Reconsidering Conventional Techniques in the Performance of the Violin Music of the Second Viennese School

Emily Westen

Doctor of Music

Schulich School of Music McGill University, Montreal

A paper submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree ofD.Mus. Performance Studies

August 2011

This thesis provides possible solutions for incorporating the musical language of the Sec ond Viennese School into the canon of violin technique. Following a review of the pre existing literature in order to assess the areas of contemporary technique that have al ready been studied and published, the influence of two violinists is examined, that of

Rudolf Kolisch and Louis Krasner. Both artists performed the music during the compos ers' lifetimes and both worked directly with each composer during the performance preparations. This important historical fact allows us to understand how certain elements of violin technique were used in performances heard by the composers.

Subsequently, in order to expand the technical abilities and musical understanding of today's violinists, sample technical exercises and etudes are provided with explana tions that attend to matters specific to the violin music of the Second Viennese School.

Sample exercises include left hand techniques such as fingering, shifting, and intonation, as well as right hand techniques, addressing issues of bowing, dynamics, and extended techniques. Musical considerations such as ensemble playing, gesture, and syntax are also included, as these are directly connected to the School's compositional techniques. The concepts presented in this thesis provide a framework for, and suggest guidelines to, approaching the School's violin music in order to expand the pedagogical approach to vio lin technique while incorporating other issues found in this music. Ease of study and exe cution of this repertoire as well as other non-diatonic music will naturally follow. ABREGE

La these procure de possibles solutions afin d'incorporer le langage musical de la Se conde Ecole de Vienne dans les canons de la technique et le jeu du violon. Suivant une revue de la litterature existante dans le but d'evaluer divers aspects de la technique contemporaine deja etudiee et sur lesquels des publications existent, !'influence de deux violonistes sera examinee, celle de Rudolf Kolisch et Louis Krasner. Ces deux artistes ont interprete cette musique alors que les trois Viennois etaient encore vivants, et tous deux ont travaille etroitement avec chaque compositeur lors des repetitions. Ce fait historique important nous permet de comprendre de queUe maniere la technique et le jeu du violon etaient employes lors d'interpretations que ces compositeurs ont pu entendre.

Par la suite, afin d'accroitre les habiletes techniques et la comprehension musicale des violonistes d'aujourd'hui, des exercices modeles et des etudes sont foumis avec des explications liees aux questions specifiques en ce qui conceme le violon a la Seconde

Ecole de Vienne. Les modeles s'adressent ala technique pour la main gauche, telle que le doigte, les demanches et !'intonation, de meme que la technique pour la main droite, no tamment le mouvement de l'archet, les dynamiques, et des techniques plus avancees. Au tres considerations musicales telles que le jeu d'ensemble, la gestuelle et la syntaxe sont egalement examinees, puisqu'elles sont directement liees aux techniques compositionnel les de l'Ecole. Les concepts presentes dans cette these procurent done une structure ainsi que des directives afin d'aborder la musique pour violon avec une pedagogie elargie, tout en incorporant d'autres considerations presentes dans cette musique. La facilite d'etude et d'execution de ce repertoire, de meme que d'autres musiques non diatoniques, s'ensuivra naturellement.

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the following individuals and organizations:

The Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) for its generous funding and support of this project

Dr. John Rea, my Music Research supervisor for this project, along with the other members of my doctoral advisory committee: Prof. Jonathan Crow, Dr. Julie Cumming, Dr. Douglas McNabney, and Dr. Eleanor Stubley

The Canada Council for the Arts and the Alberta Foundation for the Arts for their support of my performances ofthe violin music of the Second Viennese School

The Banff Centre for the Arts and Henk Guittart, Director ofFall and Winter Programs, for research and performance opportunities related to this project

Seymour Schulich and the Schulich School ofMusic ofMcGill University for additional funding and support for this degree

Special Collections and Archives at Houghton Library, Harvard University

The pianists who tackled this difficult and demanding repertoire with me and without whom this project would be impossible, particularly Roger Feria Jr., and Sibila Konstantinova

Dr. Claudine Jacques for help in translating my abstract into French

iii DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Lise Elson, a great violin teacher and men tor. The musical insights from her 1966 doctoral dissertation inspired this one, forty-five years later, encouraging me to become both a violinist and academic.

Many of the concepts in this paper are the result of years of lessons and study with many different musicians. I am especially grateful to my violin teachers - Edmond Agopian, Jonathan Crow, Miriam Fried, and Tobi Jurchuk- for all of their generosity and the knowledge they have shared with me.

None of this would be possible without the unconditional love of my parents, who have supported me no matter what. I am truly grateful for the time, energy, kindness, and love they have put into raising me, and for their faith in me as I pursue a career in music.

Finally, I would like to thank my beloved Roger Feria Jr. for his continuing love, friend ship, support, and for sharing his musical, artistic, and culinary talents with me.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... i

ABREGE ...... ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii

DEDICATION ...... iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v

LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ...... vii

LIST OF FIGURES ······················································· ...... ········································· X

PREFACE ...... xi

1 Introduction ...... 1

1.1 Background ...... 2 1.2 Objectives ...... 5 1.3 Methodology ...... 7

2 Review of the Literature ...... 10

2.1 G. Fischbach ...... 10 2.2 P. Zukofsky ...... 12 2.3 S. Babitz ...... 14 2.4 General Sources ...... 15

3 The Influence of Violinists I: Louis Krasner ...... 17

4 The Influence of Violinists II: Rudolf Kolisch ...... 25

4.1 Emphasis on Technique ...... 29

5 Left Hand Technique ...... 37

5.1 Ear Training ...... 3 7 5.2 Fingerings ...... 40 5.3 Using Composition Materials to Determine Fingerings ...... 42 5.4 Intonation ...... 44

v 6 Right Hand Technique ...... 47

6.1 Basic Bowing Skills ...... 48 6.2 Bowing Decisions ...... 55 6.3 Timbre and Extended Techniques ...... 58

7 Musical Considerations ...... 65

7.1 Gesture ...... 65 7.2 Choreography ...... 70 7.3 Issues of Ensemble ...... 72

8 Conclusion ...... 76

Bibliography ...... 79

Discography ...... 83

vi LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES

2.1: Double-stop harmonics with tremolo in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 23 and 26 ...... 12

3.1 a: Change of finger during held note in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 6-7 (Krasner) ...... 19 3.1 b: Change of finger during held note in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 253-57 (Krasner) ...... 19

3.2a: Addition ofbowings for projection in Schoenberg's Concerto, 3rd mvt., mm. 573-79 (Krasner) .... 19 3.2b: Additions ofbowings for rubato & inflection in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm.l09-10 (Krasner) 20

3.3: Addition of glissando by Krasner in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 123 ...... 20

3.4: Unnecessary shifts in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 130 (Krasner) ...... 21

3.5: Disruption of"tuning" motive through fingerings in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 84-93 (Krasner) ··································································································································· 22

3.6: Fingerings not reflecting transposed relation to tone row in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 196-97 (Krasner) ...... 22

3.7: Schoenberg's fingerings indicating string crossings and contracted hand frame instead of shifts in his Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 81 ...... 22

3.8: Schoenberg's indication of high positions rather than shifting in his Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 88 ...... 23

3.9a: Expressive, but not essential, shifts in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 191 (Krasner) ...... 23 3.9b: Expressive, but not essential, shifts in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 255-56 (Krasner) .... 23

4.1 a: Expanded hand frame in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 35 (Kolisch) ...... 26 4.1 b: Expanded hand frame in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 162 (Kolisch) ...... 26 4.1c: Expanded hand frame in Webem's 2nd Piece Op. 7, mm. 4-5 (Kolisch) ...... 26

5.1: Scales in double-stops of major and minor sevenths ...... 38

5.2*: Twelve-tone scale exercise with added registralleaps ...... 39

5.3a: Traditional octave hand frame ...... 41 5.3b: Necessity for an expanded hand frame in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 64 ...... 41

5.4: Comparing fluid (top) and set (bottom) positions in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 162 ...... 41

5.5*: Enharmonic re-reading of Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 25-26 ...... 42

vii 5.6a*: Arpeggio exercises based on opening of Berg's Concerto ...... 43 5.6b*: Hexachordal "scales" based on compositional material for Schoenberg's Phantasy ...... 43 5.6c*: Exercises training the ear for the pitch and intervallic material ofWebem's 3'd Piece Op. 7...... 44 5.6d*: Fast, arpeggiated passages with left hand pizzicato, in preparation for Schoenberg's Concerto, 3'd mvt., mm. 712-13 ...... 44

5. 7 *: Just versus expressive intonation in Schoenberg's Concerto, I st mvt., mm. 261-62 ...... 46

6.1: Bow control in opening gesture ofWebem's 1st Piece ...... 48

6.2* part one: Exercises to gain control of bowing challenges in Webem's Four Pieces ...... 48 6.2* part two: Exercises to gain control of bowing challenges in Webem's Four Pieces ...... 49

6.3*: String crossing exercises based on Berg's "tuning" motive ...... 49

6.4*: Exercises to clearly differentiate dynamic levels through bowing in Berg's Concerto ...... 50

6.5: Difficult string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 8-16 ...... 50

6.6a*: Rhythmic exercise to master string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 9-14 ...... 51 6.6b: Rhythms to add to string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 16-17 to increase control and clarity ...... 51

6.7a: Figure requiring use ofportato stroke in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 93-96 ...... 52 6. 7b: Figure requiring use ofportato stroke in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 38-39 ...... 52

6.8a: Triple stops in Brahms' Concerto in D major Op. 77, 1st mvt., mm. 246-50 ...... 52 6.8b: Triple stops in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 35-38 ...... 52

6.9*: Exercise to add slurs and dynamics to triple stops in Berg's Concerto ...... 53

6.1 Oa: Legato triple stops in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 78-89 ...... 53 6.1 Ob*: Exercise to sustain triple stops in Berg's Concerto ...... 54

6.11: Large leaps, string crossings, and precise articulation in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 72-76 ...... 54

6.12: String crossings with double-stops in high registers in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 30 ...... 55

6.13: Opening gestures of Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 1-4 ...... 56

6.14: Non-metric strong and weak beats in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 91 ...... 56

6.15: Bowings reflecting the implied meter in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 87 ...... 57

viii 6.16: Bowings that do not reflect the musical language in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 170-72 (Krasner) ...... 57

6.17: Bowed line in combination with left hand pizzicato in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 68-72 ...... 61

7.1a: Rhythm and gesture from a Carinthian folk tune in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 222-25 ...... 66 7.1 b: Numerological reference in Schoenberg's Phantasy- measure marked 12a to avoid the number thirteen ...... 66

7 .2a: Use of Liindler figure in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 106-09 to lead toward the next beat...... 67 7.2b: Use of Liindler figure in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 52 & m. 56 to suspend motion ...... 67

7.3a: Sketch from Webem's Pieces Op. 7, fourth piece, mm. 13-15 ...... 68 7.3b: Published version ofWebem's Pieces Op. 7, fourth piece, mm. 13-15 ...... 68

7.4: First and second gestures in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 1-2 & mm. 2-4 ...... 70

7.5: Bowing choice to maintain still atmosphere, Webem's Pieces Op. 7, 3'ct piece, mm. 1-4 ...... 71

7.6: Addition of retakes to increase intensity in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 153-54 ...... 71

7.7: Interlocking parts in Webem's Pieces Op. 7, second piece, mm. 3-4 ...... 72

7.8: Compound rhythms and phrases in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 85-92 ...... 73

*Exercises composed by the author

ix LIST OF FIGURES

1: Hexachords from Kolisch's violin part of Schoenberg's Phantasy (Courtesy of Rudolf Kolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1675). Houghton Library, Harvard University) ...... 28

2.1: Samples ofKolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Studies in Harmonics" (Courtesy ofRudolfKolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University). 33

2.2: Samples ofKolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Combination of chromatic and diatonic Passages" (Courtesy ofRudolfKolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University) ...... 34

2.3: Samples ofKolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Fundamental Position" (Courtesy ofRudolfKolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University). 35

2.4: Samples ofKolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Chromatic scales in diminished Octaves (Courtesy ofRudolfKolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University) ...... 36

3: Possible contact points ...... 62

4: Chart explaining numerological significance of important events, from "Alban Berg, Wilhelm Fliess and the Secret Programme of the Violin Concerto," by Douglas Jarman ...... 66

X PREFACE

The ideas and exercises contained in this document form the basis of a technique book I hope to publish at a later date. The exercises that I have composed are samples highlighting the primary concepts albeit in an abbreviated, incomplete state. While I have tested these exercises in my own playing and based them on my technical training and teaching experience, more testing must be done on other violinists before complete exercises can be formed. They will be expanded upon, in due course, to form a comprehensive and thorough technical method for approaching Second Viennese School repertoire, with the addition of elements found in the chamber and orchestral music containing violin parts by the three composers. This technique book will eventually contain various written excerpts drawn from the following discussion together with musical examples, newly composed exercises, and a clearly laid out process for supplementing current technical training, such as an emphasis on issues of ensemble, that are all required to successfully perform the violin music of the Second Viennese School. Although the new exercises are not in a complete form as of yet, this document contains the principles underly- ing the elements of a practical method. I believe that these concepts are applicable to all musicians studying the performance practice of the Second Viennese School.

Emily Westen August 2011

xi CHAPTER!

