Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012) Volume 2 Article 6 Number 2 Journal of Business & Leadership

1-1-2006 organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership, Resolution Framework, and Managerial Implications Ashford Chea Stillman College

Follow this and additional works at: http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl Part of the Business Commons, and the Education Commons

Recommended Citation Chea, Ashford (2006) "organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership, Resolution Framework, and Managerial Implications," Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012): Vol. 2 : No. 2 , Article 6. Available at: http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by FHSU Scholars Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012) by an authorized editor of FHSU Scholars Repository. Journal of Business and Leadership: ReseChea:arch, Porganizationalra cti ce, and Teac hiConflict:ng Strategy, Leadership, Resolution Framewo 2006, Vol. 2, No. 2, 26 1-278

ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT: STRATEGY, LEADERSHIP, RESOLUTION FRAMEWORK, AND MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS

Ashford Chea, Stillman College

This paper examines the concept, nature and characteristics of organizational conflict, and presented the relevant theoretical framework that serves as the conceptual foundation for his analyses, analyzes the sources of organizational conflict, discusses the role of leadership styles in managing organizational conflict, reviews models of conflict management strategies, and offers a framework for au effective functional conflict resolution system in organizations and outlined the implications for managers.

INTRODUCTION T he tem1 conflict has been a common phenomenon because it is an inseparable part of an organization. People generally view conflict as ham1ful to C lassical organ izati on th eori sts believed that conflict organizations because conflict breeds hostili ty and produced in effi ciency and was un desirable, detrimenta l to mistrust among me mbers, interferes with organi zati onal the organizati on, and should be eliminated or at least functioning, and causes a breakdown of the min imized to the greatest extent possible. Views toward organizations. However, research indicates that conflict organi zational conflict changed when the social systems sometimes produces positive effects on organizati ons. and open system theory emerged. Organi zational confl ict For example, conflict sometimes stimulates innovative is now considered as legitimate, inevitable, and even a ideas (Bomstein & Erev, 1997; Putnam, 1994), and positive indicator of effective organizational conflict resolution can prompt re-organizati on and shape management. Moreover, it is now recognized that more effective and productive ways of management conflict within certain limits is essential to productivity (Walton, Cutcher-Genreshenfeld, & M ckersie, 1994). (Rahim, 1990); and that all human interaction is Conflict has been defined as a "process in which one fundamentall y based on confl ict (Tessier, Chaudron, & party perceives that its interests are being opposed or M uller, 2004). The central truth about confli ct is that it is negatively affected by another party" (Wall & Calli ster, essentiall y an ex pression of differences (Bar-Siman-Tov, 1995; Greens, Lesli e, & M ark , 200 1). Rahim ( 1990) 2004). Con fl ict fo rces us to recognize that diversity and identities conflict as an " interacti ve process manifested in differences are essential characteristi cs common to a ll incompatibility, disagreement or di ssonance within or human ex perience (LeBaron, 2003). Despite its adverse between social entities. Conflict can occur bet\veen effects, today con fl ict is viewed by most experts as a individuals, groups, organi zati ons, and even nati ons. potenti a ll y useful aspect of organization because it can be Today's organizations are becoming in creasingly an engine of innovation and change if properly dependent on groups as the centra l units of work. While channeled. This view recogni zes the neces ity of confli ct groups have the advantage o f pooling their coll ective and explicit! ; encourages a certain amount o f contToll cd resow·ces, their interdependent nature in evitabili ty creates con fl ict in organi zations (Cetin & Hacifazlioglu, 2004). conflict (Green, Lesli e, & Marks, 200 I). Furthennore, all Likewise. conflict is seen as an essenti al part of the conflict is normative. It is fun damental to the human problem-solvi ng process. It can also be used to improve experience and is a requisite o f a ll human interaction. b'Toup cooperation and increase project team performance Confli ct is simply the recognition and subsequent (Kezsbom, 1992; Rah im. 19 86; Thamhaim, 1975). expression of difference in human relati ons. With thi s Deutsch ( 1973) sta tes th at "conflict ex ists whenever understanding, leaders in organi zations have begun to incompatibl e activities occur," whil e Thomas ( 1976) acknowledge their own leadership roles and the essent ia l defines confl 1ct as '"the process which begins \\'hen one skill s set that re fl ect the key elements o f good con fl ict party perceives that anoth er has fru strated, or 1s about to management. Once the leaders understand how to appl y frustrate, some conccm o f his. " Moreove r, various oth er conflict management ski ll s in the ir role, th ey must clearly definiti ons ha,·e been proposed by other re searc hers in articul ate the essential structural characteristi cs of westem countries (Putnam. 1987; Rahim. 1986: conflict management as a day-to-day imperati ve of the Thamhain . 1975 ). A lthough the word ··eonllict'· organization (Porter-O ' Grady, 2004). commo nl y in vokes associations with anger, negati,·ny,

26 1 Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 1 Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching (2005-2012), Vol. 2 [2006], No. 2, Art. 6 Chea Journal of Business and Leadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching

argument, stres , vu lnerabili ty, and battl e, conflict itself Theoretical Foundation of the Paper is never inherentl y negati ve. Like so many other Galtung's ( 1996) tTiadic theory of conflict expen ence in li fe, conflict is what one makes o f it. transfom1ation is the theoretical base applied to the T homa ( 1976) has noted a fa mily of definiti ons of analyses of organi zational conflict management in this conflict, a ll of whi ch in corporate three themes: paper. There are three components to Galtung's theory of interdependence of the parti es, perceived incompatibility confli ct. T hey include: (a) attitude (which includes both of interests, and some fo m1 o f interaction. Confl ict may cogniti ve ideas and emotions), (b) behavior (which be defin ed as the interaction of interdependent people in vo lves both overt behavior and potential for aggressive who perceive incompatible goals and interference from or hosti le actions), and (c) contradiction (the values and each other in achi eving those goals. Hence, confli ct is interests, between parties or within one person, which are rooted in beli efs that peopl e ho ld about their own incompatible). A ll three elements are necessary for a full­ behavior and the behavior of others. T he backgrounds, fl edged confli ct to ex ist, and importantly, all involved cultures, values, feelings, and previous experi ences of the parties must be consciously aware of each element for a parties to a confli ct all influence thei r individual beliefs, conflict to be full y arti culated. What is more often the and through beliefs, the ir actions (Siders & case is that one or more conflict elements are latent Aschenbrener, 1999). (patiicularl y a & b). These are considered "structural" Dysfunctional and Functional Views of Organizational conflicts; they have full conflict potential but require Conflict orchestrati on of some sort to draw out the latent aspects. Thus, Gal tung argues, the obj ective of conflict analysis is The dysfunctional view of organi zational confli ct is to identi fy all of the conflict elements and the goal of e mbedded in the notion that organi zations are designed to conflict management is to facil itate conscious awareness achi eve goals by creatin g tTuctures that perfectly defin e of the elements r . the di sputants (a process he calls job responsib il iti es, authorities, and other job functions. "conscientization" (Bodtker & Jameson, 2001). This traditi onal view of organi zational conflict values Once conscientization is realized, the next pivotal orderli ness, stability and the repression of any confli ct aspect of Galtun g ' theory is the foc us on conflict that occurs. The functi onal vi ew of organi zational transfonnati on as opposed to resolution. Conflict conflict, on the other hand, sees confli ct as a productive management aimed so lely at resoluti on is destined to fail fo rce, one that can stimulate me mbers o f the organi zation because it stri ves onl y to deal with one part of the conflict to increase their knowledge and skill s as well as th eir formati on. For in stance, goal incompatibility or contributions to organizational innovation and contradicti on (c) is often taken to be resolved when productivity. Unlike the dysfunc ti onal view, thi s more manifested behavior changes (b). However, until one's modem approach considers that the key to organi zati onal attitude and emoti ons (a) are addressed and successfully s uccess li es not in stTucture, clari ty, and orderliness, but changed (become transfo m1 ed), the real or underl ying in creativi ty , responsiveness, and adaptabi li ty. T he conflict w ill reemerge. In other words, the inherent successfu l organi zation, then, needs func ti onal confl ict so contrad icti on, whi ch ex ists at the c-level, has concomi ta nt th at di vergi ng views are put on th e table and new ways of feelin gs (e.g., of anger, angst, di ssonance) and beliefs doi ng thin gs are created (Bacal, 2004). (e.g., thi s is unfair) at the a-l evel. There fo re, it is essential T he emphasis on th is pa per is away from resolvin g to raise both of these to consciousness (assuming that the dysfunction (negati ve) confli ct. It is foc used on a behavior is already manifest) in order to transcend the framework fo r managing fu nctional (positi ve) conflict in contTadi ction. According to the theory, the key to organi zati ons. Resolv in g dys fu ncti onal conflict aims at tTans fom1 ing con fli ct elements li es, in part, in the reductio n, eliminatio n or terminati on of confli ct; whereas, compl ex ity of th e confli ct. Q uite simpl y, compl ex ity is a managing fun ctiona l confli ct in vo lves c ulti vatin g certai n fun cti on o f th e number of actors and the number of issues behaviors and atti tudes, and design in g e ffective systems in vo lved . T he more complex a confli ct, the more and strategies that enhance the constructi ve fun r ti ons o r potenti al ex ists for creati ve, constructi ve tTan sfon11at ion. confli ct in order to improve learning and e ffecti ve ness in Galtung 's suggestion to in crease compl ex ity resonates organi zations (Wa ll and Call ister, 199 8). As th e nex t well with the notion of generating (as opposed to secti on shows, theori es have been developed th at expl ain suppressin g) confli ct (Bodtker & Jameson, 200 I). why these behavioral and attitud ina l factors can fonn a The ana lyses and stTategies of confli ct management founda ti on and contribute to organi za ti onal confli ct. outlined in thi s paper are also consistent with th e http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 262 2 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Joumal of BuResolutionsiness and LFramewoeadership: Research. Prac ti ce. and Teaching

