible to malignant transformation with age. cervical cancer screening while trying to balance Compared with the worldwide data, the U.S. and this against a perspective of “if we can do better, is other screened populations have approximately a it worth the cost?” decade earlier mean as well as a questionable rising Recently, Melamed et al. (9) attempted to evalu- incidence, speculated to be due to the effect of ate issues of cost in cervical screening technology. sexual behavior on maturing cohorts. They stated that any cost-effectiveness analysis From Table 1, the pool of all cytologic abnormal- should take a societal as well as a medical perspec- ities (atypical squamous cells of undetermined sig- tive. Assessing the marginal impact of any new nificance [ASCUS] and above) is only 5.9% of the technological advance should be the primary goal population. The corresponding number for low- of such analyses. Certainly, the goal of any new grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL)ϩϭ technology should be to improve the health of the 2.7% and for high-grade squamous intraepithelial population to which the technology is applied while lesions (HSIL)ϩϭ0.56%. Thus, despite widespread hopefully reducing costs. In reality, there are very “negative” publicity, the Pap smear has done a re- few examples of recently introduced new technol- markable job of finding the “needles in the hay- ogy in which these goals have been achieved. A stack.” This success is despite that the test is still stringent requirement to reduce cost can have a performed very much as originally invented. In- markedly adverse effect on the introduction of any deed, simple but major early advances included the new technology. If price is the only determinant of conversion from a vaginal pool specimen to direct technological implementation, such a strict re- cervical sampling, an improved differential staining quirement may freeze current technology in place. technique, and the training of a highly skilled work- Price plus value, emphasizing the long term, is a force of dedicated cytotechnologists, which have much harder but realistically needed perspective. A combined to bring about the current situation—a full analysis of cost-effectiveness is beyond the Pap test so good that the general population ex- scope of this article (10, 11). However, in a screened pects it to be perfect. population such as in the United States, at least No test is perfect, including the Pap smear. In the 50% of the cancers occur in patients who have past decade, significant technical advances have never had a single screening examination. Another presaged the possibility of improving what is al- 25 to 33% occurs in people who are inadequately ready a very good test. These advances have ad- screened. It should be obvious then, that any im- 276 Modern Pathology provement in screening technology will not signif- ments from some clinical professional organiza- icantly affect the cervical cancer rate because fewer tions that state that new technologies are unproved than 10 to 15% of the cancers occur in patients who or not cost-effective and therefore should not be are being adequately screened even with our cur- implemented.
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