Introduction

The music of the Second Viennese School (henceforth, SVS) has had a profound impact on the compositional styles of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. In breaking away from tonality and moving toward atonal styles - pantonality is the term Schoenberg preferred' -and later to twelve-tone styles, the building blocks and language of this music underwent extreme changes in the works of the composers of the SVS. Although this break from tonality by way of an atonal, then dodecaphonic and, later, by way of a set- based musical language inspired many of the foremost composers of the twentieth century, performers have been slow to adapt to these evolving styles of composition and to alter their instrumental techniques to better reflect these changes. As a result, music from the twentieth century onward often seems to take a longer time to learn than earlier music, and can seem to be far more challenging simply because the musical language is less familiar. A knowledge ofhow to technically approach the musical language of the SVS is crucial to understanding all of the non-tonal music that followed it, since it was Arnold

Schoenberg, Alban Berg, and Anton Webern who were among the first to sever ties with the tonality of classical music.

There exist four standard, published works by the SVS: two for violin and piano; and two for violin and orchestra. All are important masterpieces written in diverse musical approaches, and all breaking away from the tonal system. The works for violin dis- play three of the primary compositional techniques employed by these composers, which

1 Norton Dudeque, Music Theory and Analysis in the Writings ofArnold Schoenberg (Aldershot, Rants, UK: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005), 116.

1 points to the absence of a singular or a shared musical language in their works. Alban

Berg's Violin Concerto contains moments of tonality juxtaposed with the twelve-tone method. This allows a performer to assess a hybrid of styles, as well as the natural out growth of the new method. Schoenberg's Violin Concerto Op. 36 and Phantasy Op. 47 are in the twelve-tone style, and offer some of the most challenging technical require ments in violin music to this day, while Webem's Four Pieces Op. 7 are atonal andre quire extended techniques in bowing in order to capture timbral and gestural effects. The unique musical languages and unusual technical requirements in the violin music of the

SVS particularly exemplifies the need for a modem approach to technique when perform ing compositions of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, because the well-established prevalence of virtuoso violin technique - developed in the nineteenth century and still forming the foundation of violin playing and pedagogy to this day - does not address many of the musical and technical demands of this repertoire.

1.1 Background

Since the appearance of the first known treatise on violin playing published by

Francesco Geminiani in 1751, there have beer: only minor developments in violin tech nique, as Dr. Lise Elson affirms: "I cannot find that any advance in technique has actually taken place. The same methods, with slight variations, are still used."2 Today's violinists learn major and minor scales as the foundation of their technique, along with double stops in thirds, sixths, and octaves. Although the mastery of these rudiments is essential to playing the repertoire of the virtuoso Romantic period, this method neglects the intro-

2 Lise B. Elson, "Four Violin Methods, 1750-1960" (PhD diss., Indiana University, 1966), 79.

2 duction of concepts found in non-diatonic music. Violinists generally are not exposed to non-tonal music until more than ten years after beginning the study of the instrument.

This point in a violinist's training has already ingrained into the mind and into the mus- cles concepts of technique essential for performing diatonic music. However, he or she may still be at a beginner level in the understanding of how to technically approach non- diatonic music.

The abandonment of tonality for the new "twelve-tone" technique by these three composers introduced a whole new style of composition and music. The SVS holds a unique place in history because it is the link between music of the tonal past and what is now our ever-developing and diversifying musical language's present. Bach, Mozart,

Beethoven, Brahms, and even Renaissance composers influenced the composers of the

SVS, and understanding these influences is for a performer most important for making sense of the phrasing, form, and structure of their pieces, as well as the intentions behind them.3 Technically, however, violinists must approach this music in an entirely new way, in order to be able to successfully navigate difficult runs and leaps with notes that are now connected in different ways than through the diatonic scale.

Transferring tonally based techniques to this repertoire that has changed musical language can be difficult. For example, flourishes and runs in the music of the SVS do not belong to a specific major or minor key. Therefore, the standard scalar fingerings applied to diatonic passages may not necessarily be the most efficient and effective way of carrying out the composer's intentions with minimal technical disruptions, such as shifts and string crossings.

3 Paul Zukofsky, "Schoenberg for Performers, the Prequel," Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute 15/1 (June 1992): 166-67.

3 I propose reconsidering the approach to violin technique through the enhancement of our current technique, based on current demands required of violinists in twentieth and twenty-first century music. The violin music of the SVS serves as a starting point, a framework, and a case study for this, through its new musical language, variety of styles for each composer, and use of rare or early extended techniques.

Not only does technique need to be reconsidered, but a new emphasis must also be placed on the violinist's role. In the nineteenth century, the violin was treated as a vir tuoso, powerful, solo instrument. The compositions of the SVS, and a significant portion of the violin music from the twentieth century onward, require that violinists serve as both a virtuoso and as part of an integral whole, in solo repertoire as well as in chamber or symphonic music. Rehearsal methods incorporating the understanding of the violin ist's place among an ensemble, knowledge of all parts, and the purpose of every note, phrase, and gesture in each instrument's part is essential to the preparation and perform ance of this music, and it must be added as an important component in gaining a com plete command of this repertoire.

While musical languages and styles have evolved greatly since the time the violin came into existence, our technique has not kept pace. Today's violinists are trained to ex ecute the technical difficulties in works by Romantic era composers such as Paganini and

Wieniawski, but are not prepared for the very different virtuosic demands of twentieth and twenty-first century music. By providing a supplement to training in order to address the technical issues of the violin music of the SVS, I will explore changes and enhance ments to violin technique to aid in performing this repertoire, and to urge violinists to question preconceived notions about technique when studying non-diatonic repertoire.

4 1.2 Objectives

The purpose of this enhanced technical approach is to enable violinists from an early age to be able to understand musical languages beyond tonality, thus creating more successful performances through a greater understanding of the repertoire. The principles behind this approach may also transfer over to other works of the twentieth and twenty first century. By applying these new suggestive ideas to the training of violinists from the beginning of their studies, in conjunction with the current pedagogical methods, the tech nical requirements and musical language of the SVS and other contemporary composers will become an important a part of a violinist's early training just as tonal music currently is, expanding one's musical foundation, knowledge, understanding, and mastery to a wider range of repertoire.

One may wish to question the necessity of this new approach since non-diatonic music is certainly performed frequently and can be found in the repertoire of many pro fessional violinists. This new approach is important, I argue, because it will speed up the learning process for the violin music of the SVS, leaving violinists with more time to fo cus on musical meaning rather than more mundane technical issues. The terms "twelve tone" composition and sometimes incorrectly "serialism", relating to the music of the

SVS, are still associated with being excessively academic and unapproachable to many musicians and music lovers even though these works have been in existence for over a century now. One of the reasons for this attitude may be that the technical demands are so great, along with issues linked to ensemble playing (for pieces with two or more players), that by the time these components have been worked out, little preparation time remains for thinking about, understanding, and communicating the musical ideas clearly.

5 I believe that the idea that SVS music is dry and lacking in emotional content has been perpetuated largely through inadequate performances. This statement does not lo- cate fault with the performers, but rather points to how our technical training has been too focused. With an early exposure to non-diatonic and atonal musical languages in a violinist's training, as well as in exercises that expand current technical requirements, the music of the SVS will become more understandable to performers, and allow a new frame of reference when studying this music for the first time. This new conditioning will enable more clarity in performance and provide time for performers to focus upon expressing the emotions and ideas contained within the music. When one is extremely concerned about being able to execute a passage technically, or when one is worried about playing correct notes, for example, it is impossible to be investing in ideas, emotions, and meaning in music to the degree necessary to be able to communicate these clearly.

Tackling the music of the SVS, characterized by an unfamiliar musical language and unusual instrumental techniques, is a difficult undertaking, especially when a performer must also communicate the music to an audience mostly accustomed to the tonal repertoire. The Boston Globe's review of the 1941 premiere of Arnold Schoenberg's Vio- lin Concerto attests to this. Entitled "Schoenberg Violin Concerto Brings Philadelphia

Walkout," the article goes on to state:

The Philadelphia orchestra played Arnold Schoenberg's new violin concerto today - its world premiere perform ance - and a score of the audience left the Academy of Mu sic before Leopold Stokowski had put down his baton ... "The result," said Edwin H. Schloss, Record critic, "is an entirely new musical syntax, and the effect on the vast ma jority of hearers is that of a lecture on the fourth dimension

6 delivered in Chinese or a reading from Gertrude Stein with sound effects.4

This reaction highlights the need for an understanding of this musical language not only on the part of the performers, but also of the audience members, and it holds true even sixty years later. Understanding can be achieved through more performances of this music, allowing it to become more familiar. However, a greater appreciation will come only if performers enjoy a clear idea of the musical language and do not struggle with technical issues.

1.3 Methodology

In this paper, I will provide possible solutions for incorporating the musical Ian- guage of the SVS into the canon of violin technique. I will begin by reviewing the pre- existing literature to assess the areas of contemporary technique that have already been studied and published. Following this, I will discuss the influence of two violinists who performed the music of the SVS during the composers' lifetimes and worked directly with each composer in order to prepare these performances - Rudolf Kolisch and Louis

Krasner. This historical fact is especially important, as it allows us to understand how violin technique was used in performances heard by the composers. Finally, I will provide sample exercises and etudes that attend to issues specific to the violin music of the

SVS in order to expand the technical abilities and musical understanding of violinists.

These exercises include left hand techniques, such as fingering, shifting, and intonation,

4 "Schoenberg Violin Concerto Brings Philadelphia Walkout," Boston Globe, December 6, 1941. Louis Krasner Papers (MS Mus 234 (372)), Houghton Library, Harvard University (hereafter cited as Krasner Papers).

7 as well as right hand techniques, addressing issues of bowing, dynamics, and extended techniques.

Musical considerations, such as ensemble playing, gesture, and syntax, will also be included, as these are directly connected to technique in the music of the SVS. An example showing just how important such features really are when combined can be found in a programme note written by Michael Steinberg, for a performance of Schoenberg's

Violin Concerto in 1973 given by Joseph Silverstein and the Boston Symphony Orchestra with Seiji Ozawa conducting. Steinberg describes the unique combination of musical and technical difficulties in the music of the SVS very well:

Even now, performances are rare, and few violinists have the Schoenberg in their repertory (not one of the Big Big Names). It is formidably difficult, and early in its history, Schoenberg reinforced that reputation when he said that it would require a new and special brand of fiddler with six fingers on his left hand. I don't know what it feels like to play this work; I do know that it sounds beautiful, and very much for the violin. Also, when it is commandingly and elegantly played- I speak on the basis of Mr. Silverstein's performances with Erich Leinsdorf and this Orchestra in 1965 and Zvi Zeitlin's with Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic in 1967 - audiences like it ... What Schoenberg demands by way of virtuosity, individual and collective, is organic. The famous difficulty of this concerto goes beyond the lack of that no doubt so useful sixth finger on the left hand, because what is required- and at an ex treme level of concentration - is a chamber-musical sense of the place in context, horizontal and vertical, of every event.5

Understanding how to approach the technique required to perform this music while keep- ing the ideas of ensemble, context, gesture, harmony, and musical language in mind is the

5 Boston Symphony Orchestra programme booklet, November 9, 10, 13, 1973 in Krasner Papers (235).

8 only way to truly convey meaning without weaknesses in technique and practice consid erations disrupting the composer's intentions.

As musical styles and languages expand and evolve, it is essential that violin technique responds to and embraces these new developments. It is surprising that the

SVS began composing in the atonal and then the twelve-tone style over one hundred years ago, yet violin technique is still firmly rooted in the principles of tonality. By sup plementing standard technique as well as reconsidering aspects of our current approach to violin technique through the issues present in the violin music of the SVS, I hope to make this repertoire more accessible to violinists at an earlier stage in their training, as well as to provide exercises and other suggestions that may enable a violinist to exhibit more technical control and musical understanding, especially when dealing with this repertoire as well as other non-diatonic twentieth and twenty-first century compositions.

9 CHAPTER2

Review of the Literature

2.1 G. Fischbach

There are very few sources that deal directly with technical aspects of the violin music of the SVS. Two articles, however, do discuss musical as well as some technical issues when playing Schoenberg. The earliest and most technical, entitled "A Performer's

Guide: Arnold Schoenberg's Phantasy for Violin with Piano Accompaniment, Op. 47," was written by violinist and pedagogue Gerald Fischbach and was published in the Win- ter 1988 issue of American String Teacher. This article discusses the practice of learning the piece, and offers a fictional narrative to the work in order to help a performer grasp the musical meaning of Schoenberg's language. Fischbach also describes the difficulty in learning the piece:

The work requires virtuoso command of the instrument. But even more formidable is the process of learning the part. I must confess, every time I start to practice it, I keep hoping the phone will ring. The early practice sessions es pecially remind me of Arthur Darack's characterization of Schoenberg as 'modem music's most persistent thorn,' and ' ... the most discussed, least performed composer in his tory' ... The performer who masters will have been born a second time ... 6

This description of the difficulties of Schoenberg's Phantasy is puzzling in some respects because certainly other pieces in the violin repertoire have far more technical challenges, such as Paganini's Caprices Op. 1. 7 Many of the challenges, therefore, can be attributed to a musical language to which violinists are unaccustomed. By addressing the technical

6 Gerald Fischbach, "A Performer's Guide: Arnold Schoenberg's Phantasy for Violin with Piano Accom paniment, Op.47," American String Teacher 38/1 (Winter 1988): 72. 7 "More technical challenges" here refers to the sheer number of different virtuoso techniques explored.