contemporary leadership theories m organizations: source of expressing and acting in ways that can Fiedlier's (1967) contingency theory of leadership, articulate indivi dual separateness. In addition, human House's (1971) path-goal theory of leadership, and beings form groups based on shared culture, reli gion, Vroom and Yetton's (1973) decision theory of leadership. values, ethnicity, experience, and pro fession. Combined According to these theories, there is no one best sty le for with indi vi dual identity, these social and group identiti es dealing with different situations effectively. Whether a create a complex array of factors contai ning a continuous particular leadership style is appropriate or in appropriate, and endless potential for di ver ity and, of course, depends on the situations. These theori es of conflict conflict. These very human di fferences generate and management presented above are flexibl e in terms of the energize creativity, innovation, and a level of vari ety of situations or factors to be considered in selecting and human expression that excites, interests, and challenges making use of a conflict style. A style is considered us in a myriad of ways (Lewicki, Gray, & Elli ot, 2003). appropriate for a conflict situation if its use leads to Such differences make up the ri chness of human life. effective formulation and/or soluti on to a problem. Without them, life would be one dimensional, fl at, and colorless. At the same time, they are the major sources of Sources of Organizational Conflict human conflict. The complex characteristics of conflict require a According to Roloff (1987), "orga ni zational confli ct fundamental understanding on the part of the executives occurs when members engage in activities that are that every human being represents an expression of in compatibl e with those of coll eagues within their va lues, meanings, personal attributes, perspecti ves, net:\vo rk, members of other coll ectivities, or unaffiliated biases, and roles (Picker, 2003). Out of thi s compl exity individual who utilize the services or products of the comes the uniqueness that gives each human being a organi zation" (p. 496). Calling conflict an interactive personal identity and a character identifying each as process does not preclude the possibi lities of intra­ separate from the other and unique in the human individual conflict, for it is known that a person often community. At the same time, this very uniqueness is a interacts wi th self. C learly, one also interacts with others.

Figure 1: Drivers of Functional Conflicts in Organizations

A pan y engages in activities incongruen t 'vith hi s needs A party's behavior3 1 preference A party's desire for limited resources ~ ~ ~ ______.I \Vh y functional co nflicts ioccur in orga ni zatio.______ns A party's attitude values . and goals I Two part1cs with partially exclus ive behavioral preference I Two parties are interdependent m job perfomnance

As shown above in fi gure I, conflict may occur when: • Two parties are interdependent in the performance of fun ctio. _; or activities • A party is required to engage in an activity that is incongruent with hi s or her needs or interests This defin ition is much more inclusive, whi ch implies • A party holds behavioral preferences, the sati sfaction that conflict can relate to incompatible prefe rences, goals, of which 1 in compatible with other person's and not just activities. It should be recognized that in implementation of hi s or her preferences order for conflict to occw- , it has to exceed the threshold • A party wants some mutuall y desirable resources that level of intensity before the parties experience (or are in short supply, such that the wants of everyone become aware of) any conflict. This principl e or conflict ma y not be satisfi ed full y threshold i consistent vv ith Baron ' ( 1990) content ion • A party possesses attitudes, va lu es, skill s, and goals that opposed in terests must be recognized by parties for that are salient in directing hi s or her behavior but are conflict to ex ist. Perhaps the t,'Teatest source o f confli ct is perceived to be exclusive of th e attitudes, va lues, continuing and unresolved ambiguity (Porter-O 'Grady & skill s, and goals, held by the others Wilson, 1999). Without a doubt, ambiguit y is the greatest • Two parties have partially exclu sive behavioral stimulu s fo r mi sunderstanding. lack o f clari ty, and preference regarding their joint acti on confli ct responses. Ambigui ty pem1 i ts people to interpret

263 Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 3

!_ C hca Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJ ournal(2005-2012), of Busin ess Vol. and 2 Leadership [2006], No.: Resea 2, rArt.ch, Pra 6cti ce, and Teaching

a potential level of understanding in a variety of ways. processes based on their individual understanding of Ambiguity a ll ows misunderstanding to become a routine appropriateness without the discipline and clarity of action and a ll ows peopl e to implement action and depth and general agreement.

Figure 2: Three Ways as to How Ambiguity Operates

Ambiguity .------~ ------. Penn its many interpretati ons of a sin gle messa e Penn its mi sunderstand in as routine actions A Ilows actions based on

Figure 3: Sources of Conflict-Causing Ambiguity

Elements of Conflict-Causing A mbiguity Ambiguity of Intention Understanding lnfonna ti on Direction Purpose Relati onship Expectation Roles

ln other words, ambiguity operates when the • Organi zations are fl atter and more networked than fo ll owin g circumstances are in place: ever before. Many managers find themselves trying to meet responsib ilities that extend beyond their • Incorrect infom1ation upon whi ch others depend on authority - a primary cause of intemal tension and with which they undertake their ovm action • Organi zations must adapt to rapidly shifting • Inadequate infom1ation, only partially representing environmental co nstraints, such as changing legal and ' hat people need to know in order to take in fom1ed regul atory requirements. Efforts to promote such action adjustments often b·igger obstructionist behavior • Different levels of understanding about the • Organi zations are working to increase diversity, a information received causin g individuals to act on beneficial change that's nonetheless often their ovin differing understanding of the infonnation accompani ed by individual clashes in culture and • The absorption of too much information creates sty le confu ion and overload, causing individuals to act • As organizations face mounting pressure to "do more without the confidence of ce11ainty with less," intemal divis ions often find themselves • Different perceptions regarding the information competing for scarce resources (Susskind, 2004). But informed by personal, professional, or rol e to deal effectively w ith the nature of conflict 111 expectati ons regarding appropriate action organi zations, it is important to understand its • Frequent changes in direction, creating confusion and different manifestati ons multiple shifts in appropriate response, making clear action indiscemible (Gibson & ohen. 2003) Leadership in Organizational Conflict Management

There is no more potent and volati le mix leading to A good leader recognizes th e sustaining presences of con fl ic t th an the in gredients of ambiguity and conflict underlying the course of all decision-making, complexity. In organizations, the interface between communication, and human interaction (Lipsky, Seeber, ambiguity and complexit y can be dangerous. Yet much of & Fincher, 2003 ). T he role of a good leader is not to end the time, th is is just the c ircumstances confronting leaders a ll confli ct (Chelde lin , 2002), whi ch is virtua ll y on a da il y basis. W hil e differences in understanding will impossib le. The sound leader mu t be able to recognize always be apparent in human organizations, reduction in and use ski ll s and processes that move interaction the level of ambiguity is the central element to bette r through th e confli ct dynamic and toward a positi ve and managing the \\'Ork of the organizati on and reducing the va lu ab le outcome fo r all involved. tn essence, it is more b ·el of conflict (Gibson & Cohen, 2003). effective to manage confl ict well. To do so, the leader lntcmal conflict has become a virtual epidemic in must understand the e lements and normative processes organi;at1ons because: associated with the conflict interaction, recognize th e

http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 264 4 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Journal of ResolutionBus mess and LeadeFrameworship: Research, Pracuce. and Teachi ng

symptoms of conflict opportunity as early as possible, maintaining positi ve relationships and cohesiveness and undertake a process that moves people through any (Canary, Cupach, & Messman, 1995; Coser, 1956), and conflict toward higher levels of interaction or resolution solving problems (Hall, 1986). lndi viduals who have (Moore, 2001). Through accepting the notion that conflict difficulty handling confli ct are also more likely to be is an essential constituent of all human interaction and dissatisfied with their jobs (Infante & Gordon, 199 1; developing the essential skills necessary to address it Infante, Anderson, Martin, Herington , & Kim, 1993). well, the executive actually begins to reduce the Thus, it is imperative th at researchers determine how incidence of all resolvable conflict in the workplace. The competent van ous leadership styles of conflict challenge for the leader then is not so much whether management are percei ved to be. Rahim' s ( 1985; Rahim conflict is present, but when recognized m the & Bonoma, 1979) work has uncovered fi ve leadershi p communication process, the leader deals with it well and styles used in organi zation: avo iding, compromising, a resolution results (Turner, 2001 ). dominating, integrating, and obli gi ng. These styles Within organizations, individuals who manage associate with a variety of organizational vati abl es conflict effectively are perceived as competent (Rahim, 1985, 1986; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979), such as communicators and capable leaders. Indeed, those who organizational positi on, organi zational climate, job are unable to manage conflict effectively may have burnout, job sati sfaction , gender, and education (Lee, trouble reaching organizations goals (Nicotera, 1995), 1990; Posner, 1986; Rahim, 1990).

