A Lexical Approach to Presupposition and Meaning

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A Lexical Approach to Presupposition and Meaning A Lexical Approach to Presupposition and Meaning Von der Philosophisch-Historischen Fakult¨at der Universit¨at Stuttgart zur Erlangung der W¨urde eines Doktors der Philosophie (Dr. phil.) genehmigte Abhandlung Vorgelegt von Charles Woei-Jye Yee aus Taipei, Taiwan Hauptberichter: Prof. Dr. h.c. Hans Kamp Mitberichter: Prof. Dr. Klaus von Heusinger Tag der m¨undlichen Pr¨ufung: 20. Dezember 2010 Institut f¨ur Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung der Universit¨at Stuttgart 2011 Acknowledgements It’s been a long journey and I have gone through a great deal of personal transforma- tion throughout- knowledge, the ability to think critically, all that good stuff- plus a few more pounds under my belt, making that transformation literally complete. I find comfort in knowing that I have done this. But I couldn’t have done it without the fol- lowing people from IMS: Agnes Bende-Farkas, Christian Hying, Arndt Riester, Antje Roßdeutscher, Guisy Rota, and Tolgrim Solstad. You guys and gals really helped me out when I needed it. Thank you! I especially want to thank Klaus von Heusinger for his kind words and guidance. Klaus gave me some excellent feedbacks which helped me see certain aspects of the issue that I would have otherwise overlooked on my own. I would also like to thank several people who have given me great insights either through their wonderful work, or through personal discussions on the few occa- sions when we crossed path: David Beaver, Patrick Blackburn, Johan Bos, Kees van Deemter, Josef van Genabith, Bart Geurts, Ruth Kempson, Emiel Krahmer, Massimo Poesio, Uwe Reyle, Craige Roberts, Rob van der Sandt, Renata Vieira, Hank Zeevat- I admire your works, and they have influenced me tremendously. This work was enabled by the financial support of the DFG Graduiertenkolleg 609 “Sparchliche Repr¨asentationen und ihre Interpretation”. I want to thank the German government and the German people- their commitment to inclusion and scientific advancement is a remarkable quality that I will always remember. I am eternally grateful to Hans Kamp. There is no way I would have made it without him. The guy has superhuman patience. I put patience first for a good reason- because when you’ve become very good at a field, patience is what you need the most to put up with clumsy students trying to make their way! Other than that, I think it’s almost trite to mention Hans’ competence and erudition, so I won’t. I will say something which probably has not been said enough about the guy though: Throughout the hundreds of re-writes and corrections, I learnt a great deal about how to articulate arguments and how to convey complex ideas in the clearest and most succinct manner. These skills fundamentally require a trained scientific mind. I owe him the gift of science. It’s an understatement to say that Hans is a fine scientist, but for me, more importantly, he has been a great mentor. It was a privilege. Finally, I just want to thank my mom Amy and my dad Henry, I don’t think about you guys enough these years, but it brings tears to my eyes when I do now. I miss you, and thanks! Contents Deutsche Zusammenfassung 7 1 A Concise History of Presupposition 25 1.1 HowitallStarted ............................... 26 1.2 WhatisaPresupposition? .......................... 33 1.3 When Presuppositions Project and when Projection Fails . 43 1.4 the Pragmatic View of Presuppositions . 57 1.5 Context ..................................... 65 1.6 DRT and the Anaphoric Treatment of Presuppositions . 76 2 Presupposition in DRT, Present and Future 123 2.1 “Suitability”, and Partial Match . 125 2.2 Conditional Presuppositions . 132 2.3 BridgingandPartialMatch ......................... 136 2.4 Cancelation ................................... 142 2.5 Filtering ..................................... 144 2.6 IntermediateAccommodation . 145 2.7 Multiple vs. Single Accommodation . 147 2.8 PresuppositionInteraction .......................... 150 2.9 HowdidwegettheseDRSsinthefirstplace? . 153 2.10 ALexicalPerspective ............................. 154 3 The Lexical Entry for the Definite Determiner 159 3.1 Syntax-Semantics Interface: the “Box ”Framework . 161 + 5 3.2 Definite as Presupposition Trigger . 165 3.3 FindinganAntecedent ............................ 171 3.3.1 The Classification of Partial Match . 173 3.3.2 FullMatch ............................... 181 3.3.3 When the Antecedent is More Informative than the Anaphor . 187 3.3.4 When the Anaphor is More Informative than the Antecedent . 195 3.3.5 Genuine Ambiguity . 207 3.4 Accommodation ................................ 210 3.4.1 WhatisIntermediateAccommodation. 212 3.4.2 Interlude:TheContextualRestrictorC . 215 3.4.3 Some Arguments Against Intermediate Accommodation . 