10 issues in conjunction with Schoenberg's musical language, the speed of the learning process can be increased, thus making this piece more enjoyable to study.

Fischbach's article is also important because it is the only source that deals with

Schoenberg's unusual use of double-stops containing one harmonic and one stopped note.

While many composers in the past have written double-stops with two harmonics, the use of one harmonic and one stopped note is rare. One of the reasons for this may be that they are very difficult to execute since both the left and right hand must work differently for each note of the double-stop to sound. When bowing a normal double-stop consisting of two stopped notes, even pressure is usually applied with the bow to both strings. How ever, this cannot be done easily when one note is a harmonic, because one must use a faster bow motion with less pressure for the harmonic to speak, in contrast with a slower, heavier bow stroke for a stopped note. In Schoenberg's Phantasy, violinists are faced with the challenge of finding a middle ground that allows both notes to speak clearly. In addition, the left hand must have one finger stopping the string with the fingertip for the stopped note and one with a flatter finger for the harmonic. This creates uncomfortable hand positions, especially as violinists are not accustomed to doing this. Fischbach pre sents a few alternate renderings to Schoenberg's notation through the use of the same harmonic in a different place on the violin, or by playing an altogether different note.8

Although it is always preferable to play what the composer has written, in the case of these double-stops, a few are actually not playable in their notated form. Both measures

23 and 26 contain double-stop or single note harmonics with an addition of a tremolo figure:

8 Ibid., 73.

11 Example 2.1- Double-stop or single harmonics with tremolo in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 23 & 26

These are virtually impossible to execute while maintaining the harmonics Schoenberg suggests. Fischbach's solutions provide alternatives that preserve Schoenberg's idea and facilitate execution.

This article also deals with the musical language with respect to consonance and dissonance. Fischbach calls this "situational interval tension," since "Schoenberg seems almost professorial in demonstrating that the traditional consonance-dissonance person- alities of intervals don't apply in his musicallanguage."9 By determining whether a given interval is stable or suspended, one can see whether intervals resolve in a consonant or dissonant manner. For example, in "mm. 113-116 ... a perfect 5th 'resolves' to a major i\

1 a suspended minor 3rd 'resolves' by leaping to a perfect 4 h (a more traditional interval of

10 suspension), and a relatively stable major 7th yields to a tension-laden minor 3rd." Al- though Fischbach does not propose exercises to train the ear for this new way of thinking, he does present a non-traditional way of looking at the harmony, something that is essential to understanding Schoenberg's Phantasy.

2.2 P. Zukofsky

A second publication dealing with the performance of Schoenberg's violin music is entitled "Schoenberg for Performers: the Prequel," written by Paul Zukofsky and appearing in the June 1992 issue of the Journal of the Arnold Schoenberg Institute. While

9 Ibid., 74. 10 Ibid.

12 not dealing with technique or the violin music specifically, Zukofsky discusses the interpretation of Schoenberg's music based on Schoenberg's own literary writings. By knowing which composers influenced him and how, argues Zukofsky, musicians can gain an understanding of the trajectory of music up to a certain point, and be able to apply principles they are already familiar with, such as phrasing and form, to a further understanding of Schoenberg's music.

In this article, Zukofsky also presents some of Schoenberg's thoughts on music, which provide insights into performing his works: "Listening to a concert, I often find myself unexpectedly in a 'foreign country', not knowing how I got there; a modulation has occurred which escaped my comprehension. I am sure that this would not have hap- pened to me in former times, when a performer's education did not differ from a composer's."11 This statement acknowledges that, even during Schoenberg's lifetime, performers may not have understood contemporary musical language as well as was required. A lack of technique books and writings on technical matters related to modem music, one might argue, may have been at fault for this state of affairs since without such pedagogical sources it would have been difficult to translate compositional or theoretical concepts to the practice of playing an instrument.

Another observation in the article, this time taken from Schoenberg's New Music:

My Music, refers to composing but is also applicable to performance, and hints at the need for innovations in technique in order for music to continue to be interesting and relevant:

Do you believe a fencer, a wrestler, a boxer, a tennis-player would remain unbeaten for long if he always employed the

11 Zukofsky, 174.

13 same succession of lunges, holds, punches or strokes? Do you not think this would soon be noticed and suitably coun tered? Of course, a musician who for ever repeats familiar things, whose progression one already knows by heart be fore it happens, can hardly be countered, or only by losing interest or withdrawing one's attention; that is to say, one becomes bored. To lay claim to one's interest, a thing must be worth saying, and must not yet have been said. 12

Schoenberg clearly understood that performances must be technically flawless in order to communicate accurately the musical intentions of the composer. Zukofsky also notes

Schoenberg's views from his "Treatise on Performance":

The highest principle for all reproduction of music would have to be that what the composer has written is made to sound in such a way that every note is really heard, and that all the sounds, whether successive or simultaneous, are in such relationship to each other that no part at any moment obscures another, but, on the contrary, makes its contribu tion towards ensuring that they all stand out clearly from one another. 13

While Zukofsky's text focuses on the musical aspects of performing Schoenberg's music, the observations from Schoenberg's own writings make clear how important technical execution is in conveying musical meaning.

2.3 S. Babitz

Another source that to some extent deals with the violin music of the SVS is a book entitled Violin Fingering by Sol Babitz. The book concerns issues of fingering in modern music that may also be transferable to music from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, due to his focus on eliminating unnecessary slides, generally only desirable in

Romantic music. Babitz proposes to do this through a much greater use of extensions in

12 Ibid., 162. 13 Ibid., 172.

14 fingering choices. Babitz, who was an acquaintance of Schoenberg, highlights the importance of his method by explaining how Schoenberg deliberately placed extension fingerings in the published part of his Violin Concerto. Even though the fingerings Schoenberg indicates are not always the best choice from a violinist's point of view, they signal his desire to eliminate unnecessary slides, and Babitz received confirmation of this after playing Schoenberg's Concerto for the composer, who approved. 14

In Babitz's book, examples appear from across the standard and contemporary violin repertoire, including a few from Schoenberg's Concerto. Babitz does not go so far as to specifically create a method for the music of Schoenberg, however, but he does acknowledge that the successful execution of Schoenbergian passages requires unconven- tional choices of fingering. In addition, for the second edition of the book published in

1974, Babitz changes the title from the original Principles ofExtensions in Violin Finger- ing to simply Violin Fingering. He claims the reason for this is that his "fingering innovations have been adopted by many performers, including Rudolph [sic] Kolisch of the quartet which gave many Schoenberg premiers."15 Babitz's book provides a good foundation for learning the fingerings that contain extensions and contractions that will appear in the exercises I discuss later in this paper, especially since it provides examples from early standard repertoire and technical literature.

2.4 General Sources

Another book with similar ideas, although not directly related to music of the SVS is The Principles of Violin Fingering by I. M. Y ampolsky, published in 1967. Here one

14 Sol Babitz, Violin Fingering, 2"d ed. (Los Angeles: Sol Babitz, 1974), 6. 15 Ibid., i.

15 finds discussions on the importance of extensions, contractions, and the use of half posi tion or positions smaller than the traditional octave frame in violin playing, and uses ex amples from virtuosic pieces, such as works by Paganini. These principles are important to consider in the violin music of the SVS, and I will apply them in conjunction with knowledge of the building blocks in the musical language of Schoenberg, Berg and We bern.

Two additional technique books look beyond traditional tonality-based technique.

They are No Time to Practice (2002) by Edmond Agopian, and A Modern Approach to

Violin Virtuosity (1997) by Terje Moe Hansen. While neither book deals with a specific non-tonallanguage, they both provide exercises consisting of unusual intervals, training the ear and hand to be comfortable with large leaps in register and all possible intervals, both as leaps and double-stops, and No Time To Practice incorporates a wide variety of bowings and articulations as well.

Study of all of the articles, books, and exercises mentioned in this chapter will ex pose violinists to violin technique beyond the traditional methods, and prepare them for my approach, which combines the foundational elements of the compositional styles with an expansion of traditional violin technique in order to help with the process of studying and performing the violin music of the SVS.

16 CHAPTER3

The Influence of Violinists I Louis Krasner (1903-1995)

The composers of the SVS were actively involved in the musical circles of the cities where they lived and worked, including those of Vienna, Berlin, Boston, and Los

Angeles. The importance of connecting with performers and composers who shared their musical points of view is evidenced by the creation of the Verein fur musikalische Pri- vatauffuhrungen, founded by Schoenberg in 1918. Two violinists in particular champi- oned the music of the SVS, albeit in different respects. Louis Krasner was an American violinist who admired the music of the SVS, and commissioned and premiered the Violin

Concerto by Alban Berg. He also gave the premiere of Arnold Schoenberg's Violin Con- certo Op. 36. Rudolf Kolisch, an Austrian violinist who later moved to the United States, was the first violinist of the Kolisch String Quartet, and a close friend and brother-in-law of Schoenberg. Kolisch performed most of the chamber music of the SVS, as well as other works at the Verein fur musikalische Privatauffuhrungen, such as Webem's Four

Pieces and Schoenberg's Phantasy. The performance parts of both of these violinists are housed in the archives of Harvard University's Houghton Library, and contain valuable insights into the technical aspects of some of the earliest performances of the violin music ofthe SVS.

Louis Krasner enjoyed a varied career including positions as Concertmaster of the

Minneapolis Symphony Orchestra and Professor of Violin at Syracuse University. He is probably best known, however, for giving the premieres of two of the most important

17 violin concerti of the twentieth century- Berg's Violin Concerto and Schoenberg's Violin

Concerto Op. 36. The recordings he made of these works, in addition to his musical an notation to scores and parts, can be found in the Louis Krasner Papers at Harvard Univer sity's Houghton Library and provide a significant amount of information on how these masterpieces sounded in their first performances.

Upon first glance at Krasner's solo parts to both Berg's Concerto and Schoen berg's Concerto, one immediately notices the large number of markings he has added.

Violinists generally only add essential fingerings and bowings into their parts, as well as occasional musical and technical reminders. Krasner however seems to be extreme in his inclusion of fingerings and bowings. Each note in both concerti contains its own finger ing and bowing, and especially the margins of Schoenberg's Concerto are full of techni cal advice to himself about how to use his bow arm and/or vibrato. Representative com ments include "hand always plays pp" and "hand presses, fingers let go - up arm drags the violin to left," with each annotation followed by a date. 16 This reflects the thorough ness with which Krasner studied these pieces, and one can infer that the learning process must have been slow and tedious, since no passage is free from markings as is normal when a score is sight-readable. Also worth noting is the fact that his aides-memoires date well beyond the 1930s when both concerti were written. Decades later, he was still work ing in great technical detail on the pieces, an indication not only of their continuing diffi culty but also of his devotion to the music.

Another possible explanation for the abundance of markings in Krasner's part is his knowledge of the historical significance of these works. It is clear from notes attached

16 Violin Part of Manuscript of Arnold Schoenberg's Violin Concerto in Krasner Papers (331 ).

18 to the parts and manuscripts contained in the Krasner Papers that he understood that these parts would hold importance for future musicologists and performers, and perhaps he purposely included extra notations for posterity. Even if this is not the case, the volume of technical notes and advice that Krasner has written in the margins proves that he la- boured over the technical execution of these pieces for his entire career.

When viewing the fingerings and bowings in Krasner's parts for Berg's Concerto and Schoenberg's Concerto, it is immediately noticeable that many of his choices would be considered old fashioned today. Frequently, he switches fingers during a long, held note, either for a change of timbre, as in Example 3.la, or to add a portamento in the middle of the note, as seen in Example 3.1b:

1J tffHfi]frj; n j mf ====- Example 3.1a- Change of finger during held note in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 6-7 (Krasner) 4 /2 \3 @~ ) #J I J. I J. I J. I #J. mf Example 3.1b- Change of finger during held note in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 253-57 (Krasner)

In addition, many of the composers' original bowings are broken up, both to allow the soloist to project more easily, and also to create more inflections and rubato within a phrase:

Example 3.2a- Addition of bowings for projection in Schoenberg's Concerto, 3rd mvt., mm. 573-79 (slurs are Schoenberg's; up and down bow symbols are Krasner's)

19 ,..,y ,..,y ,.., y,..,y ,..,v ,.., v 8""------' lffi?r f[;l ~r~ dffu ff Example 3.2b -Additions of bowings for rubato and inflection in Berg's Concerto, 2"d mvt., mm. 109-10 (slurs are Berg's; up and down bow symbols are Krasner's)

These romantic conceptions changed somewhat in the latter part of the twentieth century with the advent of the historical performance practice movement and popularity of Urtext editions, and it is unlikely that soloists performing these works today would employ his techniques, unless it was clear that the composer had intended for them to do so.

An indication that Berg, even with his Romantic, expressive musical style, may not have agreed with all of Krasner's technical ideas, can be seen when comparing Kras- ner's part with the revised 1966 edition of Berg's Concerto published by Universal Edi- tion. Krasner's original part is attached with a note stating that "shortly before premiere in Barcelona, Louis and Rita K. played the Concerto together, for a small audience in

Berg's presence, from this MS ... they made changes even then. According to Louis, this

MS has absolute precedence over the particell."17 One such change that has been pen- ciled in occurs in measure 123 of the first movement where Krasner has added a vibrated glissando to connect a high G to a lower B-flat:

3 ~

Example 3.3- Addition of glissando by Krasner in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 123

17 Manuscript of Alban Berg's Violin Concerto (piano reduction by Rita Kurzman with violin part), in Krasner Papers (320).