Table 1: Conflict Leadership (Handling) Styles and their Attributes

Style C haracteristics Associated Behavior Organizational Va riable Integrating High concern for both self and oth ers Coll aborative Organizational c limate, gender and level of education Dominating High concern for self and low concern for others Confrontationol Orga ni zati onal position Obliging Low concern for self and hi gh concern for others Yielding Job satis fa cti on Avoiding Low concern for both self and oth ers Evas ive Job burn out Compromising Moderate levels of concern for both self and others Moderately cooperati ve trade-o ff Organi zati onal climate and gender

Integrating Style: The integrating style focuses on others (Hocker & Wi lmot, 1998). Within interpersonal problem-solving in a collaborative fa shion. Individuals contexts, the dominating style has been found to be with this style face conflict directly and h-y to find new associated with low levels of effe cti veness. However, and creative solutions to problems by focusin g on their Papa and Canm-y ( 1995) suggested that the dominating own needs as well as on the needs of others. Integrating style mi ght be somewhat effective in organizationa l behaviors include analytic remarks (such as descripti ve, contexts when there are production-related goa ls. In that disclosive, qualifying, and soliciting statements) and case, an individual mi ght use power strategies and conciliatory remarks (such as supporti ve statements, aggression to effecti vely accomplish a goal, even though concessions, and statements showing acceptance of these strategies may be seen as inappropri ate at a responsibility). Communication focuses on reaching a relational level. successful resolution that keeps the relationship in tact for Obliging Style: Indivi duals who use the obligin g style future interaction (Hocker & Wilmot, 1998). The put other pe"' ple 's needs before their own interests. integrating style is assumed to open lines of Obli ging is associated with accommodating behaviors communication and increase infonnation seeking and that include putting aside one's own needs to please the sharing. This style is both direct and cooperative (Blake parh1 er, passively accepting th e decisions the partner & Mouton, 1964). makes, makin g yielding or conceding sta tements, denying Dominating Style: The dominating sty le re li es on the or fail in g to express one 's needs, and explicitly use of position power, aggression, verbal dominance, and expressin g ham1ony and cooperation in a connict episode perseverance. This style is direct and un cooperati ve (Hocker & Wi lmot, 1998). These types of connict (Blake & Mouton, 1964). Forcing or competin g strategies are indirect and cooperative (Blake & Mouton, behaviors associated with a dominating sty le includes 1964). Furthermore, ob li gin g bcha\'iors are sometimes confrontational remarks, accusations, personal criticism, seen as cooperative and appropriate, parti cu larl y when rejection, hostile imperatives or threats, antagoni stic one person fe els stTOng ly about the issue and the oth er jokes or teasing, aggress ive questi ons, presumpti ve person does not . In cases such as this, it is appropriate for remarks, and denial of responsibility at th e ex pense of the person who fe els less strongly ro "gi ve in '' to hi s or

265 Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 5 Chea Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJo urna(2005-2012),l o f Business Vol. and Lead2 [2006],ership: No.Rese 2,arc Art.h, Pr ac6ti ce, and Teaching

her partner's wishes. Obliging may also be a particularly management of conflict in organi zations should include appropriate strategy when the conflict cannot be resolved the assessment of the leaders' emotional comfort with to the satisfac ti on of two parties. conflict situations. If leaders are to effectively guide Avoiding Style: Avoidin g or withdrawing occurs others in the development of appropriate responses to when people physicall y or psychologicall y remove conflict situations, each leader must reflect a level of themselves from the conflict scene or epi sode often by comf01i when dealin g with normative conflict. This denying the conflict, being indirect and eva sive, changing comfort with conflict should be well ensconced in the and/or avoidin g topics, employin g noncommittal leader's behavior patterns. remarks, and making inelevant remarks or joking as a Leader's Disposition Toward Conflict way to avoid dealing with the conflict at hand (Hocker & Wilmot, 1998). The avoiding sty le is indirect and Perhaps one of the most significant influences with uncooperative. It can be frustrating to interact with regard to the potential for functi onal conflict management someone who uses the avoidin g style. One individual is the leader's di sposition toward conflict. The potential may want to talk about issues and solve problems, while for conflict and conflict itself can generate a wide variety the other recoils from interaction. T hi s can leave the of emotional responses. A negative di sposition toward conflict issue to stew, creating what has been termed the conllict informs leaders with regard to how they will "chilling effect", with disputants becoming in creasin gly approach conflict situations. The fu ll range of emotional cold and withdrawn (Roloff & Cloven, 1990). content, from excitement to pamc, create an Compromising Style: The compromising style is individuali zed set of circumsta nces that influences the unique in that it represents the mid-point on th e wide varieties of responses to confli ct in the organi zation. dimension of production orientation versus people The leader's individual and personal disposition toward ori entation. As such, it is somewhat focused on individual confli ct is one of the most critical influences related to goals, as we ll as on the needs of others. T hi s sty le is also getting at confl icf early and well in organizational seen as moderately direct and cooperative (Blake & settings. Although it is va luable fo r organi zations to Mouton, 1964). Compromisin g requires searching for an unde11ake ongoin g educational processes and activities in intermedi ate positi on, through strategies such as spli tting relati on to handling fun ctional conflict effecti vely, it is the difference, meetin g the partner halfway, suggesting a equall y important for the leader to be aware of indi vidual trade-off, maximizing wins whi le m in imizin g losses, and emoti onal respon es to conflict among those the leader offering a quick, short-tenn resolutio n to the conflict at fac ili ta tes. More importantly, it is wi se for good leaders hand. As such, compromisin g typicall y sati sfi es some of to be aware o f their responses to confli ct situations. each person' s needs, but not all o f them. When people Because leaders create th e context for orga ni zation have radicall y different goals and cannot coll aborate to behavior and effective processes, they must recogni ze create a so lu tion that will sati sfy a ll of their needs, that th eir own behaviors in the presence of con lli ct set the compromising is often seen as th e best option (Hocker & tone for how th e organi zati on approaches conflict Wi lson, 1998). Any development process related to th e situati ons (Bowli ng and lloffman, 2003).

Figure 4: Elements That Influence a Leader's Conllict Management Ability

Leader's own self-awareness l ~eadc r 's 1mmechatc response to con ll 1ct Situation Leader's verbal react1ons

M odel for leader 's Sclf-as >cssmcnt for conflict situa tion [ i .______Leader's own Personal tools and sk1l ls I eadcr·s c mo t1 nnal tn ggcrs I cadcr·s th ought Patterns and expressions

As shown above in fi gure 4, be fore confronting • ;\wa re ness o f th e mani festations and characteri sti cs conflict situati ons or guiding others in doing so, leaders o f personal tension in th e presence ofconOi ct should ha ve reso lved th e fo ll owin g issues regarding th eir • The in stant reaction generati ng fro m the indi vidual at own consid erati on and respon se to conll ict: the outset o r an in stant response to a con 0 ict

http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 266 6 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,JoumJI of BuResolutionsmcss Jnd L Framewoeadership: Research, Practice, and Teaching