217 3.4.4 theUniquenessPresupposition . 224 3.5 TheBindingAlgorithm ............................ 229 3.6 TheLexicalEntryfor“The” ......................... 237 3.7 ConcludingRemarks.............................. 238 4 Superlatives, Ordinals, and Articulated Contexts 241 4.1 The Dynamics of Discourse and Context Building . 243 4.2 the Meaning of Superlatives and Ordinals . 244 4.3 ArticulatedContexts ............................. 246 4.4 theDefiniteDeterminer............................ 255 4.5 Superlatives................................... 257 4.6 Ordinals and Ordinals Superlatives . 274 4.7 Plural Superlatives and Plural Ordinals . 278 4.8 SummaryandFinalRemarks ........................ 289 5 Conclusion 293 5.1 SummaryandConclusion........................... 294 References 309 Deutsche Zusammenfassung 7 Zusammenfassung Schon ¨uber mehr als ein Jahrhundert lang gibt es die Untersuchungen zur Pr¨asuppositionstheorie. Die Pr¨asuppositionstheorie nahm ihren Anfang mit einer Be- sorgnis Freges bez¨uglich der Bedeutung definiter Kennzeichnungen. Frege war der Meinung dass mit diesen Ausdr¨ucken Korrektheitsbedingungen verbunden sind: eine definite Kennzeichnung ist nur dann korrekt, wenn sie einen eindeutig bestimmten Referenten hat, und dazu muss ihr deskriptiver Inhalt von genau einem Objekt erf¨ullt sein. Ist diese Bedingung erf¨ullt, dann ist das eine diesen Inhalt erf¨ullende Objekt der Referent; ist sie nicht erf¨ullt, dann gibt es keinen Referenten, und die definite Kennze- ichnung ist ‘defekt’. Dieser Defekt vererbt sich auf jeden Satz, der die Kennzeichnung enth¨alt. Auch er ist ‘bedeutungslos’: er hat keinen Wahrheitswert, ist weder wahr noch falsch. Frege sah solche ‘bedeutungslose’ S¨atze als Bedrohung der Logik seiner Begriffsschrift, in der davon ausgegangen wird, dass jeder Satz einen Wahrheitswert hat. Daher sah er auch die M¨oglichkeit refererenzloser definiter Kennzeichnungen als ein potentiell gravierendes Problem. Die Russellsche ‘Theory of Desriptions’ beseitigt Frege’s Problem indem sie eine Methode liefert, mit der definite Kennzeichnungen eliminiert werden k¨onnen. Dabei werden die Korrektheitsbedingungen der Kennzeichnungen in die logischen Formen der S¨atze inkorporiert, die diese Kennzeichnungen als Konstituenten enthalten. Dem- nach ist ein einfacher Satz, in dem eine referenzlose Kennzeichnung vorkommt, falsch, also nicht ohne Wahrheitswert. Bei logisch komplexen S¨atzen, wie etwa Negationen, kann sich die Inkorporierung der Korrektheitsbedingungen auch anders auswirken, etwa in dem sie dadurch zu wahren S¨atzen werden. Etwa ein halbes Jahrhundert sp¨ater griff Strawson die Debatte wieder auf. Er argumentierte, dass die ‘Theory of Descriptions’ unserem Gebrauch von def- initen Kennzeichnungen nicht gerecht wird. Viele Verwendungen von S¨atzen mit referenzlosen Kennzeichnungen nehmen wir als ‘bedeutungslos’ wahr- sie haben weder einen Wahrheitswert noch einen wohl-definierten propositionalen Gehalt. (Da keine Proposition ausgedr¨uckt wird, kann die ¨außerung auch keinen Wahrheitswert bestimmen, denn f¨ur Strawson sind die Propositionen die eigentlichen Tr¨ager 8 Zusammenfassung von Wahrheitswerten.) Strawson machte in diesem Zusammenhang zwei weitere Unterscheidungen- zwischen S¨atzen und ¨außerungen von S¨atzen und zwischen Satzbe- deutung und propositionalem Gehalt. Es sind die ¨außerungen von S¨atzen, denen ein propositionaler Gehalt zugeschrieben werden kann, nicht den S¨atzen an und f¨ur sich. Und wenn ein Satz eine Kennzeichnung enth¨alt, die- im gegebenen ¨außerungskontext keinen Referenten hat, dann wird diese ¨außerung des Satzes keine Proposition bes- timmen, und die Frage ‘wahr oder falsch?’ kann gar nicht erst aufkommen. Aber auch in den F¨allen, wo die ¨außerung eines Satzes s nicht zum Ausdruck einer Proposition f¨uhrt, folgt daraus nicht, dass s keine Bedeutung (oder, in Fregescher Terminologie, keinen ‘Sinn’) hat. Ein Beispiel ist Russell’s ‘The king of France is bald’. Wenn man diesen Satz im 20-ten Jahrhundert ¨außert, dann wird keine Proposition ausgedr¨uckt und kein Wahrheitswert bestimmt. Aber das gilt nicht f¨ur ¨außerungen dieses selben Satzes vor der Mitte des 19-ten Jahrhunderts. Damals hatte die Kennzeichnung ‘the king of France’ immer einen Referenten und wurde demnach durch die ¨außerung eine Proposition bestimmt . Und damit zeigt sich, dass der Satz an sich einen Fregeschen Sinn besitzt; denn ohne den h¨atte man ihn nie zu einer inhaltlichen Aussage verwen- den k¨onnen. Damit hat Strawson die Fregesche Intuition, dass die Verwendung definiter Kennzeichnungen durch Pr¨asuppositionen (der eindeutigen Erf¨ullung ihrer deskrip- tiven Inhalte) bedingt ist, neu belebt. Wenn die Pr¨asupposition einer Kennzeich- nung, die Teil einer Satz¨außerung ist, verletzt ist, dann dr¨uckt diese Satz¨außerung keine Proposition aus und hat sie keinen Wahrheitswert;
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