20 This changes the figure from a subtle sighing gesture into something much more prominent. This can be heard in Krasner's early recordings of the work as well, and presumably

Berg heard this when Krasner read through the Concerto for him. However, this does not make it into the 1966 edition, perhaps an indication that Berg did not completely agree with this decision.

Another reason for many of the romantic ideas in Krasner's parts may simply have come about because the musical language of the SVS was extremely new and avant- garde at the time of the premieres, especially for an American violinist who was not actively involved in the musical circles of the composers of the SVS. Krasner was the first to perform these pieces, and therefore he may not have had a lot of time to think about all technical and musical aspects of the works or change his playing to accommodate the new musical language. As performers and listeners became familiar with this music and began to understand it, some of these Romantic ideas may have also eventually seemed old fashioned, even to Krasner, as time went on.

Choices of fingerings in Krasner's parts often emerge as being inefficient. The parts contain many extra shifts, usually associated with Romantic expression, but these frequently occur at the expense of positioning the hand for cleanliness and clear gestures, such as in measure 130 ofthe first movement of Berg's Concerto:

~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~ I~ tr t r t pE t t r p I ==- f ff ====- Example 3.4- Unnecessary shifts in Berg's Concerto, 1'1 mvt., m. 130 (Krasner)

Fingering choices also disrupt or disguise some of Berg's musical ideas. For example, fingerings that shift positions in measures 84 to 93 of the first movement of Berg's Con-

21 certo may allow for more vibrato and a richer tone colour; however, they make it more difficult to hear the "tuning" motive, established in the opening of the work when the bow crosses all four open strings to emulate the violin "tuning up" before performance:

0 G2 D3 G2 'f1;:f IF JiJ p Example 3.5- Disruption of "tuning" motive through fingerings in Berg's Concerto, t•t mvt., mm. 84-93 (Krasner)

Another instance occurs at the end of the Concerto, in measures 196 and 197 of the second movement. Berg has written a transposed version of the piece's main tone row, but

Krasner's choice of fingerings does not reflect this:

p Example 3.6- Fingerings not reflecting transposed relation to tone row in Berg's Concerto, rd mvt., mm. 196-97 (Krasner)

The same concept of overly expressive or inefficient fingerings can also be seen in Krasner's part for Schoenberg's Concerto Op. 36, but to a lesser degree. This is because Schoenberg included many fingerings and string choices in the published part.

Such annotations give an idea of the concepts Schoenberg intended, such as playing figures across many strings with a contracted hand frame, rather than involving shifts, such as in measure 81 of the first movement:

Example 3.7- Schoenberg's fingerings indicating string crossings and contracted hand frame instead of shifts in his Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 81

22 Another figure, in measure 88 of the first movement, shows that Schoenberg preferred everything kept in one high position rather than shifting throughout a passage: aQBn@l ~o (fijlD) ~ ((i) fill - Example 3.8- Schoenberg's indication of high positions rather than shifting in his Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 88

These annotations allow his ideas to come across quite clearly and signify which notes should be connected into one gesture. In the more lyrical passages, however, Krasner in- eludes some shifts that are expressive, but may be unnecessary, such as in measure 191 and measures 255 to 256 of the first movement:

...-----..3 2 \3 1 /A2 0 f ~E ~r ,. 0 ~· 'tf } 1

Example 3.9a- Expressive, but not essential, shifts in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 191 (Krasner) 3 2 I 0 1 I 4 ~· • JGf------liJct• 2 1 2 ~ • Example 3.9b -Expressive, but not essential, shifts in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 255-56 (Krasner)

In general, however, Schoenberg's precise and informative annotations provide some fingering requirements that help to explain musical intentions. As well, his difficult pas- sagework, frequent use of double and triple-stops, and gestural writing provide less room for individual choice and expression in technical decisions.

Violinist Louis Krasner had the unique distinction of premiering not one, but two of the twentieth century's most important violin concerti. His parts provide an insight into the earliest performances, showing us that Krasner approached these works from a Ro-

23 mantic point of view in his choice of fingerings and bowings. While Berg's and Schoen berg's opinions on these decisions are unknown, I believe that with today's knowledge of the musical language of these composers, fingerings and bowings that communicate the musical materials and gestures more clearly should be used, and will result in more effi ciency and ease in performance. When doing this, however, one must not forget Kras ner's emphasis on portraying the emotional intensity of these works.

24 CHAPTER4

The Influence of Violinists II Rudolf Kolisch (1896-19 78)

Rudolf Kolisch was the first violinist of the Kolisch Quartet, and performed most of the chamber music of the composers of the SVS. As a close friend and relative of

Schoenberg, Kolisch was more closely linked with the musical and social circles of the

SVS than Louis Krasner. As a result, he likely had a clearer understanding of the musical theory behind many of the works. His experience as a chamber musician enhanced his knowledge of the pieces as a whole, and his performances, writings, and teachings reveal a very forward-looking musician. In his article, "Religion der Streicher," Kolisch writes that he believes that "in string playing, there is a gap between production and reproduction."18 It is this gap that Kolisch sought to close through his innovative approaches to performing the music of his time.

Rudolf Kolisch's individual parts, scores, recordings, and writings are located in the Rudolf Kolisch Papers at Harvard University's Houghton Library. When viewing these performance parts, one can immediately see that his approach to learning music was extremely different from Louis Krasner's. While Krasner's parts contain markings on every note, Kolisch's parts rarely include any fingerings or bowings, and generally just contain a few markings related to the form of the piece or some analysis of tone rows.

Henk Guittart, former violist of the Schoenberg Quartet, who studied with Kolisch, provided an explanation for this when he informed me personally that Kolisch studied his parts away from the violin and would not begin to play the music until he had fully

18 The Religion of the String Player, trans. Raymond A. Barr, Rudolf Kolisch Papers (MS Mus 195 (1541)), Houghton Library, Harvard University (hereafter cited as Kolisch Papers).

25 learned it without the instrument. This approach enabled Kolisch to gain an understanding of the large-scale aspects of the music, such as form, before dealing with individual technical details.

The very few annotations in Rudolf Kolisch's parts can still offer great insight into his views on violin technique in the music of the SVS. When fingerings are added, they are to eliminate shifts that would occur if he were to use the typical set position fingerings common in standard scale methods. His marked fingerings often include extensions beyond the standard octave hand frame, such as in measures 25 and 162 of Schoen- berg's Phantasy Op. 47, and in measures 4 to 5 ofWebem's Four Pieces Op. 7, no. 2:

2 4 4 2 ~ 2 *#JJ±P 1~n.

Example 4.1a- Expanded hand frame in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 35 (Kolisch)

3212134 ~

4i # Pr·d'rr # ~ ~Jill J ~T rir~f rr a·r/0 Fi'g f I

Example 4.1b- Expanded hand frame in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 162 (Kolisch) 4 2

p ff -==== ff.f Example 4.1c- Expanded hand frame in Webern's 2"d Piece Op. 7, mm. 4-5 (Kolisch)

Kolisch's knowledge of the violin part within the greater whole of the piece can also be seen in Webem's second piece of Opus 7, as in measure 3, he has clearly indicated where the violin part fits within the piano part, and has written the word "listen."

26 A focus on the musical materials of a piece is evident in two of Kolisch' s parts for

Schoenberg's Phantasy Op. 47. Here, Kolisch has labeled formal sections such as "Tran sition" in measures 25, 72, and 135, and "Recapitulation (Inv.)" in measure 154. Various letters and numbers are also assigned to divisions of musical ideas, such as an "A" in measure one, a "B" in measure seven, and a "C" in measure fourteen. New sections are marked with numbers, and the back page of the part contains the hexachords that the piece is based on, although it is unclear if Kolisch or perhaps even Schoenberg himself wrote these (see Figure 1 on the next page). Kolisch's part from Schoenberg's Violin

Concerto does not appear as though he has played from it. However, he has circled and analyzed tone rows throughout, while his part for Berg's Concerto contains the odd fin gering and bowing in combination with labeling of tone rows.

Kolisch' s obvious knowledge of the musical language of the composers of the

SVS, and inclusion of this information in his parts, shows that he must have been think ing about these elements when playing the violin. It appears that such knowledge in formed his understanding of the form and divisions within a piece, and thus perhaps also played a role in his technical decisions, such as fingerings and bowings, in order to not disrupt musical gestures. This approach to, and way of thinking about, the music of the

SVS was likely influenced by his time spent directly with the composers and his vast ex perience in performing their chamber music. Kolisch's choice of fingerings especially in this repertoire is innovative in its disregard for technical tradition in order to convey mu sical ideas as clearly as possible, something important to consider for today's violinist performing contemporary music. A quote from Beethoven, placed by Kolisch on the title

27 Figure 1- Hexachords from Kolisch's violin part of Schoenberg's Phantasy (Courtesy of Rudolf Kolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1675), Houghton Library, Harvard Uniyersity)

28 page of his article, "Religion der Streicher," captures his beliefs on determining how to execute the music of the SVS by basing decisions upon expression of the composers' in tentions: "Does he imagine that I think of his wretched violin when the spirit is upon

A disregard for past technical traditions was likely at the forefront of Kolisch's mind, as he was one of history's rare "left-handed" violinists, meaning that he held the violin with the right hand and the bow with the left. It is extremely unusual to encounter a left-handed violinist with such a high calibre of playing and a successful career, and this is only compounded by the fact that he was the first violinist of a string quartet. Due to his uncommon posture, Kolisch led the quartet from the audience's right side, where the cellist or violist normally sits. The result of this unusual technical approach may be that, from the beginning of his playing, Kolisch was forced to embrace and challenge tech nique constantly in order for it to work with his "backwards" set-up, and this spirit of overcoming obstacles may have influenced his progressive ideas on how to technically execute the musical language of the composers ofthe SVS.

4.1 Emphasis on Technique

Although these two violinists held opposing views on many technical matters, they shared a common interest in violin technique. Both men were teachers, although their primary musical positions were mainly in performance until later in their lives, so it is unusual that they both placed so much emphasis on the pedagogical aspect of violin technique. This interest may be explained by both violinists' fundamental goal of com-

19 Ibid.

29 municating composers' intentions as clearly and accurately as possible. In the Louis

Krasner papers, a note from an unnamed colleague suggests the importance of technique as a musical tool in the repertoire of the SVS, and other "serious" composers:

I fondly recall an anecdote of Louis Krasner who expressed a wish to 'master technique' to Sevcik at their first meeting. Mr. Sevcik presumably wounded, in tum asked young Krasner 'Why, don't you think I can teach you Mozart?' In the process of maturing one gradually becomes aware that throughout our musical history the artists who revealed previously unknown potential of our beloved violin were not the 'virtuosos,' but the musical servants. The late Bee thoven quartets and the Schoenber~ Concerto immediately come to mind to remind us of that. 2

Krasner eventually began his own unfinished technique book, which resides in manuscript form, transcribed by his colleague Howard Ralyea, and containing aspects of technique such as silent bow exercises, double-stops, relevant Sevcik exercises, string crossings, shifting, vibrato, and lists of important repertoire to study.21 Likewise,

Kolisch's papers contain an unfinished book of etudes, intended for eventual publication,22 as well as pedagogical writings, including one outlining his theory of performance.

The "Violin Studies" (see Figures 2.1 through 2.4 below) relate directly to Schoenberg's

Violin Concerto, suggesting exercises to prepare for and execute technical issues in this work. In the attached note for publication, Kolisch writes:

I would suggest that these studies appear in short parts, each covering a limited territory of problems (i.e. chromatic intervals, chords and passages containing sevenths and ninths; col legno; sul ponticello; pizzicato, etc.). Besides these systematical studies, important contemporary works would be edited with a 'technological analysis.' That means the application of my principle to single works, in-

20 Notes on Violin Technique, in Krasner Papers (316). 21 Violin Exercises, in Krasner Papers (227). 22 Violin Studies, in Kolisch Papers (1542).

30 vestigating all the technical problems occurring in them and showing the way to overcome them by constructing studies. Later on the same princiEle might be applied to classical works of string-literature. 3

These ideas of Kolisch are very similar to my approach of reconsidering conventional techniques in the violin music of the SVS because both address aspects of violin technique neglected in traditional technical methods, but are commonly found in modem music. While the approach and organization is different - Kolisch focuses on chromatic scales and contracted hand frames, versus the diatonic scales and expanded hand frames I employ, and Kolisch's studies are rarely placed in the context of specific passages of

SVS repertoire - the ultimate goal of creating technical exercises which contain musical concepts found in twentieth and twenty-first century music, beyond what existing pedagogical methods offer, is the same. As evidenced by Krasner and Kolisch, it seems that from the earliest performances of this repertoire, and continuing up to today, violinists have been struggling to adapt it to the instrument, highlighting the need to supplement our current technical training, especially as modem music continues to be based on new and diverse musical languages.

Louis Krasner and Rudolf Kolisch were perhaps the two most important violinists in the early performances of the violin music of the SVS. They could not have been more different in their approach, however. While Krasner emphasized emotional expression in his technical decision-making, Kolisch objectively considered the compositional materials as the foundation for performance. Now with almost a century of experience with the music of the SVS, today's violinists must find a balance between both styles when de-

23 Ibid.

31 termining the technical execution of this music - clearly communicating the building blocks of the compositions while not overlooking the emotional substance of the piece.