• The instant personal language and linguistic reactions communications and processes. Effecti ve interper onal in the moment of conflict response communication ski ll s are essential , in cluding active • Personal thought patterns and expressions that are li stening, giving and receiving appropriate feedback, and generated at the outset of a conflict event asking good questions (Cavenagh, 2000). • The leader's own emotional triggers to the energetic, The attitude necessary to use these ski ll s effecti ve ly tense, or violent momentary reaction of others in a include the capacity to empathi ze, to reserve judgment, to conflict situation accept complexity, ambi guity and contradicti ons, to fo cus • Leader's own access to persona l tools and skill s that on both content and process, to accept the expression of tap into a balanced, rational, and equitable response emotions and interpersonal tensions, to resist stress, and to conflict situations (Porter-O'Grady, 2004) to entertain a variety of frame of reference. The leader must show respect for , and constantly work toward The leader's own personal and managerial in creased recognition and empowern1 ent of the characteristics, including the leader's own interests, protagonists. Again , self-awareness is an essenti al quality biases and conflict-intervention capacities, influence the for effecti ve intervention (Slaikeu and Hasson, 1998). possibilities for intervention in the conflict. The nature of The leader might decide to intervene personally but the leader's relationship with the protagoni sts, including also use the resource person as a supporting coach in the degree of interpersonal trust and their relative areas in which the leader lacks competence. The coachin g statuses, also conditions the intervention possibilities. will help develop the leader's ski ll s and attitudes for When the leader intervenes, there is interacti on and future interventions. The leader should evaluate the reciprocal feedback between the leader and the extent to which he/she possesses the appropriate protagonists and their conflict. Since in some functional knowledge, ski ll s, and attitude. In th e short-tern1, thi s conflict situations the leader cannot or should not self-assessment will allow the leader to identify the kinds intervene, the leader may need to make use of an of in terventions he/she is able to make and the kinds of independent resource person to intervene or to assist in resources needed. Over the long-term, self-assessment the intervention (Nugent, 2002). wi ll help the leader to develop hi s/her competence Each leader has to undertake the above personal through coaching or through professional activities in inventory and enumerate the individual responses to order to intervene more effectively in fun cti onal conflict events. Personal development wi ll depend on the (positive) conflict situations. needs identified as an outflow from an honest and frank personal assessment of one's conflict faci li ty. Because Models of Organizational Conflict Management functional conflict is normative, the leader should expect Strategies that workers embed elements of conflict at some level of intensity in every kind of interaction in the workplace. Various models of conflict management strategic , The wise and effective leader develops a hi gh level of such as the associative model, the confrontational intuitive and process ski ll s in fac il itatin g the work and (resolution) model, and the regulative model, have been interaction of others to anticipate the normall y embedded developed throughout th e years. Rahim and Bonoma elements of conflict, and the earl y management of the ( 1979) diffen: ntiated the styles of handling interpersonal conflict process as part of the ordinary and usual function conflict along two basic dimension s: concern for self and of good leadership (POii er-O 'Grady, 2004). concern fo r others. T hese dimensions explain the degree A variety of competencies is needed for a leader to (hi gh or low) to whi ch a person wants to sati sfy the transition from confli ct management. Intervention in concern for others. Moreover, these dimensions portTay conflict situations requires training and understanding of the moti vational ori entations of a given individual during the dynamics of interpersonal and inter-group confli ct. conflict. Studies by Rubl e and Thomas ( 1976) and Van The leader needs some lmowledge and training in De V li ert and Kabanoff ( 1990) suppon these di mension arbitration, facilitating bargaining, and coll aborative The tabl e below shows th e coJTesponding cultural dec ision-making as well as ski ll s in establishing and category for each o r these models. The ta bl e also makes managing appropriate procedures for these approaches. cross reference to llofstadc 's and Schwwar1z's cultura l The leader 's role in th e coll aborative decision-making dimensions (Green, Afzal ur. Buntzman, and White, approach req uires knowledge and ski ll s in dealing wi th 1999). Although confli ct management models ha\·e positive conflict situations, relationship building, and the di ffe ren t names, th ey more or less serve for the same fac ilitation of interpersonal and inter-group purposes (Kozan . 1997).

267 Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 7 Chca Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJournal (2005-2012), of Business Vol.and Leader 2 [2006],ship : ReNo.sea 2,rc hArt., Practice 6 , and Teachi ng

Table 2: Relation of Dimensions of Culture to Three Conflict Management Models

Culture TyPology Connict Management Models

HARMONY CONFRONTATIONAL REGULATIVE (Resolution) Gl en ( 198 1) Associa ti ve Abstracti ve, Nco- AbslTactive, Co-subjective particularisti c llofstede ( I 99 1) Coll ecti vist Hi gh Individuali sm & Low lligh In dividuali sm & Hi gh Uncertainty A voidance Uncertainty Avoidance Sc hwartz ( I 994) Conservative Hi gh Autonomy & Low Hi gh Autonomy & Hi gh Ega litarian Commitment Ega litarian Commitment Source. (Green, Afzal ur, Buntzman, and Wh1te , 1999)

Harmony Model: Thj s model is associated with are important to one party. This strategy is also attempting to play down the differences and emphasizing inappropriate when it is the responsibi li ty of one party to commonalities to sati sfy the concern of the other party. make decisions, when the other parties are unwi lling to This model is useful when a party is not familiar with the wait, or when prompt action is required (Green, Afzalur, i sues in volved in a confl ict or the other party is right and Buntzrnan, & White, 1999; Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993). the issue is much more important to the other party. The question is what determines positi ve effects of Moreover, thi s model is used when a party is willing to conflict? Researchers have been especially focused on give up something with the hope of getting some bene fit resolution stTategies. Resolution stTategies are behavior from the other pa1iy when needed. Furthern1 ore, this alternatives or combin ations of behavior alternati ves that stTategy may be appropriate when a party is dealing from people use to resolve conflicts. Researchers have also a position of weakness or beli eve that preserving proposed a var .• ty of resolution strategies (e.g. Van de relational harmony is important. Finall y, the ham1ony Y li ert, 1997). A general categorization of resolution model is inappropriate if the issue involved in a confli ct strategies fal ls into three broad categori es: collaboration, s ituation is important to one pa1iy and the party believes confrontation, and avoidance/yielding (Howard, that he or she is ri ght. It is also inappropriate when a B lumstein , & Schwarte, 1986; Sternberg & Dobson, party believes that the other party is wrong or unethica l. 1987). For example, coll aborative strategies include Confrontational Model: This model is appropriate persuasion of others, rational negotiation with others, or when the issues involved in a conflict are important to all eviation of negative emotions of the opposin g party. one party or an unfavorable decision by the other pmiy Some researchers tern1 thi s strategy as an integrative may be hannful to one party. This strategy may be used if strategy or as problem solving. Confrontational strategies the issues in volve routine matters or speedy decision is include tough asse1iion, criti cism, coerc ion, or threats required. Moreover, this model may be used in dealing again st the other party. Fi na ll y, avoidance/yieldi ng are an w ith the implementation of unpopular courses of action. attempt to keep disagreements from becoming public; The confrontati on model is inappropriate ·..v hen the issues one avoid s direct opposition with th e other party by involved in confli ct are complex and there is enough time yielding or avoidin g a topic or situation with which he or to make a good decision . When both pa11ie are equall y she di sagrees (Rubin, Pruitt, & Kim, 1994). powerful , usin g this stTa tegy by one or both parties may Research findings consistently indicate that lead to sta lemate. Finally, thi s model is inappropriate coll aborative strateg ies are the most effective 111 w hen the issues are not important to th e one of th e producing positi ve outcomes from confli ct. Reviewing a parti es. Subordi nates, who possess hi gh degree of number of studies, Rubin and hi s co-auth or (Rubin et al. , competence, may not Iik e a supervi or who uses thi s 1994) and Tjosvold ( 1997) concluded that a coll aborative trs tegy. strategy stimulates productive interactions in work Regulative Mo del : This model may be used when th e settings, leadi ng to positi ve outcomes of both individuals pote ntial dys fun cti onal c!Tccl of confronting t~1 e other and orga ni zati ons. By analyzi ng conflict epi sodes ps rty outweighs the benefits of the reso luti on of confli ct. reported by Japanese busin ess employees, Ohbuchi , This strategy may be used to deal with some trivial or Hayashi , and Suzuki (2000) found that, compared with minor issues or a coolmg o fT period is needed before a other strategies, coll aborative st,-ategies were more complex confli ct can be effectively dealt with. The e ffective in achieving the employees' diverse goals. regu lative model is in appropri ate when the confli ct issues Ohbuchi et al (2000) concluded this goa l attainment was http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 268 8 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Journal of Resolution Business and FramewoLeadership : Research, Practi ce, and Teaching the reason collaborative strategies were more likely to produce positive and attitudinal outcomes of conflict.

Table 3: A Dichotomy of Conflicts Based on Differences in Issues

Type of Conflict Approach Sources of Conflict People (Relational) Coll aboration Di sagreements about: . Leadership . Work All ocati on . Indi vidual Diversity Task Confrontation Di sagreements about: . Work Content . Work Procedure

Likewise, a crucial variable in determining the use of increased members' willingness to stay on the team but resolution strategies is the conflict issue itself. A conflict relati onal conflicts decreased it. In addition, a number of issue is a problem or matter on which parti es di sagree studi es dealing with the topi c have found that task with each other. As presented in table 3 above, some confli cts are more likely than rational conflicts to researchers have proposed a dichotomy of conflicts based encourage integrati ve or collaborative strategies, such as on the differences in issues (Jehn , 1997; Pinkley, 1990; work-ori ented di scussion or rational negotiati on. They Wall & Nalon, 1986). One type is peopl e conflict or are also more likely to lead to constructive outcomes such relational conflict, which is caused by di sagreements as improvement o f the quality of group decision, group about leadership, allocation of work, or individual and personal performance, and members' sati sfa ction diversity. The other type is task conflict, whi ch is caused with or commitment to group (Amason & Schweiger, by disagreements about content and procedure of work 1994; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Regin, 1986; Staw, tasks. For example, Jehn ( 1997) observed work teams for Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981) . several months and interviewed the members. Her Several conflict management scholars (Amason, 1996; analysis indicated that the hi gh-achieving teams Jehn , Northcraft, & Neale, 1999; Rahim, 200 1) have experienced some task conflicts but not rational conflicts. suggested that conflict management strategies involve Another study (Jehn, 1995) found that task conflicts recognition of the fo ll owing:

Table 4: Taxonomy of Affective and Cognitive Conflicts in Organizations.

Nature of Conflict Focus C auses Overall Impact Affective Emoti onal or personal issues . Persona I attacks Negati ve impact on organizations . Racial disharmony . Sexual harassment Cognitive Work/prod uction issues . Task Posi ti ve impact on organi zati ons . Po li c ies Certain types of confli cts such as affecti ve confli cts, deal with various situati ons effecti vely. Therefore, in which may have negative e ffects on individual and group order tor conflict management strategies to be effective, performance, have to be reduced. These conflicts are they should sati sfy certa in criteria. These have been generally caused by the negative reacti ons of deri ved from the di verse literature on organi zational organizational members (e.g ., personal attacks of group theory and organizational behavior. members, racial di sharmony, and sexual harassment). T he fo ll owin g cri teria are particularly useful for There are other types of conflicts, such as cogniti ve confli ct management strategies, but in general , they must conflict, that may have positive e ffects on the indi vidual be use fu l fo r decision maki ng in management: and group perfom1ance. These conflicts relate to di sagreements relating to tasks, policies. and other • Organi za ti onal leaming and e ffectiveness - con fli ct organizational issues. Conflict management strategies management strategies should be designed to involve generation and maintenance of a moderate enhance organi zationa l lea m in g (Luthans, Rubach, & amount of these conflicts. Organi zati onal members Marsni k, 1995; Tompkins, 1995). It is ex pected that while interactin g with each other will be required to dea l orga ni zati onal leam in g will lead to long-term with their disagreements constntctively. T hi s ca ll s for effec ti ve ness. In order to attain thi s objecti ve, conflict leaming how to use different conflict-h andling sty les to management strategies must be d esi~:,'Tl e d to enhance

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 269 9 C hea Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJou (2005-2012),mal of Busin ess Vol. and 2L e[2006],adership :No. Resea 2,r cArt.h, Practi 6 ce, and Teaching

enhance critical and innovative thinking to learn the Similarly, conflict can be a negative force that process of diagnosis and intervention in the right threatens organizational unity, business partnerships, problems team relationships, and interpersonal connections. It can • Needs of stakeholders - conflict management cause us to be aware of our essential relationships and a strategies should be designed to satisfy the needs and generator of commitment, connection, collaboration, and expectation of the strategic constituencies community - all of which de fine effective organizations. (stakeholders) and to attain a balance among them. Conflict can represent a loss of perspective regarding Mitroff ( 1998) strongly suggests picking the right common problems and the creation of unnecessary stakeholders to solve the right problems. Sometimes boundaries obstTucting cooperation, participation, multiple parties are involved in a conflict in an communication, and quality. It can also spark personal organization and the challenge of conflict and organizational leaming by helping people to openly, management would be to involve these parties in a honestly and empathetically di scuss the issues that are problem solving process that will lead to collective blocking their relationships. learning and organizational effectiveness. It is One key role of top management in tuming conflict expected that tllis process will lead to sati sfaction of into a positive force in their organizations is the creation the relevant stakeholders of long-term conflict-resolution processes and systems • Ethics - Mitroff (1998) is a strong advocate of ethical that encourage peopl e to work through conflicts - and to management. He notes, "if we can ' t define a problem use them to build better partnerships. As members of top so that it leads to ethical actions that benefit management encourage quali ty, participation, and humankind, then either we haven 't defined or are partnership, they al so need to design conflict resolution cmTently unable to define th e problem properly" (p. systems that encourage a retum to coll aborative problem­ 148) solving when communicati on breaks down. They must understand that COIJJ 1i cts can be best understood not as Conflict as a Neutral Phenomenon in Organizations isolated incidents but as systems that generate and reinforce disputes. Resolution processes, therefore, also Conflict is a neutral, inevitable part of organizational need to be establi shed as systems to counteract and life. It is both the constant companion and frequent remedy th ose that produce th e conflicts. unfortunately, in trigger of change. Conflict is not inherently a disruption many organi zations today, th ere often emerges a desire to of order, a negative experience, a battle between either fight it out or retTea t and accommodate it. Both of incompatible self-interests, a struggle between absolutes, these approaches mean abandoning the possibility of or a sign that a relationship is bad. Rather, one can personal and organi zational leaming, healthi er choose to see conflict as a natura l and neutral re lationships, honest communication , and improved consequence of growth and diversity and an opportuni ty results (Cloke & Gold smith, 2000). for mutually beneficial change. It can be viewed as a call Another key role of top management is the to understand competing, but not necessarily development of leadership at all levels of the incompatible, preferences and values. And we can organization. Thi s leadership development at all levels of anticipate conflict as a periodic occunence in any the fim1 would in clude dialogue around shifts in policies relationship that can be channeled toward growth or and practices req uiring empl oyee engagement. This new di ssolution. D epending on how the conflict is managed, level of engagement in confli ct resolution changes the the experience can be growth enhancing for th e parties nature of the relationship between empl oyees and the in volved and for the organization as a whole. Or it can be workplace, managers and empl oyees, and employees' destructive to relationships and self-esteem. Conflict we ll ownership o f their own problem-solvi ng. This al so ca ll s managed by top management can tap the creativity and for top management to require managers to fully problem-solvin g skills of a ll organizational members, understand th e practical and app li ed implications of takin g advantage of different gender, cultural, and role shifting behav iors, practices, and th e mode l of perspectives to create mutually benefici al so lu tion s. organi zation problem-solvin g necessary to support staff Conversely, conflict negatively perceived and poorly in vo lvement. managed by top management or consistently avoid ed A we ll -plann ed long-te rTI1 confli ct resoluti on program reduces productivity, undermines trust, and ma y spawn can provide a viabl e opti on for addressin g th ese confli ct additional conflict (Siders & Aschenbrener, 1999). concern s embedded in the work relationship. Care fu l

http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 270 10 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Journal of ResolutionBusiness and LeadeFrameworsh1p : Research. Practice. and Teaching development of conflict resolution programs with regard fundamental part of the exercise of good leadership. to design, structure, implementation, and evaluation of Finally, it is top management's role to indicate its broad such programs provides a fo undation for ensuring that commitment to making conflict management an inherent these programs can be effective and viable tools for part of th e expectations of work performance through the dealing with workers' issues, differences, and conflicts. development of conflict management and mediation Through careful attendance to the detai ls in developing programs that operate as part of the structure of work at such programs, organizations and systems can every level of the organizati on (G ibson, 2003). T hi s will sign ificantly benefi t from the increased involvement of enable top management to reap th e benefits of functi onal all levels of employees. Ownership in resolving conflict through in creased workers' creativity and organizational conflict can further ensure the hi ghest improved orga ni zation-wide producti vity. The section possible quali ty of output, human interaction, and below outlines what top managers can do to bui ld problem resolution (Porter-0 'Grady, 2004). effecti ve long-term conflict-resolution systems with in Developing effective conflict resolution skill s in their organizations. executive team members is a crucial action to a much broader consideration of conflict resolution as an Conflkt Resolution Systems in th e Workplace: organizational process. Once the notion of conflict as a Strategy Recommendation positive force becomes a fundamental subset of the understanding of the expression of the role of top One key element in building e ffective organi zational executives, it is not a fa r-reaching notion to make partnerships 1s the creation of conflict-resolution developing and engagmg conflict processes a processes and systems that encourage peopl e to work fundamental skill set for all people in the organization through functional and systemic conflicts - and to use (Wenger & Mockli, 2003). Hence, for top managers, them to build better partnerships. As leaders encourage creating an organi zational mindset that approaches qua li ty, participation, and partnership, they also need to conflict as part of the ordinary and usual practi ces of design conflict resolution systems that encourage a return doing business in the system should be considered an to coll aborative problem solving when communicati on essential attri bute of the organi zational milieu. breaks down. Fun cti onal conflicts can be best understood Building a cul ture that is not conflict adverse is not as iso lated in cidents but as systems that generate and neither an easy nor a simple undertaking. It begins with reinforce di sagreements. Resolution processes also need the organization's highest level of management and to be establi shed as systems to coun teract and address leadership and from there moves throughout the whole tho e that produce the conflicts. The resolution systems organization (Constantino & Merchant, 1998). Conflict­ should include (a) predictors of conflict (b) preventi ve engaging organi zations reflect the top management's measures (c) safety nets (d) outlets for constructive commitment and subsequent expectation of the positive expression of differences (e) procedures for resolution, embracing of organi zational conflict. Evidence of thi s and (f) methods for making them useful. commitment from members of top management is their T he idea is to move those conflicts toward interest­ continuing development and growth in the ski ll ful based syst ns for resoluti on, such as mediation that wi ll handling of potentia l and un fo lding conflict. lt means fo r allow for win/ win outcomes and encourage consultation the organization an investment in the systematic and be fore, fac ilitati on during, and feedback after every effective process of ski ll development, applicati on, and contl ict. It means placing the focus on interests, rather evaluation in relationship to conflict management. Good than on ri ghts or power-based solu tions, arrangin g these structures of conflict resolution re fl ect the organization 's from low to high cost, and providing the motivati ng. commi tment to conflict resolu tion processes, making it skill s, and resources to make th em work. possible for every member of the organizat ion to develop In most organizations. this means (a) initiati ng a "conflict a fac il ity fo r deali ng with conflicts. audit" to assess the chronic sources of functional conflict Important to the management and faci litation of in th e organizat ion (b) analyzin g th e systemic causes of confl ict resolution withi n the organization is the top con fli ct and their connections to organizati onal structure, management's recognition that confl ict is a neutral and dec ision-making, communicati on, vision, culture, fu ndamental aspect of al l hu man interactions. Re fl ectin g org~m i Lational desig-n, v::J iu es, morale, and staffing (c) this, leaders ensure that thei r own behavior exemplifies id enti fying from the organ iza ti on's culture the metaphors an abili ty to embrace conflict as a neutral phenomenon in for confl ict ::Jnd infom1a lmechani sm. already in place for organi zation and use conflict management skil ls as a resolving it (d) expanding intemally the number and type