32 5TUOI IN HAR tv1

Figure 2.1- Samples of Kolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Studies in Harmonics" (Courtesy of Rudolf Kolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University).

33 Figure 2.2 - Samples of Kolisch 's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Combination of chromatic and diatonic Passages" (Courtesy of Rudolf Kolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University).

34 Figure 2.3 - Samples of Kolisch 's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto - "Fundamental Position" (Courtesy of Rudolf Kolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University).

35 Figure 2.4- Samples of Kolisch's Violin Studies for work on Schoenberg's Concerto- "Chromatic scales in diminished Octaves" (Courtesy ofRudolfKolisch Papers, MS Mus 195 (1542). Houghton Library, Harvard University).

36 CHAPTERS Left Hand Technique

Technical issues related to the left hand, such as fingerings, shifting, and intonation, contribute to many of the challenges when one begins to study the violin music of the SVS. Ear training greatly affects the solidity of intonation, as it is essential for performers to be able to hear the intervals contained in this music. The decisions made in regard to fingerings and shifting determine how musical phrases and gestures will be heard, as well as how clearly the composer's musical intentions will be communicated.

For violinists trained in the tonal system, the string music of the SVS seems to be written in a foreign language, thus magnifying technical problems. If this music is approached with the same left hand technique used for tonal music of the Romantic period, many passages will seem impossible to execute and difficult to understand. By supplementing traditional technical training in this area with exercises that address the compositional foundation of the string music of the SVS, violinists will have more tools at their disposal to easily execute and convey the meaning in these pieces, as well as in other non-tonal music.

5.1 Ear Training

The first step in learning the music of the SVS is to be able to hear the intervals and harmonies clearly. Traditionally, violinists are trained to practice major and minor scales in single notes and in double-stops of intervals of thirds, sixths, and octaves, as these are the most useful intervals in the diatonic system. While this practice trains the ear very well to hear whether or not these intervals are in tune, it neglects the intervals that are most commonly found in the music of the composers of the SVS: major and mi-

37 nor seconds, sevenths, and ninths; tri-tones; and perfect fourths and fifths. Violinists are less comfortable with playing these intervals and have more difficulty with intonation as a result. I propose that from the moment students begin to practice double-stops in thirds, sixths, and octaves they also work on the other intervals listed above. Supplementing a violinist's training in this way will add a few minutes to daily practice, but will ultimately save more time once study of repertoire from the twentieth century commences. Example

5.1 samples an exercise to practice scales in major and minor sevenths, and should be played both solid and broken:

13 4 3 4 3 44 01 2121 22 If r ~·r F 1F ·r 1r l 3 1 4 4 3 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 I~ ~ I&j j lj j II

Major 7ths: 3 4 3 3 1 3 4 1 3 4 1 2 1 2 3 3 4 0 1 2 0 1 2 16 0 1 1 2 ~E l ij y Iij j I~~ 1 ~ I~~ •r I~~ r IF ~r I h 4 4 4 ~ 3 4 3 2 4 3 3 2 4 3 32 ~ •f p' I; i I•j ~ I., #i I•i ~~ 1 1 ~ ~J I j ~j I ~ *" Also starting on A-flat, A, B-flat, and B (in major and minor keys). Practice with various tempi, dynamics, and bowings. Play both solid and broken double-stops. Example 5.1 - Scales in double-stops of major and minor sevenths

Even though the music of the SVS is not diatonic, it is best to begin practice with these supplementary double-stops, both solid and broken, in major and minor scales and arpeggios, to give a frame of reference that can help with training the ear. It is also essen-

38 tial to practice these intervals in single notes or double-stops with large registral dis- placements. Once this has been solidified, these intervals can be applied to twelve-tone rows and hexachord-based "scales," training the ear to listen for vertical intervals in the double-stops and horizontal intervals in the rows. For violinists without perfect pitch, the music of the SVS contains huge leaps to high notes that are extremely difficult to execute without much effort. There is no reason that hearing these intervals should be any more difficult than thirds, sixths, or octaves. They happen to be more difficult simply because we are not exposed to them early enough in our training. In Example 5.2, a twelve-tone row found at mm. 100-102 of Schoenberg's Concerto is to be practiced first as a scale, and then registralleaps are added to train the ear for hearing the intervals contained in the row. This must then be transposed to all pitch levels, and practiced with variations in bowings, dynamics, fingerings, articulation, and tempi:

3 4 x2 3 4 Id J ~J J

2 0 2 3 2 4 4 2 0 ------.., I = "' ,~rJ r7]a I ~F J rtr l'r 'a I I E

I 4 3 2 x3 4 3 2 ,d~f JOh I dz f ,·e-;-r3 0 I

4 2 4 4 3 4 I r 0 ~ F t f 'Q g ld J I J Example 5.2 - Twelve-tone scale exercise with added registralleaps

39 5.2 Fingerings

The one technical aspect of violin playing that can most affect the clarity of per formance in the music of the SVS, in my opinion, is the choice of fingerings. Violinists learn fingering based on the tonal system, and often do not spend enough time searching for the best fingering for any given passage, since so many are provided in published edi tions by great violinists and pedagogues. While many of these fingerings work well, it is important not to blindly accept them, but rather to understand the intentions behind them and then determine if they project the intended musical idea. In the violin music of the

SVS, fingerings must serve several functions, including clarity of gesture, expression, timbre, and phrasing.

The first aspect of fingering to reconsider is the use of the octave hand frame, which has been set up to be able to execute major and minor scales quickly. Since the music of the SVS is not diatonic, pitches rarely lie comfortably within an octave hand frame. By determining the intervallic range of each given passage, one can adjust the hand frame to best fit each phrase, run, or section. Generally, in the music of the SVS, this will mean an expansion of the hand frame to a ninth, or contracted to a seventh, al though other intervals are possible. Shifts, by nature, produce some noise as the finger moves up or down the fingerboard. Although the amount of sound produced is controlla ble to an extent, shifts are rarely completely silent. The sounds produced during shifting, therefore, can often disrupt the musical line, requiring shifts to be placed in locations that make sense with the phrasing of a passage. Thus, adjusting hand frames to suit the com positional materials of a piece will enable control of the phrasing by the performer.

40 The use of expanded or contracted hand frames will help to eliminate extra shifts, making fast passages much clearer. If a shift is desired for expressive reasons, this is fine; but it should be purposely intended, rather than the result of not taking time to consider if changing the size of the hand frame will convey the musical meaning more clearly. Ex- ample 5.3 shows how adjustments to the traditional octave hand frame will allow a structural unit, in this case a tetrachord, to be played on one string, creating a more cohesive gesture:

Sui A Su!E 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 0 F I -- r ] =flo I r r I r r I Example 5.3a- Traditional octave hand frame tt IJ #J J 1] } ' ~ _d C#-D#, hand frame of major 9th Example 5.3b- Necessity for an expanded hand frame in Berg's Concerto, 1'1 mvt., m. 64

Developing a fluid sense of hand position also carries over into shifting. Rather than always shifting between set positions, the use of extensions, contractions, and enharmonic re-reading of notes for less conventional "shifts" will enable much more free- dom. This will reduce the number of shifts in a passage, making it easier to play. Think- ing in this way about shifting opens up many more possibilities for choices of fingerings, providing more options for solutions to problematic passages (see Examples 5.4 and 5.5):

4 /3 4 2 \2 3 32121343 241

'JjJJcfGfl#cfr[ c i r.; 1 #t ee ~ 'L· ~ 3 1 I 3 0 \1 3 2 \2 4 I /4 \2 3 1 2 /3 1 /4 2 \4 1

Example 5.4- Comparing fluid (top) and set (bottom) positions in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 162

41 ------II ff

Example 5.5 -Enharmonic re-reading of Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 25-26

5.3 Using Compositional Material to Determine Fingerings

The most effective way to determine fingerings for the violin music of the SVS is to have a flexible sense of positioning and hand frames. This, combined with an understanding of the compositional basis of each work, will greatly enhance the understanding of the musical language, and thus project the music's meaning more clearly to an audience.

The following are four exercises I have written based on the building blocks of each work (see Examples 5.6a, b, c, d). Through practice, violinists can train their ears to hear these, and develop fingerings that fit well for the compositional material used.

42 3 b 2 b2 Alternating Major and minor 3rds: 3 q~ b 1 b~ ~ I 3 ~.!_ I 3 I I 3 - 3 [ - ~ br ~ ~ t t= ~ H}A i~-f' f t--4 d ~3 b 1 3 1 3 I ._ b 3 3 0 ~. tf ~ F I :; ~ ( ~ ~i • Alternating minor and Major 3rds:

3 ._ 3 1 ~e 3 3 3 0 r r • [ f • IJ y ~ 4 d &.- g 3 2 1 3 ~- ._ "Berg" Arpeggio: 1 3 b~ +- 3 .,--' - 3 bI f= 3 3 bf t- • lc F t ~ E il' &J J ~J b f f 3._ 1 3 b1 3 1 ~ 3 3 3 0 f p b[ f [ H f ···········-J m¥ f-' r 1 ~· - b.- J Ex. 5.6a- Arpeggio exercises based on opening of Berg's Concerto

ll""bo'd "' ~ ~l&J ; ~~ t cyrn~ • 'r ~r -. -J- 1.rr J ···~ trst ppearancc • Without Octave leaps Retrograde, mm. 4-6

Full tone row: ·!~-.--#"=+ r~;:-K etc.

12 "Scale" based on tone row ' &J • &J d • ; I W

etc. Ex. 5.6b - Hexachordal "scales" based on compositional material for Schoenberg's Phantasy

43 4 2 4 ~ 1 1 3 3 ~ 43x2J t ldJ&JJ' J '~r F~s I

4 4 2 4 4 3 2 1 2 4 1 x1 x2 1

~ ~ I IF 1 ~f ~ j #J J •r lrI #J f I •r ~ • I J r I I

Ex. 5.6c- Exercises training the ear for the pitch and intervallic material of Webern's 3rd Piece Op. 7

~ Je J ud'J J J J J a J J JJ J 1 r- +

LH pizz. ------,

Ex. 5.6d- Fast, arpeggiated passages with left hand pizzicato, in preparation for Schoenberg's Concerto, 3rd mvt., mm. 712-13

5.4 Intonation

A final aspect of left hand technique that must be applied in a specific way to the music of the SVS is decisions relating to intonation. Since the violin does not have frets or keys, intonation can be easily adjusted. Many violinists employ expressive intonation in tonal pieces. This means that leading tones, for example, will be placed slightly higher in order to create more tension and direction to the resolving tonic when playing diatonic

44 music, such as that found in the Classical era. It does not make sense to apply expressive intonation to the music of the SVS, however, since it is not based upon tonality. The composers of the SVS use accidentals interchangeably due to the "structural equality of the full chromatic collection of tones"24 in their musical languages. Therefore, whether a note is marked as an A-sharp or a B-flat does not necessarily affect where it should be placed on the fingerboard. Using equal tempered, or just, intonation as a piano is tuned for instance, will allow the compositional materials of the music to come across most clearly, rather than allowing ideas inspired by tonality to complicate the presentation of the musical material. Rudolf Kolisch was among those who strongly advocated for the use of equal tempered intonation in the violin music of the SVS:

... As you know, this decisive stage in the evolution of west ern art-music made it necessary to introduce a new and uni fied system of intonation, equal temperament, the division of the octave into twelve half-tones of equal dimension. From there on, the signs for pitch obtained the precise and measur able quality, which I assigned to them, and a definite and in violable norm for intonation was established. I can never cease to wonder how little these fundamental facts have pene trated into the consciousness of performers. 25

Even now, one encounters violinists who employ only expressive intonation or only equal temperament to every piece they play, without consideration of the important musical implications. This should not be the case; instead, the system of intonation chosen should depend on the musical language of a given piece, as well as the other instruments in the ensemble, since pianists, for example, cannot use expressive intonation.

Practicing a passage with both expressive and just intonation, as shown in Example 5. 7, will enable complete control and awareness of finger placement, especially when com-

24 Bryan Simms, ed., Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern: A Companion to the Second Viennese School (West- port, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999), 166. · 25 Outline for a Theory ofPerformance in Kolisch Papers (1527).

45 bined with the use of different tempi and registers. Upon practicing this exercise for any passage, violinists can consciously avoid expressive intonation in the repertoire of the

SVS.

Just: play along with tuned piano p ~------, 1nJ J ttL rt c r If T ~f f I + Expressive t ... 8l'(J ---- _+_ ----t ------' + p f ~... #f f ~ ~J J l,r F I #f r F 1

Combined (begin each way) 8M------, t ~ t p+ ~-- + #F t f ~ #J J I'F F I#f r r If

Return to Just Intonation 8~------· F ~... #f f ~ #J J "r F I#f r f r 1 I

Example 5.7- Just versus expressive intonation in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 261-62

Reconsidering preconceived notions about left hand technique is essential when violinists are performing the music of the SVS. Although concepts such as fingering, intonation, hand frame, and ear training are often taken for granted by advanced violinists, these basic concepts must be supplemented with the ideas presented above, especially when dealing with non-tonal music. A simple change of fingering or use of a larger hand frame can open up the violinist's mind to new technical ideas, and ensure greater technical facility and clarity of musical meaning in the music of the SVS, as well as in other modern music.