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 27 1 11 CheJ Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJoumal (2005-2012), of Busin ess Vol.and Lea 2 [2006],dership: RNo.esearch 2, Art., Pra c6tice, and Teaching

of resolution options (e) shifting the paradigmatic executive commitment is exemplified by the following thinking patterns that block use of these new procedures, questions: and (f) continuously improving the quality of the system (Cloke and Goldsmith, 2000). • Is there an administrative mandate that makes Similarly, when designing conflict-resolution systems conflict resolution processes an important part of the for organization, the strategy most successful in bringing management and leadership expectations of the di sputes to resolution requires commitment at every level organization? of the organization. This commitment needs to be • Does the executi ve team's own practice and behavior exemplified In management structures and policy exempli fy a personal commitment to conflict framework. A policy framework creates a format for resolution dynami cs within its own spheres of conflict processes and programs to unfold appropriately. influence and across the organi zation? ln addition to establishing a policy framework, the senior • Do executi ves regularly exemplify in their own executives of the organization should establish an leadership practi ces the conflict resolution processes administrative and executive commitment to the conflict expected of all persons in the organization as a management program and to communicate appropriate fundamental pari of their conflict resolution processes at every level of the organi zation. Thi s strategies?

Figure 5: Stages of Functional Conflict Resolution Framework in Organizations

I. Is there an admi ni strati ve 2. Are executives commi tted to connie! 3. Do executives practi ce connict 4. Establish a poli cy for mJndate? resolution? connict resolution l 8. Define and suppon a design 7. Define and apply ski ll s development 6. Implement sta ges of connict resolut ion 5. Construct a resolution and implementation plan program process model

Likewise, as depi cted above in fig ure 5, the senior exempl ify executi ve commitment and develop executives should show their commitment In the fun damental skill s in the confli ct resoluti on process fo ll owing ways: • Define and support a design and implementation plan including model development, perfom1ance • Establish a poli cy mandate for the confli ct resolu tion expectations, implementati on, and a timeline for process and expect leadership to model effective completi on as a part of creatin g the infrastructure for conflict resolution fro m the C hi ef Executive Officer an organi za ti on-wide confli ct resolution program to the first-line manager (Porier-O' G rady, 2004). • Ensure that the executi ve team discerns and constructs a conflict resoluti on model appropriate to Lastly, it is important for leaders to understand their the structure and dynami cs of the organi za ti on and responsibility fo r managin g confli ct management detennine how it will unfold th roughout the processes throughout the organi zati on. T he relationship organi zation of poli cies and expectati ons within an organi zation is • Implement the stages of the confli ct resoluti on chall enged and often confronted directl y when conflict process w ithi n the contex t of a programmatic resoluti on strategies shift decision-making rol es and approach to conflict resolution throughout the processes. Undertaken signifi cant di alogue with regard to organi zation the implications and the mechani sms in volved requires • Define and appl y wi thin the executi ve team a empowering the work fo rce to confront issues directly in developmental program that in corporates the their OWll settings. T hi s shift signifies a major essential skill s o f confli ct resolution to both commitment from th e executives to move much of

http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 272 12 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Joumal o fResolution Busin ess and FramewoLeadership : Research, Practice, and Teachi ng

problem-solving and solution-seeking to the point of laying the ground rul es for the process service. This contextual shift in addressing problems - 2. Participants' description of their conflict situati on, moving the locus of control, investing decisions in whi ch includes outlining their issues and givi ng a employee stakeholders, and resolving problems as close language to their feelings and to the processes to the point of origin as possible - reflects for many a associated with their pa11 in the conflict major new organizational dynamic. To successfull y 3. Identify ing the issues main concern s, restating the develop this new approach to conflict resolution, pnmary issues, writing down the specific undertake a complete review of relational, interact ional, understanding related to the issues, and reordering grievance, and employee compliance probl ems, the identified main concerns programs, and policies and practices. To successfull y 4. Participants seeking solutions, including restatement implement a system-wide conflict management program, of ideas, noti ons, suggesti ons, brainstorming, policies and practice will need to be updated to refl ect exploration, and aggregati o of possib ili ties this shift in the structure and fom1at of decision making 5. Evalu ation and selecti on of participant ideas for related to conflict resolution (Porter-O'Grady & Wi lson, resolu tion, including di scussion of li abili ty, prio1ities 1999). of choice, areas of resonance or agreement, and The resolution framework proposed in thi s paper fo r identification of the emerging confluence o f solutions managing functional conflict can be operati onalized 6. Enumerati on of solutions and specifi cation of impact, through specific processes, documenta ti on, and response, role, and individual commi tment to actions procedural activities. All organizational members must be related to the solutions deeply inculcated and hi ghl y skilled in the application of 7. Documentati on of resolution in cluding specifi c the process. The resolution process has eight general clarifi cati on of all items of resolution, perfo nnance stages that must be engaged in throughout for it to expectati ons, fo llow-u p acti ons, and evaluations or effectively impact the conflict and the parties seeking evidence-based perfom1a nce fo ll ow-up resolution. At a minimum, the following elements are 8. Evaluation of resolu tion proces includi ng included in the process: parti cipants' evaluati on of the process, mediator, and evaluati on of the dynamics and the process and l. Welcoming the participants, expl aining the resoluti on submi ssion of evaluati on fo r program review (Porter­ process, identifying issues o f confidentiali ty, and O 'Grady, 2004).

Figure 6: Stages in the Operationalization of Functional Conflict Resolution Framework

2. Participants' description 3. Identification of 4. Pursum g solutions of con fl ict situation core conflict issues

7. Document ing agreement 6. Agreeing on soluti ons and actions and ac ti on

The series o f stTuctural and programmati c components ensUJi ng that the organizati on w ill address con fl ict at outlined in thi s paper should combine to create a system every level of interacti on for management development at every phase o f the 2. Executive leadership undergoes confl ic t management resolution framework that exemplifies the use o f conflict assessment, development, skil l application, and resolution strategies. The fo ll owin g is a minimu m testing as a sign of th eir personal incorporation of organi zational and structural acti vities for implementin f a confli ct resolving strategies in their leadership work successful management development program that 3. T he orga ni zati on's human resource serv1ce is integrates each phase of th e resoluti on framework 1n challenged to develop an organi zation-wid e program functional conflict management fo r the organi zati on: of confli ct resolution bu il di ng at every phase of the resoluti on framework incl udi ng personal ski ll I. A defin ed and clearly stated commitment on the part building in confli ct management, earl y diagnosis of o f executive leadershjp is exemplified as a way o f confli ct ituat ions. confl ict self- management, an d