46 CHAPTER6

Right Hand Technique

The violin music of the SVS requires unusual and extended techniques with the right hand and bow arm. Col legno bowings, double-stops with one harmonic and one stopped note, and the use of pizzicato all require skills beyond those taught in standard violin technique books. In addition, string crossings and bow division are often difficult, and fingering choices must take all of these issues into account to minimize problems and maximize clarity of gesture. Timbre, for example, is very important in the music of Berg and Schoenberg, and to an even greater extent in Webem. The trajectories and other ges tures of the bow arm must also be considered in order to enhance the musical content of many passages in this music. The composers of the SVS, like many twentieth and twenty first century composers, take techniques such as tremolo, pizzicato, and col legno - most often used in orchestral section playing - and apply them to solo passages. This plethora of techniques frequently leaves violinists very exposed, and with interpretive results sounding under rehearsed and uncomfortable. All of these aspects, although not unknown in other music, require new technical exercises, since they are often not practiced in isola tion, but rather only when they appear during the study of repertoire. The existing techni cal methods for violin are mostly focused on left hand issues while being deficient in right hand exercises to begin with, making exercises relating to the use of the bow arm even more crucial to raising the level of ability, ease, and understanding in the perform ance ofthe violin music of the SVS.

47 6.1 Basic Bowing Skills

To begin, basic bowing skills must be reinforced before studying this repertoire.

Webem's Four Pieces Op. 7, for example, being a set of miniatures, appear simple at first glance, but contain many challenges when it comes to using the bow. The wide dynamic range in this music makes it imperative that violinists remain comfortable at all dynamic levels, especially at the quieter end of the spectrum. Something as simple as the opening gesture of the first piece, a note held for five quarter-note beats at the tempo of an eighth note equals 50 in pianissimo with a hairpin, is extremely exposed and requires complete control with the bow:

Example 6.1- Bow control in opening gesture of Webern's 1st Piece

A similar challenge occurs in the opening of the third piece as well. Exercises, as seen in

Example 6.2, containing held notes at various tempi and dynamic levels (both inactive and changing during the note) will help violinists manage the bow without shaking the hand or disrupting the tone, as well as help bow changes become smooth and silent. Al- though such utmost control is essential in the music of the SVS, skills acquired in employing these exercises will also benefit almost every other piece in the violin repertoire.

Ill 0 u PPPPmfff sul tasto -====== sui ponticello ppmpffff ====- -====

Example 6.2 (part one)- Exercises to gain control of bowing challenges in Webern's Four Pieces

48 Adagio J=40 v 1""1 ~~~ Ill u ppp fff p ======- f sui ponticel/o ord. sui tasto --=====

Begin with metronome at quarter note equals 100. Gradually slow down, and then subdivide eighth notes, followed by sixteenth notes, until a sixteenth equals 60. Exercises should be practiced in all registers on all strings, mixing variables until all possibilities are used. Sound must never crack or skip, remaining clear and smooth.

Example 6.2 (part two)- Exercises to gain control of bowing challenges in Webern's Four Pieces

Berg's Violin Concerto consists also of many difficulties for the bow arm, even though most of these can be handled as basic bow skills. String crossings are the main challenge, since the opening motive, found throughout the work, is based on four slurred notes across the four strings. While clean string crossings are a requirement of playing the violin, Berg's motive sounds particularly exposed. Ensuring that string crossings appear smooth, through practice of the exercises in Example 6.3, is extremely important in order to also make sure that each note resonates equally and evenly.

1"1 Without bow for 1nn levels ------. ~ =60 arco '2 @9 Q!j =Ill= Jj} £93 IEfEr@ I Q!J ~~~=II

'II= @V ffJ,~ 1Q]j {@j =Ill= JW riD 1~~ =II Example 6.3 - String crossing exercises based on Berg's "tuning" motive

The Concerto opens with string crossings in the "tuning up" figuration that appears four times, each at a different dynamic level. It is important that the dynamic levels are precise and clearly differentiated from each other. To do so, the following exercise

49 addresses the need to create a specific contact point for each dynamic, with the ability to quickly and easily maneuver between them:

Repeat the given figure six times with the following orders of dynamic levels, making sure each is clear: pp, p, mp, mf, f, ff ff, pp, f, p, mf, mp mf, mp, ff, p, f, pp pp, ff, f, p, mp, mf ff, f, mf, mp, p, pp other orders etc.

Example 6.4 -Exercises to clearly differentiate dynamic levels through bowing in Berg's Concerto

A similar string crossing issue, but this time faster and containing some double- stops occurs in the second movement, between measures 8 and 16: ~ 1 dJJJJJj]jbJJJJdJI Qt4iHJIIJWJi]; ~ :..../ ~ /:) ~ "_/ ~ ~ ~ "_/ ~ ~ sempr;j}'

~ F:teffflt1ffff~f?:affrl~Ff(fi flafi¢[J[U:[(f([pft& 1

Example 6.5- Difficult string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 8-16

Special rhythms, shown in both Example 6.6a and 6.6b, can be applied to aid in precise timings of arm movement for crossing strings and when to add double-stops, once again creating more control over the bow with the right hand and arm:

50 Work up to J = 138 dJ J d d J J dId JJ d d J ~dId JJ d 3 J J) I 'i ------'----' '.../ "-....: '----"' ------'.../ "'-...: '----' '----' '.../

• ' f r r J {!] I tJ J (J J I f rs r J cJ 4Jj {JJ (4 Jj I J j J J J j J J I J J J J J J J J I

Practice with rhythmic groupings in 2, 4, and 8, and then re-insert pitches from passage.

Example 6.6a- Rhythmic exercise to master string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 9-14

Practice with rhythmic groupings in 2, 3, and 6 with separate and slurred variations of articulation.

Example 6.6b -Rhythms to add to string crossings in Berg's Concerto, 2nd mvt., mm. 16-17 to increase control and clarity

Another bowing found throughout Berg's Violin Concerto consists of notes with dots that are slurred together. In the character of this music, this bowing should not be viewed as a stiff up-bow staccato, but rather as a portato stroke, similar to a slur with lines underneath. This is clarified further in Schoenberg's "Explanatory Notes" for his

Concerto. He writes that a symbol containing both a line and a dot means "the note is to be well sustained and yet separated from the next by a slight pause or interruption."26

26 Arnold Schoenberg, Concerto for Violin and Orchestra, Op. 36 (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1939), Explanatory Notes.

51 Only when a dot is not linked by any other markings should a note be truly short. Follow- ing these instructions will aid in creating the Viennese waltz and Liindler characters that both Berg and Schoenberg often insert into their music, as well as help these figures, some of which are shown in Example 6.7, to suggest direction.

Example 6.7a- Figure requiring use of portato stroke in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 93-96

{lautando

I ~ftJbgnJ

Example 6. 7b- Figure requiring use of portato stroke in Berg's Concerto, 1st mvt., mm. 38-39

In Berg's Violin Concerto, the final bowing challenge arises due to the composer's use of triple stops and other chords. The presence of slurs and varying dynamics makes these especially difficult. The triple and quadruple stop passage in measures 35 to

42 of the second movement resembles the use of triple stops in Brahms' Violin Concerto: . q---- ' ~~ , 9 W·~= ~~ qMF •1 ijffi'~BCI qgtqE!]@t1 ~ f Example 6.8a- Triple stops in Brahms' Concerto in D major Op. 77, 1st mvt., mm. 246-50

::;- ::;- >. >> . -> . > . >>.. - ::;- ~ >~ > >> ~'

4t mpq~~q Df•l nJil~il~-f P"M!I ~"~m~ -=::::::: -===== -===== --=::::::::: Example 6.8b- Triple stops in Berg's Concerto, 2"d mvt., mm. 35-38

Studying this, and then applying the bow stroke to Berg's Concerto, helps to give a frame of reference. Then, slurs, articulations, and dynamics must be added, as in the following

52 exercise, which should be practiced on both sets of strings that can yield triple stops

(GDA/DAE), followed by the addition of Berg's pitches:

¥ 9 ~ 9: ' 43 ; 9 9\ 9: 9 9) 9: ::> ::> ::> '3::> ' ::> ::> ~ 9 §ST;;;A 1 §f§S~~ 43 -~ 9 '3 -~ ::> ' ::> ::> ::> ::> ' ::> ::> ::> ' mp ff

Example 6.9- Exercise to add slurs and dynamics to triple stops in Berg's Concerto

A more unusual passage, mm. 78-89 in the second movement, contains triple stops in piano, tranquil/a, and espressivo. Here, Berg treats each note in a contrapuntal manner similar to Bach's fugues for solo violin. However, this passage becomes more difficult to perform because each note is to be played legato:

Example 6.10a- Legato triple stops in Berg's Concerto, 2"d mvt., mm. 78-89

The following exercise prepares violinists for this passage by requiring them to attempt to sustain three note chords for as long and as smoothly as possible:

53 Work down to ~ =40 r"'' v

=II ~2nif p Example 6.10b- Exercise to sustain triple stops in Berg's Concerto

A manuscript for a technique book by Howard Ralyea, and edited by Louis Krasner contains helpful advice when dealing with this concept of chordal bowing:

Organizing the left hand motion in a 'chordal structure' ac cording to the harmonic progression of the music rather than moving from note to note helps the bow to look ahead and crossing strings in particular will have the motion of a brief permanent double stop. As in walking, at the moment of crossing both feet are on the ground, so should also both fin gers be set on the adjoining strings. 27

This will allow the harmony and melody to come through, without the bow and left hand getting stuck on each chord.

Schoenberg's requirements for the bow in his Violin Concerto and Phantasy are more gestural. Connecting notes across registers and with precise articulations is very important, as evidenced in the opening of the Phantasy, as well as in the sections beginning at measures 72 (shown in Example 6.11), 86, 117, and 154. The movements of the bow must be planned o~t carefully and precede the movement of the left hand fingers by a fraction of a second to ensure clarity of the musical markings of the gesture.

Example 6.11 -Large leaps, string crossings, and precise articulation in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 72-76

27 Notes on Violin Technique, in Krasner Papers (316).

54 In Schoenberg's Concerto, these large leaps occur, but often with double-stops included.

This creates more difficulty in controlling the bow, as it is extremely difficult to play for- tissimo double-stops in a very high register after a large string crossing without the tone cracking or sounding forced. When playing a passage such as the one shown in Example

6.12, one must use a low elbow to allow arm weight to project the sound on the top double-stop, while guiding the bow with the elbow and little finger of the right hand, without any additional pressure from the index finger.

Example 6.12- String crossings with double-stops in high registers in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 30

The above examples deal with bowings that are basic and form the foundation of violin technique. In the context of the musical language of the composers of the SVS, however, one must also pay particular attention to aspects of the music that are less commonly found in other music, such as the specific portato stroke when a dot is under a slur, or the ability to control a long, held note that is extremely exposed. Through the mastery of these standard techniques, one will gain the utmost bow control, which is essential to successful performances of the violin music of the SVS.

6.2 Bowing Decisions

Decisions of bowing are slightly different in this repertoire than in the tonal music that precedes it. Although the music of the SVS is written within a traditional metrical structure, it moves toward the non-metric style that is common in many pieces of the late

55 twentieth century, such as works by John Cage. Some bowings, therefore, will be chosen to reflect traditional metric ideas of strong and weak beats, found in the opening of both

Berg's Concerto and Schoenberg's Concerto. However, there are points where gesture plays a more prominent role, and bowings must reflect this. The opening of Schoenberg's

Phantasy requires strong and weak stresses as dictated by articulations of the gesture, rather than the bar:

Example 6.13- Opening gestures of Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 1-4

Schoenberg indicates these metric deviations further in his Concerto. Here, markings indicate strong and weak beats, which may not necessarily be in the traditional locations, as seen in Example 6.14. These markings help violinists understand Schoenberg's intentions, especially for those less familiar with his musical language.

Example 6.14- Non-metric strong and weak beats in Schoenberg's Concerto, 1st mvt., m. 91

Conversely, in rare sections where a meter is clearly expressed (even if it is not the same as the time signature), one must choose bowings to reflect and enhance this. In Schoen- berg's Phantasy, choosing to use a down bow followed by two up bows in measure 87 will enable the listener to hear that the implied meter is in three, reminiscent of the Vien- nese Waltz:

56 1""1 v v f ~~ ) ' ~ ' ~ ' Example 6.15- Bowings reflecting the implied meter in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 87

Clear rhythmic patterns are less common in the music of the SVS than in earlier music.

Therefore, bowing choices should highlight this aspect in order to express the increased significance.

Finally, bowing choices must also take into account the building blocks of the compositional language. When determining how to group a passage of notes, recognition of a tetrachord or a hexachord will provide solutions that do not break up these important groupings. Example 6.16 shows a passage from Berg's Concerto, with bowings by Louis

Krasner:

Example 6.16- Bowings that do not reflect the musical language in Berg's Concerto, 1•t mvt., mm. 170-72 (Krasner)

Here, Krasner breaks up the grouping of these arpeggios of thirds, separating the final three notes. While this is helpful to project the figuration, it ends up sounding that these three pitches are somehow disconnected from the earlier notes. Since these arpeggios re- fleet the arpeggio that makes up the main tone row of the work, first heard in measures 15 to 18 in the first movement, one is less likely to link the patterns in measure 170 with that of the tone row, weakening the understanding of the compositional foundation of the

57 work, and therefore, potentially destroying some of the unity and coherence of the movement. While often choices in bowing are made with respect to what feels comfortable or what will project, it is essential that violinists consider compositional components when making decisions related to bowing in the music of the SVS, as these will greatly affect the understanding of the work for both the performer and the listener.

6.3 Timbre and Extended Techniques

Timbral indications and the presence of extended techniques create the unique sound world of the violin music of the SVS, and most must be executed through technique of the bow arm. While all of the extended techniques included were fairly common at the time they were written (perhaps with the exception of the single-harmonic double- stops), the way in which many of these techniques are used is specific to the three composers of the SVS.

The twentieth century saw the advent of so-called "new music specialists", who primarily perform contemporary repertoire. Often these players' decision to perform only new music is attributed to an inability to perform standard repertoire at a high level.

Kolisch refutes this, however, saying:

... traditional music can be validly performed only from the most advanced contemporary position of interpretation. The full arsenal of techniques which have been developed and re fined in the course of progress might just barely suffice to ade quately perform as living music that which at the time of its origin was most often considered unplayable. 28

28 The Religion of the String Player, in Kolisch Papers (1541).

58 It is my opinion that all violinists must master techniques from every era, as these skills will continue to be necessary in the future, and will allow for the most depth in ability and understanding when confronting new works.

Webem uses the widest spectrum of timbres of the three composers. Included in his Four Pieces, which are only miniatures, are harmonics, collegno (bowed and "tom"), pizzicato, ponticello, sul tasto, and the use of mute, along with a wide range of dynamics and articulations. As a result, violinists cannot approach this work with the traditional method of employing a beautiful tone as the basis for the performance and then varying it as the music requires. Instead, one must have a concept of the sounds Webem has intended, and in fact, often work against natural inclinations. Rudolf Kolisch understood this clearly when he advised against using a "beautiful" tone to substitute dynamic and expressive factors of a musical language: "This is an extra-musical category, in so far as no work of art was ever written for 'beautiful tone' ."29 Timbral choices are often notated in the score, but performers must always determine the musical meaning in order to imagine the exact timbre that will reflect this. Kolisch again eloquently sums this up, writing, "even in performing I tried never to merely produce pleasant sounds but always to reveal as much as possible what I consider to be essential in western art music, namely its construction. "30

The significance of extended techniques in the violin music of the SVS (which

Kolisch refers to as "espressivo" music) is explained in his article, "Religion der Streich- er:"

29 Ibid. 30 Serial Music Teaching Notes, in Kolisch Papers (1530).

59 Espressivo-music itself, however, has not permitted the nega tive attitude of the guild to hold it back from developing the expressive possibilities of the string instruments more and more for their idiom. 'Secondary playing categories', like 'piz zicato', 'harmonics', 'sul ponticello', 'sul tasto', 'col legno battuto', and 'collegno tratto', are used in more and more sig nificant ways. Pizzicato, for example, which appears in classi cal music only as a quasi-percussive characteristic of accom panying motives and basses, soon becomes the bearer of the melody. The pioneer Beethoven, in the coda of the last move ment of his last quartet, has taken the deciding step in this di rection, and with it has set down one of the most sublime spots in western music. A hundred years later, we find the pizzicato appearing in seven different modes of performance in Bartok (Fourth Quartet, Solo-Sonata). Sul ponticello also owes to Bee thoven its introduction into art music, where its use in the scherzo of the string quartet (Opus 131), gives a per-se banal theme a spine-tingling magic. When, after the relative tranquil ity of the romantic and late romantic periods (Wagner had oth er concerns; however, let us mention here the spot in the first movement of the Trio Opus 63 of Schumann), espressivo music took up this trend, we find a similar sul ponticello pas sage in the slow movement of Schoenberg's First String Quar tet. The use of harmonics gains a legitimate function in the service of this music, beyond the use for the virtuoso brilliance developed by Paganini, when it makes possible a legato be tween widely separated tones or their simultaneous sounding. The glissando also becomes a means of expression which is re served for specific uses and explicitly notated, which alone prohibits its random use in conventional style. Col legno bat tuto finds its way into chamber music from the palette of the orchestra, and even the more extreme Collegno tratto emerges here and there (Schoenberg, opus 21 Robbery and Red Mass). 31

As Kolisch explains, there have been precedents for the use of extended techniques in chamber music as early as Beethoven, and the composers of the SVS follow with similar uses. Rather than being a means to show off virtuosity, these extended techniques are an integral part of the compositional foundation and musical meaning of each work. One unusual usage of these techniques is the fact that they are incorporated in solo recital rep-

3l Religion of the String Player, in Kolisch Papers (1541).

60 ertoire, resulting in a much different effect and execution than in chamber or orchestral mUSlC.

Pizzicato is perhaps the most commonly used extended technique throughout standard violin repertoire. In the violin music of the SVS, it appears at a wide range of dynamics, with the left and right hands, and also as left hand pizzicato in conjunction with a bowed legato line. In virtuoso works by nineteenth century composers such as

Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst and Nicolo Paganini, this technique can also be found. In the context of works of the SVS, however, it must serve the music rather than simply impress the audience. A substantial passage occurs in the second movement ofBerg's Concerto:

Example 6.17- Bowed line in combination with left hand pizzicato in Berg's Concerto, 2"d mvt., mm. 68-72

Here, the violin is doubled by pizzicato in the double bass, making it not essential to perform this when playing with orchestra. However, when performing with piano reduction, the importance of these pizzicato notes is seen by the composer's indication to perform it in the solo violin part. This aspect is essential to the character, thus highlighting its importance to the structure and meaning of the work. Fingerings and bowings must be carefully chosen to ensure steadiness of tone and dynamics.

61 Contact point is an important factor to consider for every bowed note in this repertoire. The contact point encompasses a wider range than in tonal repertoire, from right on top of the bridge to over the fingerboard to all the positions in between. These need to be practiced from early stages of training to ensure comfort. Howard Ralyea, in his manuscript edited by Krasner, encourages practicing points for ponticello effects especially:

From the beginning stage one should explore the uncomfort able area near the bridge. This area requires a 'purer' bow (ponticello is in a sense a flawed bowing) and not only gives bigger tone and wider variety of tone colors but quicker re sponse that alerts the ear and the left hand. Moving toward the fingerboard afterward for different effects is a comparatively easy task. 32

By envisioning a series of seven possible contact points, and becoming comfortable performing in each place, violinists can control the use of every point in the overall region:

Figure 3 - Possible contact points

These contact points encompass many of the extended techniques in the music of the

SVS, including sul ponticello and sul tasto. When one is unaccustomed to performing at these extreme locations, it is easy to unintentionally strike neighbouring strings or cross beyond the territory, such as going onto the opposing side of the bridge. Practicing at a

32 Notes on Violin Technique, in Krasner Papers (316).

62 wide range of dynamics and tempi at these points will increase control, enabling violin ists to effectively perform any passage using these contact points.

A common extended technique used by all composers ofthe SVS is collegno.

This technique is quite rare in earlier music, and generally confined to a bouncing stroke.

In the SVS, it is most often used in its "weich gezogen" form, meaning that the whole of the bow stick is used. Using a secondary bow to prevent damage, one can practice scales or passages solely collegno. This is important, because rosin stuck to the strings or bow may cause some notes to stick out. It is advised that violinists clean both stick and strings with rubbing alcohol before performing this work, to reduce unnecessary noises. One must also determine if it is desirable to include some of the bow hair. This must be care fully considered and practiced for utmost control. The collegno (gerissen) found in We bern's second Piece literally translates as "tom", and must involve a fast but full bow stroke, to create an intense character of ripping the sound from the violin. In a letter de scribing the execution of this technique, Webem wrote, "I mean very sharply attacked szffwith the stick of the bow ... you might also use a little of the hair to make the pitch clearer. A kind of half collegno, half area bowing .. .! think Rose also did it this way."33

Col legno is perhaps the most difficult extended technique in the music of the SVS to control, due to external, often uncontrollable factors. Therefore, practice and experience will increase the ability to produce the desired sound, which may often contain sonic im purities, the expressly intended result of the effect.

A technical difficulty involving the bow also occurs in the Phantasy, with the execution of Schoenberg's unusual double-stops containing one stopped note and one

33 Kathryn Bailey, ed., Webern Studies (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 156.

63 harmonic, as discussed in Chapter Two. The challenge here is to find a balance in bow speed that allows both notes to speak. To practice this, first one must determine all possi ble bow speeds for each note and then choose one that will allow both notes to speak clearly. In addition to issues of the bow, one must find a left hand shape that accommo dates a flatter finger for the harmonic in conjunction with use of the fingertip for the stopped note.

The ability to control timbral and extended techniques within the violin music of the SVS will provide an additional layer of meaning, clearly communicating the sound world intended for these works. Control of the bow, particularly, will open up a wide va riety of tones and colours, which is extremely important in these works, because they en compass a range of musical aspects - bowing choice, shaping of phrases, gesture, chore ography, and timbre. To perform this repertoire, violinists must first understand the musi cal meaning of the work, and, by means of studying the construction of a piece, create sound that enhances the composer's intentions.

64 CHAPTER 7

Musical Considerations

One of the primary reasons the violin repertoire of the SVS serves as a case study for the need to reconsider conventional violin techniques is due to the fact that these works retains many ties with past musical traditions, even though they are composed in a new language. Traditional metric divisions, notation, and formal structures ensure that performers can grasp onto familiar concepts, aiding in the relation of the foundations of the SVS's compositional language to already established modes of conveying musical meaning. Beginning with primarily technical considerations of the left and right hand, therefore, will allow violinists to connect concepts both familiar and unknown, while still providing frames of reference. There are musical considerations beyond these, however, that may not be immediately apparent but once comfort in the musical language has been established, are essential in conveying musical meaning, character, and conceptual clarity in this music. In addition, the following musical considerations move toward concepts found in more recent music - such as the aleatoric music of John Cage, integral serialism in Milton Babbitt's works, and the graphic notation of Sylvano Bussotti, just to name a few - which retain far fewer obvious links to traditional musical concepts of form and notation than the music ofthe SVS.

7.1 Gesture

Gesture is an extremely important aspect of non-diatonic music and is especially present in the music of the SVS. Allusions to musical genres of the past, such as tradi tional folk melodies, Baroque chorales, the Landler and Viennese Waltz, for example,

65 make their presence known mainly through rhythm and evocative gesture rather than pitch. Recognition of these references permit violinists to understand musical implications and meanings intended by the composer. Some patterns are obvious, while others are more discreet. Berg's Concerto in particular contains a plethora of musical references, both apparent and hidden that are well documented in scholarly books and articles.

~· ~c ~f E 1 pp Example 7.1a- Rhythm and gesture from a Carinthian folk tune in Berg's Concerto, l't mvt., mm. 222-25

Another case in point: knowledge that Berg was inspired by numerology may indicate phrasing or important events in measures or figurations containing the numbers (or mul- tiples of) 10, 23, or 28?4 In the case of Schoenberg, it is the number 13.

u ·;;~ cr ] 0 c u ..-.. ~c 8 ~ o e ::s s .... 0 Q.U c. u f!:8 .S 'bii E :a 0·- ..; 55 ..c: 0 c u ::s ~ ~ u -..: .0"' c "' ~ - ... - ;:3 cr '8 :ri < :>"' "'~ :>"' :I: :a u 00 00 0 N 0 >0 00 >0 :2o .. N 1:-o 0\ 0 ..... ~ ~·a ~ N N •::S N""' N N "' ~0 - ..ci ..ci .o.~ ..ci- ..ci ..ci ..ci ..o·a ..ci ..ci ..ci L23_jl u IL_lO 23 I ,,._j,;---20 23 'I' I 23 I 1 28 I Figure 4- Chart explaining numerological significance of important events, from "Alban Berg, Wilhelm Fliess and the Secret Programme of the Violin Concerto," by Douglas Jarman35

Example 7.lb- Numerological reference in Schoenberg's Phantasy measure marked 12a to avoid the number thirteen

34 Simms, 242. 35 Douglas Jarman, "Alban Berg, Wilhelm Fliess and the Secret Programme of the Violin Concerto," The Musical Times 124/1682 (April, 1983 ): 221.

66 Satirical Landlers appear in both Berg's Concerto and Schoenberg's Phantasy.

Such appearances can indicate larger groupings of beats, emphasis, and denoting the character with which to play articulations, particularly staccato markings. The examples below show some of these gestural figurations in both works. I believe that knowledge of the historical performance style of Viennese dance music encourages rubato within both of these passages, and informs that staccato markings should be played in a portato manner, rather than shortened, serving to lead toward the next strong beat, as in Berg, or to momentarily suspend motion, as in Schoenberg, establishing the character of this graceful dance:

P scherzando Example 7.2a- Use of Liindler figure in Berg's Concerto, 1'1 mvt., mm. 106-09 to lead toward the next beat

Example 7.2b- Use of Liindler figure in Schoenberg's Phantasy, m. 52 & m. 56 to suspend motion

Similarly, knowledge of the performance practice of Bach Chorales, as well as their sa- cred context, enables the creation of a church-like atmosphere in measures 136 to the end of the second movement of Berg's Concerto. The chorale text provides an additional layer of meaning for performers to incorporate into the gestures used and overall phrasing of passages, perhaps by clearly stating the more traditional phrase lengths, as well as

67 through the creation of a quiet atmosphere by reducing large gestures when determining bowings.