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 273 13 Chea Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJou (2005-2012),rnal of Business Vol.and Leader 2 [2006],ship: ResearchNo. 2, Art., Practice 6 , and Teaching

management of the language of conflict and understand that a conflict resolution process should also employee-driven conflict mediation processes be a basic ski ll and work expectation for every employee. 4. Leadership develops and manages an ongoing staff The fo ll owing should be included in the basic education mediation program, formali zin g functional conflict program: ( I) fundamental elements of conflict and the resolution as an operating mechani sm of the concept of confli ct as a normative part of human organi zation interaction and communication, (2) the elements of the 5. Concomitant with the conflict resolution framework dynamic of confli ct and the characteristics of conflict as a and mediation activities forn1ali zed m the part of the expression of human differences, and organi zation is an ongoing evaluation of the conflict (3) the basic elements of the confli ct resolution process management process and mechanisms within the with the stages and steps of conflict identified in a system. Monitoring and updating ski ll s, processes, systematic problem-solving format. and programs ensures their effectiveness and Finall y, it is advisable that managers understand that appli cabili ty to the issues and concerns at every the structure and mechanics of the organization's phase on the resolu tion framework and at every level organi zed conflict resolution process includes methods to in the workplace (Constantino and Merchant, 1998) access, use, and apply to the individual issues of conflict. T herefore, it is necessary for managers to have a clear Coping mechanism for functional conflict understanding of the ystematic approaches for management involves the processes of situation addressin g and resolving conflict as a part of the recognition, planning for change, and implementation. organi zation 's mechanism for doin g business and Situation recognition entails con fli ct situation sensing, resolving issues between the organi zation and employees, and situation formulation. Planning for change require between the management and employees, and between recommending creative strategies to deal with conflict employees and other employees (Porter-O' Grady, 2004). situation, and preparing action plans for intervention. Lastly, implementation involves putting plans into action CONCLUSION and reviewing of outcomes and taking corrective measures (Rahim, 2002). The foll owing checklist is a The objecti ve and contribution of th is paper has been diagnostic tool for systemically asse sin g and coping to provide managers with access to a helpful framework with functional conflicts that ari se in orga ni zations. The on how to best manage functional conflict m first step is to define the conflict situati on in terms of: (a) organi zations. It wi ll be usefu l to practitioners in perti nent issues, (b) hi story of the conflict, (c) primary management, organi zational behavior and organizational players, and (d) other stakeholders in the conflict. The psychology as a source of id eas about the positive uses of second step is to define organizati onal factors in tern1 s of: confli ct in organi zati on. Moreover, it serves as an (a) cwTent policies and objectives, (b) environmental important point of departure for pushing beyond cWTent influence, and (c) relevant working conditions. The final conve ntions in the study of organi zational conilict. step is to define personal factors in ten11S of: (a) personal Most confli ct in organi zations stem from ill-defined issues, (b) usual method of anger management, and (c) roles and goals. When people have neither a clear beliefs about behaviors of others that tri gger intense understanding of the overa ll corporate goals nor a feel ings (Mitroff, 1998). con ensus on their individual ro les in accomplishing them, relati onships and effecti veness deteriorate on both Implications for Practitioners indi vid ua l and corporate levels. One of the leading causes The above analyses suggest several implications for of confli ct in organi zation is a Ja ck of clari ty and managers. First, managers need to un derstand that the agreement about job expectation . Rol e ambiguity and initial step in dealing with resolvin g conflict is to develop confli ct cause di ssension, turnover, and lost productivity. confli ct-based educationa I processes. These Infi ghting and a dys fun ctional political environment are developmental activiti es should engage a ll work ers in th e signs that an organi zation has a problem defining organi zation in both understand ing and appl yi•1g basic corporate objecti ves and clarifyin g everyone's role in confl ic t principles in th e course o f the ir indi vidual work fulfilling th ose objecti ves (Ailnoch, 1998). and as fundamental to problem so lvin g 1n th e The noti on that organ1 zation should avoid conflict is organi zation . Managers must also in coqJorate a conllict one of the major contributors to the growth of destructive educati on program into the ongoin g continuing educati on conflict in the workplace. This negative view of conflict format of the organi zation. Second , practitioners need to is associated with a vision of organizational effecti veness http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 274 14 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,Joumal of ResolutionBusiness and LFramewoeadership: Research. Practice, and Teach in g

that is no longer valid. Conflict can be directed and Blake, R., & Mouton, J. 1964. The managerial grid. managed so that it causes both people and organizations Houston: Golf Publishing. to grow, innovate, and improve. However, thi s requires that conflict is not repressed because attempts to repress Bodtker, A. , & Jameson, J . 200 I. Emotion in confl ict it are likely to generate very ugly situations (Bar-Siman­ formation and its transformation: Appli cation to Tov, 2004). Systems for resolving confli ct have tended to organizational confli ct management. International emerge within organizations almost by accident, and Journal of C onflict Management, 12: 259-378. most remain ad hoc and haphazard at best. Yet some Bornstein, G ., & Erev, T. 1997. The enhanci ng effect of organizations have begun to recognize that, to be intergroup competition on group perforn1ance. ln C. effective, systems for managing internal conflict need to de Dreu, & E. Van de V li ert, (Eds. ), Us ing conflict in be carefully and thoughtfully designed (Sander & organization: 116- 128. London: Sage. Bordone, 2005). In the end, it's a tricky propositi on to encourage the kind of positi ve conflict that leads to Bowling, D. , & Hoffman, D. 2003. Bringing piece into innovation. But when conflict is harnessed, amazing the room: How the personal qualities of the things can happen (Porter-O'Grady, 2004). mediator impact the process of conflict resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Directions for Future Research In the area of managing conflict in organizations, Canary, D. , Cupach, W ., & Messman, L. 1995 . there are several research cha ll enges. Two of the major Relational conflict: Conflict in parent-child, ones are: (I) a framework for minimjzin g or e li minating friendship, and romantic relationship. T housand dysfunction conflict in organizations, and (2) dependence Oaks, CA: Sage. of organizations' success on different confl ict Cavenagh, T. 2000. Business dispute resolution. management approaches and frameworks. Toronto, Canada: Southwestern Coll ege Publishjng.

REFERENCES Cetin, M. , & Haci fazli ogu, 0. 2004. Academics' conflict Allnoch, A. 1998. Clari ty and communication reduce management styles. Dogus U niversity Journal, corporate conflict. liE Solutions, 30:8- 11 January, Istanbul.

Amason, A. , & Scweiger, D. 1994. Resolving the Cheldelin , S. 2002. Academic administrator's guide to paradox of conflict: Strategic decision making and conflict resolution. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. organizational performance. International Journal of C loke, K., & Goldsmith, J . 2000. Confli ct resolution that Conflict Management, 5: 239-25 3. reaps great rewards. Journal for Quality & Amason, A. 1996. Distinguishing the effects of functional Participation, 23: 27-3 1. and dysfunctional conflict on strategic decision Consta nt ino, C ., & Merchant, C. 1998. Design conflict making: Resolving a paradox for top management mana,;em ent systems. San Franc isco: Jossey-Bass. teams. Academy of Managem ent J ournal, 39: 123- 148. Coser, L. 1956. The function of social conflict. NY: McMil lan. Bacal, R. 2004. Organizational conflict: T he good, the bad, and the ugly. The Journal for Q uality & Deutsch, M . 1973. The resolution of conflict: Participation, 29: 2 1-22. Constructive and destructive progress. ew Haven: Yale Univers ity Press. Baron, R. 1990. Conflict in organi zati on. In K. Rurphy, & F. Saal, (Eds. ), Psychology in organi zati ons: Fi ed ler, F. 196 7. A theory of leadership effectiveness. Integrating science & practice: 197-2 16. Hi !I da le, Ne'' York: McGraw-l lill. NJ: Erlbaum. Ga ltung, J. 1996. Peace by peaceful means: Peace and Bar-Siman-Tov, Y. 2004. From conflict r esolution to conflict development a nd civilization. Thousand reconciliation. London: Oxford Uni versity Press. Oaks, CA: Sage.

Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 275 15 Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJoumal (2005-2012), o r Business Vol.and Lead 2 [2006],ership : RNo.esea 2,rch Art., Pra c6tice, and Teaching

G ib on, C., & Cohen, B. 2003 . Virtual teams that diversity, conflict, and perfo nnance in workgroups. work: C r eating conditions for virtual team Administr ati ve Science Quarterly, 44: 741-763. effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Kezsborn, D. 1992. Reopening pandora's box: Sources of Green, B., Afzalur, R ., Buntzman, F. , & White, G. 1999. project conflict in the 1990. Industrial Engineering, An empirical study of th e stages of moral 24: 54-59. development and confl ict management sty les. Internationa l Jou rnal of Conflict Management, I 0: Kozan, K. 1997. Culture and conflict management: A 154- 171 . theoreti cal framework. International Journal of Confli ct Management, 8: 69-79. Green, B ., Lesli e, A. , & Marks, M. 2001. Maximizing the bene fits of task confli ct: The role of confli ct LeBaron, M. 2003. Bridging cultural conflicts: A new management. International Journal of Conflict approach for a changing world. San Francisco: Management, 12: 4-22. Jossey-Bass.

Hall , J. 1986. Conflict management survey: A survey Lee, C. 1990. Relative status of employees and styles of of one' s characteristics reaction to and handling of hand ling interpersonal confl ict: An experimental study conflict between himself and others. Conroe, TX: with Korean managers: Internatio nal Journal of Teleometrics. Conflict Management, I : 327-340.

Hocker, J. , & Wi lmot, W . 1998. Interpersonal conflict. Lewicki, R., Gray, J. , & Ell iott, B. 2003. Making sense Madi son, Wl: Brown & Benchmark. of intractable environmental conflicts: F rames and cases. Washington, D. C. : Island Press. House, R. 197 1. A path -goal th eory of leadership e ffectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16: Lipsky , D .. Seeber, R. , & Fincher, R. 2003 . E merging 32 1-338. systems for managing workplace conflict: L essons from American corporations fo r manager s and Howard, J. , B lumstein , P. , & Schwartz, P. 1986. Sex, dispute resolution professional. San Francisco: power, and influence tactics in intimate relationship . Jossey-Bass. Journal of J>ersonality & Social Psychology, 5 I: 102- 109. L uthans, F., Rubach, M., & Marsnik, P. 1995. Goin g beyond tota l qua lity: T he characteristics, techniques, Infante, D., & Gordon, W. 199 1. How employees see the and measures o f learning orga ni zation. International boss: Test of an argumentative and a ffirmi ng model of Journal of Organizational Analysis, 3: 24-44. superi ors' commun icative behavior. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 55: 294-304. Mitro ff, I. 1998. Smart thinking for cr azy times: The a rt of solving the right problems. San Francisco: In fa nte, D ., & Anderson, C., Mai1in, M., llerington, A., Berrett-Koehl er. & Kim, J. 1993. Subordinates' sati sfac ti on and perceptions o f superi ors' compliance-gain ing tactics, Moore, C. 200 I. The mediation p rocess: Practical argumen ta ti vcncss, verba I aggress i vencss, and sty Ic . strategies for resolving confli ct. San Francisco: Management Communication Quarterly, 6: 307- Jossey-Bass. 326. Ni cotera, A. 1995. Conflict a nd organization: Jehn , K. 1995 . A multi-method examin ation o f th e Communicative process. Alba ny, NY : State bene fit s and determinants of intra!:,'TO up con fli ct. University o f New York Press. Administrative Science Q uarterly, 40: 25 6-282. N ugent, P. 2002. Managing confli ct: T hird-party Jchn . K. 1997. A qualitati ve analysis of conflict ty pes and in te rve nti ons fo r managers. Academy of dimensio ns in organ izati onal gTO ups. Administrative Management Executive, 16: 139- 155. Science Quart erly, 42: 530-5 57. O hbuchi , K., Hayashi , Y , & Suzuk i, M. 2000. Jehn , K., North cral"t, G ., & Nea le, M. 1999. Why Constructi ve con fli ct mana gement in organi zati on: diffe rences make a diffe rence: A fi eld study o f Reso luti on strategies. goa l ac hievement and http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 276 16 Chea Chea: organizational Conflict: Strategy, Leadership,.J ournal of Resolution Business and FramewoLeadership: Research, Prac ti ce, and Teaching

psychological changes after conflict. Tohoku Rahim, M. 1990. Moderating effects of hardiness and Psvchologica Folia, 59: 1- 10 . social support on the relationships of conflict and stress to job burnout and performance. In M . Rahim, Papa, M., & Canary, D. 1995. Conflict in organiza tions: (Ed .), Theory and research in conflict A competence-based approach. In M. Nicotera, (Ed.), management: 4-14. New York: Preager. Conflict & Organization: Communicative processes: 15 3-1 79. Rahim, M. 200 I . Managing conflict in organization. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Picker, B. 2003. American Bar Association section of dispute resolution, mediation practice guide: A Roloff, M. 1987. Communicati on and confli ct. In C. handbook for resolving business dispute. Berger, & S. Chaffee, (Eds .) , Handbook of Washington, D. C. : American Bar Associati on. Communication Science: 484-534. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Pinkley, R. 1990. Dimensions of conflict frame: M edi ator and disputant in interpretation of confl ict. Journal of Ro loff, M., & Cloven, D. 1990. The chilling effect in Applied Pyschology, 7 5: I I 7-1 3 I . interpersonal relationship: T he reluctance to speak one's mind. In D . Calin, (Ed.), Intimates in conflict: Porter-O'Grady, T. 2004. Constructing a confli ct A communication perspective: 49-76. Hi ll sdale, NJ: resolution program for health care. Health C are Erlburm. Management Review, 29: 278-283 . Rubin, J., Pruitt , D ., & Kim, S. 1994. Social conflict: Porter-O'Grady, T., & Wilson, C. 1999. Leading the Escalation, stalemate, and settlement. New York: resolution in health care: Igniting performance, M cGraw-Hill. changing system. Gatherburg, MD: Aspen Publisher. Ruble, T. , & Thomas, K . 1976. Support for a two­ Posner, B. 1986. What's all the fighting about?: Conflict dimensional model for conflict behavior. in project management. IEEE Transactions on Organizational Behavior & Human Performance, Engineering Management, 33: 207-211 . 16: 143- 155.

Pruitt, D., & Carnevale, P. 1993. Negotiation and social Sander, F., & Bordorc, R. 2005. Early intervention: How conmct. Buckingham, England: Open University to minimize the cost of confli ct. Negotiation, M arch: Press. 3-5 . Putnam, L. 1987. Conflict and negotiation. In F. Joblin, Schweiger, D., Sandberg, W ., & Ragin, J. 1986 . Group L. Putnam, K. Robert, & L. Po11er, (Eds.), Handbook approaches for improvin g strategic dec ision making: of organizational communication: An A comprehensive ana lysis of dialectica l inquiry, interdisciplinary perspective: 549-599. London: Sage. devil's ad vocacy, and consensus approaches to stra,egic decision making. Academy of Management Putnam, L. 1994. Productive confli ct: Negotiation as Journal, 29: 5 1-7 1. implicit coordination. International Journal of Siders, C., & Conflict Management, 5: 207-304. Aschembrcncr, C. 1999. Confli ct management chec k! ist: A diagnosti c tool for assessing Rahim, M., & Bonoma, T. 1979. Managin g confli ct in orga ni za tion. Physician Executive, 25: 32- organizational conflict: A mode l for diagnosis and 38. intervention. Psychological Reports, 44: 1323 - 1344. Slaikcu, K., & !Iasson, R. 1998. Controlling t he cost of Rahim, M. 1985 . A strategy for managin g conflict in conflict: How to design a system for your complex organi zati on. Academy of Management organization. San Francisco: Josscy-Bass. Journal, 26: 368-376. Staw, B .. Scandclands, L. , & Dutton. J. 198 1. T hrea t­ Rahim, M . 1986. Managing conflict in organization. ri gidity e ffects 111 organi zational beha vior: 1\ multi ­ New York: Preager. level analys is. Administrative Science Quarterly,

277 Published by FHSU Scholars Repository, 2006 17 hca Journal of Business & Leadership: Research, Practice, and TeachingJourn (2005-2012),al of Business Vol. and L2ea [2006],dership: No.Rese arch,2, Art. Practice 6 , and Teaching

26: 50 1-5 24. Turner, M. 200 I. Groups at work: Theory and research. Mahwah, NJ. Erlbaum. Sternberg, R. , & Dobson, D. 1987. Resolving interpersonal conflicts: An analysis of stylistic Van de V liert, E. , & Kabanoff, B. 1990. Toward theory­ consistency. Journal of Personality & Social based measures of conflict management. Academy of Psychology, 52:794-8 12. Management Journal, 33 : 199-209.

Susskind, L. 2004. Divided, you fall: Managing conflict Van de Vlie1i , E . 1997. Complex interpersonal conflict within the ranks. Negotiation, June: 3-5. behavior. Theoretical frontiers. London, UK: Psychology Press. Tessier, C., Chaudron, L. , & Muller, H. 2002. Conflicting agents conflict management in multi­ Vroom, V. , & Yetton, P. 1973. Leadership and decision agent systems. New York: Kluwer Academic. making. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press. Thamhain, H . 1975. Conflict management in project life cycle. Sloan Management Review, 16: 3 1-49. Wa ll , J. , & Call ister, R . 1995. Conflict and its management. Journal of management, 21: 515-558. Thomas, K. 1976. Conflict and conflict management. fn M. Dunnette & L. Hough, (Eds.), Handbook of Wal l, U., & Nolan, L. 1986. Perceptions of inequity, Industrial & Organizational Psychology, (p.89 1) , satisfa ction, and conflict in task-ori ented groups. C hi cago: Rand M cNall y. Human Relations, 39: I 033-1052.

Tj usvold , D. 1997. Conflict within interdependence: Its Walton, R. , C utcher-Gereshenfeld, J. , & McKersie, R. va lue for productivity and indi viduality. ln C. de Dreu 1994. Strategic negotiations: A theory of change in & E. Van de Y li ert, (Eds. ), Using conflict in labor-managetHent relations. Cambridge, MA: organizations: 23-27. London: Sage. Harvard Bu ·iness School Press.

Tompkins, T. 1995. Rol e of diffu ion in coll ective Wenger, A., & Mockli, D. 2003. Conflict prevention: learning. International Journal of organizational The untapped potential of the business sector. Analysis, 3: 69-85. Boulder, CO: Lynn e Rienner Publishers.

Ashford Chea is an assistant professor of busin ess at Stillman Coll ege, where he teaches courses in management and trategy. He rece ived his Ph.D. in international management from Uni on In stitute & University. Hi s current research interests inclu de organizational change, leadership, and organizational conflict.

http://scholars.fhsu.edu/jbl/vol2/iss2/6 278 18