Performers can take advantage of the wealth of musicological and theoretical studies on this repertoire in order to gain information that may influence the manner in which specific passages are played. An interesting point that I feel applies to the technical and musical performance of the music of the SVS is made in an article entitled "A Major

Webem Revision and Its Implications for Analysis" by Allen Forte, discussing the sketches of the fourth piece of Webem's Four Pieces Op. 7? 6 Example 7.3a shows the original intention of Webem at the end of the fourth piece where he wrote a downward gestural squiggle rather than exact pitches. The final published version, found in Example

7.3b, contains specific pitches, yet retains the original contour, rhythm, timbre, and dynamic ideas.

l?--t~---''···...... ·i'···ci········''···"'

Example 7.3a- Sketch from Webern's Pieces Op. 7, fourth piece, mm. 13-1537

Example 7.3b- Published version ofWebern's Pieces Op. 7, fourth piece, mm. 13-15

36 Allen Forte, "A Major Webem Revision and Its Implication for Analysis," Perspectives ofNew Music 28/1 (Winter 1990): 227. 37 Ibid.

68 Perhaps the compositional and notational idea in Webem's sketch was too ahead of its time? Today, graphic notation is commonplace, but it would have been very unusual in

1910. Knowing about the existence of this sketch says much about the performance of this final figure. Instead of labouring over the very awkward pitches, which can often sound unfocussed, one can free oneself up in order to concentrate on the musical idea knowing that it was intended as a gesture with only approximate pitches. Perhaps this means a lighter touch of the fingers and more concern for the overall gesture through fluid hand positioning and frames. I would argue that this is one point where an incorrect accidental or a slightly out of tune note may be less of an issue than in other musical ex amples, simply because of the intention behind it. When determining technical aspects such as fingering, violinists must also take into account the musical and gestural signifi cance of a given passage in order to convey the meaning intended by the composer, which in twentieth and twenty-first century music becomes increasingly difficult to con vey in the traditional manner used for diatonic music of earlier centuries.

Gesture-like phrases often appear as smaller units within larger phrases in the vio lin music of the SVS, and they create an additional layer within the hierarchy of phrase structures necessary for performers to recognize and also to convey. Schoenberg's Phan tasy exemplifies this idea, especially at the very opening of the work where a four measure phrase is broken up with, say, two gestures:

69 ~~------!GESTURE lf···· ...... ;!GESTURE 2f ......

Grave (J ='51) I VlOLIN ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Ff~~~

Example 7.4- First and second gestures in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 1-2 & mm. 2-4

The increase in range, textural density, contour, and number of beats of the second gesture suggests a stronger gesture than the first, and also implies a larger phrasing that builds to the first beat of measure four. By analyzing pieces of the SVS for both phrasing and gesture, violinists will be able to present both concepts more clearly to an audience, while also connecting the concepts to create larger musical lines, a process that can be difficult in these works that are generally divided into unmistakably demarcated sections.

7.2 Choreography

Choreography, although not always consciously considered by a performer, does have an important place in violin performance. The term "choreography" can be applied to technical decisions such as bow division or the use of hand and/or arm gestures and gesticulations that aid in the creation of a mood or character. Choreography is particularly important in the music of the SVS because it adds another element to help communicate the musical language and meaning to audiences unfamiliar with the style. In the violin

70 repertoire of the SVS, Webem's Four Pieces particularly benefit from carefully planned choreographic movements. The wide dynamic range, from ppp to .Iff, allows a performer to use a wide range of motions and gesticulations in order to project the music's meaning.

Due to the quick changes in character found within these pieces and in repertoire similar to them, all movements must be planned out in performance. This may mean choosing bowings to reduce excessive bow and arm movement, such as in the opening of the third piece of Webem's Op. 7, where one wants to maintain the stillness and uncer- tainty set up in the first three measures:

1"'1 v Sehr Iangsam (.il=ca. 60) am Steg.---- -,

'~ J IJ Ig d 'I~ ~&JJ!q£ I ~~ ~ PPP ohne cresc. PPP =====- Example 7.5- Bowing choice to maintain still atmosphere, Webern's Pieces Op. 7, 3rd piece, mm. 1-4

Conversely, in moments like the "recapitulation" of Schoenberg's Phantasy, the addition of a retake will add intensity and enhance the climactic prominence of this section:

1"'1 v 1"'1 Tempo I. (J=52) A A

------ff

Example 7.6- Addition of retakes to increase intensity in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 153-54

While performers in the nineteenth century often used large physical gesticulations to increase the emotional expressivity or to imprint their unique persona on a performance, twentieth century and newer music occasionally requires performers to become more like actors by using their bodies as an important aspect of "telling the musical story"- seen mainly in very recent works that call for specific movements or even speak- ing while playing. So too can the case be made for SVS music. For example, a com-

71 poser's use of Sprechstimme incorporates characteristics of spoken speech into a sung performance. Similarly, violinists must use actual physical gestures in order to enhance the musical gestures-figurations so that they make the content of the pieces comprehensi ble.

7.3 Issues of Ensemble

Issues that concern ensemble playing are another extremely important aspect in the study and performance of the violin music of the Second Viennese School. Since these works are for violin and piano or violin and orchestra, one is rarely playing in the capacity of a solo instrument. It is crucial therefore that all performers be aware of all of the other instrumental parts. In tonal music, where often the violinist is placed primarily as a soloist with accompaniment, memorization of the violin part, together with sufficient knowledge of what the others are doing, is usually satisfactory. Whereas in the violin mu sic of the SVS, all parts often create one unified whole, and it then becomes necessary to memorize not only the violin part but also all of the other parts and to know how they fit together. As seen in Example 7.7, a passage such as measures 3 and 4 of Webern's sec ond Piece shows the violin filling in the gaps in the piano part:

Example 7.7- Interlocking parts in Webern's Pieces Op. 7, second piece, mm. 3-4

72 If knowledge of how the parts fit together is not clear in the minds of the performers, then the audience will have no chance of hearing such effects. It becomes nearly impossible to understand that everything has to be lined up correctly. The music of the SVS is obvi- ously well notated, and it often creates compound rhythms and phrases among parts. Ex- ample 7.8 shows how these compound rhythms and phrases in Schoenberg's Phantasy are dependent upon correct execution of the interaction between parts:

Sdlerzaado cJ .• m>

91 ~(o)92 ~ -o-1 k. "'"'"90·~~e~...

., r' __...... ~~ 0 G G fl . . ;...... ; i,. ~. .. "' ~- !i• II'• q..- .. - . ~ . r

If "~. ~~·

Example 7.8- Compound rhythms and phrases in Schoenberg's Phantasy, mm. 85-92

Without this, much of the musical content is lost. It becomes essential in the SVS repertoire that all performers know the entire score of each work they perform.

As one of the first performers of this repertoire, Rudolf Kolisch clearly understood the importance of ensemble. Not only did he mark the word "Listen" in his part of the Webern example above (see Example 7.7), he also regularly circled tone rows that cross between parts in his own piano reduction of Schoenberg's Concerto. Additionally, the Kolisch Quartet always performed from memory, even in their early performances of

73 works by the Second Viennese School! Such an exploit can only happen when each member knows all components of the score both front and back. In his literary writings,

Kolisch also stressed the importance of understanding the full musical score, not just one's own part. To begin, he proposed that studying the music take place away from the instrument. Kolisch himself did not start playing a work until he had fully understood it intellectually. From his "Methodology of Performance," Kolisch writes:

... On the basis of this study we form a mental concept of the piece, which should be very precise. We must reach the stage where we feel that this piece of music can only be what we imagine it to be. Then, and only then, should we start with re alization. The all-important point is, that our mental concept must always be the decisive factor for solving performance problems and never the instrumental idiomatic consideration. The fingers have to follow the idea, and never the other way round. The instrumental machinery must always be subjected to and be at the service of the idea, no matter how many con ventions and conveniences have to be sacrificed. 38

His notes for this "Methodology of Performance" contain an order to follow in the preliminary study of works. 39 First, through study of the score - including macro-structure, re-tracing the thought processes of the composer, and understanding the "motif vocabu- lary" of the given work - a performer can come to understand the language employed in composition, and to learn why specific musical aspects have been used by the composer.

The second step concerns gaining an understanding of the elemental concept of the piece.

Only after these steps are completed should instrumental preparation begin, and by this point, one will have a "raw material realization" of the work. The final steps are a con- frontation with the concept and the act of performance containing both objective and romantic recreations in the subconscious of the aspects studied in the previous steps.

38 Outline for a Theory ofPerformance, in Kolisch Papers (1527). 39 Theory ofPerformance Teaching Notes, in Kolisch Papers (1538).

74 As the subject matter in this chapter describes, the focus on musical language, form, structure, and other compositional elements all constitute a huge part of this musi cal process, not simply instrumental factors alone or performance considerations. I be lieve that this overall process also stresses the importance of the idea that technique must serve the musical language, making yet another case for going beyond our established technical methods and always searching for technical solutions that work with the musi cal language of the pieces we perform, especially when playing and studying the violin music of the SVS.

75 CHAPTERS

Conclusion

The music of the SVS poses special challenges to violinists due to their traditional technical training. By supplementing standard technical methods with additional exer cises that address non-diatonic musical languages, the learning process for these works will be accelerated. In addition, a clearer understanding of the musical language of each piece will enable an improved assessment of the technical demands, resulting in more successful performances of this music. It is essential that these technical supplements be gin early on in a violinist's training to ensure that traditional technical decisions related to diatonic music do not become the only viewpoint and approach applied to all technical issues. The exercises I have written and areas of importance I have highlighted will allow violinists to feel technically and musically comfortable with the repertoire of the SVS, making it more accessible and relatable to performers and audience alike.

The next step for me with this research concerns the creation of a comprehensive book of etudes and exercises for violinists to study in preparation for performance of the violin music of the SVS. I will also expand this book to include issues found in the chamber and orchestral music of the SVS containing violin parts. The project may incor porate an expanded publication of Kolisch's manuscript of "Violin Studies,"40 which similarly deals with technical hurdles specific to Schoenberg's Violin Concerto, and fol lows a related path in building exercises that pinpoint specific problems or gaps in stan dard violin technique, allowing for more ease in application to the actual piece. Further research into Louis Krasner's and Rudolf Kolisch's contributions to the early perform-

40 Violin Studies, in Kolisch Papers (1542).

76 ances and dissemination of the violin music of the SVS, along with their influences and interactions with the three composers, may provide additional insights. Using the infor mation gathered from all of these elements, I plan to create a critical edition of the four compositions, with specific fingerings, bowings, and other technical suggestions, along with preliminary exercises for each work. Finally, I wish to assess my approach to the violin music of the SVS in order to determine if it may be generalized enough to provide principles applicable to not only all string players but also to all musicians studying and performing compositions by Schoenberg, Berg, and Webern.

While the focus of this thesis has been the violin music of the SVS, the basic con cepts behind the research method may be applied to any non-tonal music of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and may to a certain extent also enhance technical abilities and decisions with regard to diatonic music. Furthermore, I feel these concepts may also aid in the transference of non-Western music to Western instruments such as the violin. At the moment, no method exists to prepare and link technical execution of the wide-variety of non-Western music on the violin in ways either comprehensible to, or compatible with,

Western classical musicians, and perhaps this research approach could be a step in that direction since it deals with aspects of music that appear "foreign" to players who have only studied diatonic music.

Ultimately, this thesis has attempted to deal with the necessity of an updated method for teaching violin technique that incorporates musical innovations of the twenti eth and twenty-first centuries. The findings in Dr. Lise Elson's 1966 doctoral dissertation, to wit, that violin technique has not progressed significantly since Francesco Geminiani's first known violin treatise in 1751, still hold true forty-five years after her discovery and

77 260 years after the first treatise! 41 Clearly, it is time that violin methods adapt to the changes in musical language and performance practice that have occurred over this large span of time.

The music of the SVS has proven itself and has been held in high value by aca demics over the past century, but it is lagging behind in interest and acceptance from per formers as well as from general audiences. It is my hope that this research approach will allow the violin music of the SVS to be performed and heard by more listeners, and ren dered with the quality of performance that this music deserves, and that its importance may be acknowledged as not only the point when Western music broke all ties with to nality, but also as the repertoire par excellence which finally succeeds in persuading vio lin pedagogues of the necessity for a reconsideration of conventional playing techniques.

41 Elson, 79.

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82 DISCOGRAPHY

Boulez, Pierre, dir. Violin Concerto, by Alban Berg. BBC Symphony Orchestra. With Pinchas Zukerman, violin. Sony Classical, 1995.

Mitropoulos, Dmitri, dir. Violin Concerto Op. 36, by Arnold Schoenberg. Bavarian Radio Symphony. With Louis Krasner, violin. Orfeo d'Or C204891B.

Schoenberg, Arnold. Violin Concerto Op. 3 6 and Phantasy for Violin with Piano Accompaniment Op. 47. From In Honor ofRudolfKolisch, 1896-1978. Wisconsin Festival Orchestra. With RudolfKolisch, violin, and Gunnar Johansen, piano. Music & Arts MACD1056.

Schoenberg, Arnold. Phantasy for Violin and Piano Op. 47. From Glenn Gould Edition Schoenberg: Piano Works. Israel Baker, violin, and Glenn Gould, piano. Sony Classical SNYC 52664.

Webem, Anton. Complete Works, Opp. 1-31. With Charles Rosen and Isaac Stem. Sony Classical, 1991, 3 discs.

Webem, Anton, dir. Violin Concerto by Alban Berg. BBC Orchestra. With Louis Krasner, violin. Continuum, 1995.