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Δωμάτιο Με Θέα: Η Ανεπάρκεια Του Εξελικτικού Νατουραλισμού Κατά Τον Thomas Nagel Και Η Αντιμετώπισή Της ΤΜΗΜΑ: ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΙΑΣ, ΠΑΙΔΑΓΩΓΙΚΗΣ & ΨΥΧΟΛΟΓΙΑΣ ΤΟΜΕΑΣ: ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΙΑ ΠΜΣ: «ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΙΑ» ΚΑΤΕΥΘΥΝΣΗ: ΙΣΤΟΡΙΑ ΤΗΣ ΦΙΛΟΣΟΦΙΑΣ ΘΕΜΑ: Δωμάτιο με θέα: Η ανεπάρκεια του εξελικτικού νατουραλισμού κατά τον Thomas Nagel και η αντιμετώπισή της. Διπλωματική Εργασία Κωνσταντίνος Τσαγκάρης (Α.Μ.: 216001) Επιβλέπων Καθηγητής: Στέλιος Βιρβιδάκης Μέλη εξεταστικής επιτροπής: Γεώργιος Αραμπατζής, ΕΚΠΑ/ΦΠΨ/Φ Ευάγγελος Πρωτοπαπαδάκης, ΕΚΠΑ/ΦΠΨ/Φ Αθήνα, Φεβρουάριος 2019 1 ΕΥΧΑΡΙΣΤΙΕΣ Επιθυμώ να εκφράσω ευχαριστίες προς την Καθηγήτρια στο Εβραϊκό Πανεπιστήμιο της Ιερουσαλήμ Orly Shenker για τις ιδιαίτερα ενδιαφέρουσες συζητήσεις που έλαβαν χώρα στο πλαίσιο του Σεμιναρίου “Is the Mental Physical?”, το οποίο προσέφερε κατά το εαρινό εξάμηνο 2017-2018 στο Πρόγραμμα Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών «Ιστορία & Φιλοσοφία των Επιστημών & της Τεχνολογίας» του ΕΚΠΑ/ΙΦΕ. Επίσης, ιδιαίτερες ευχαριστίες προς τον καθηγητή ΕΚΠΑ/ΙΦΕ Στέλιο Βιρβιδάκη, αφενός για την ενθάρρυνσή του να ασχοληθώ με έναν σημαντικό φιλόσοφο της τρέχουσας αναλυτικής φιλοσοφίας, αφετέρου για τις επεμβάσεις, διορθώσεις και επισημάνσεις οι οποίες απέτρεψαν σημαντικά λάθη και αβλεψίες της παρούσας εργασίας. 2 3 ΠΕΡΙΕΧΟΜΕΝΑ Πίνακας Περιεχομένων ……………………………………………………………….….. 4 Πίνακας Συντομογραφιών ……………………………………………………………….. 6 Περίληψη ……………………………………………………………………………......... 8 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………….. 10 Εισαγωγή ……………………………………………………………………………….…12 Κεφάλαιο Α΄: Όροι, Επιχειρήματα και Θεωρίες ...……. …………………………….......16 1.1 Όροι …………………………………………………………………….…16 1.2 Επιχειρήματα και εναλλακτικές θεωρητικές προσεγγίσεις…………….….29 Κεφάλαιο Β΄: To M&C ως Δωμάτιο με θέα……………………………….……….….…...41 1.1 Το χρονικό ενός προαναγγελθέντος επιχειρήματος………….……….….…41 1.1.1 Η 1η περίοδος (1970-1989) ……………………….……….….…...42 1.1.2 Η 2η περίοδος (1990-2010) ……………………….……….….…...44 1.2 Η αβάσταχτη ελαφρότητα του εξελικτικού νατουραλισμού….…….……......51 1.3 Μεταφυσική, Γνωσιολογία, Ηθική………………………….…….…….…54 1.3.1 Συνείδηση………………………………………….…………..…...55 1.3.2 Γνωσιακή ικανότητα……………………………….……….….…..58 1.3.3 Αξίες……………………………………………….……………….63 Κεφάλαιο Γ΄: Μεγάλες Προσδοκίες: Η κριτική πρόσληψη του M&C…………………......69 1.1 Κριτικές απόψεις ………………………………………..………….……...69 1.2 Κριτικά Δοκίμια ………………………………………………...………....88 1.3 Κατάληξη ……………………………………………………………….....99 Κεφάλαιο Δ΄: Ubi sumus?: Αποτίμηση …………………..................................................101 Βιβλιογραφία ......................................................................................................................116 Παράρτημα Α΄ …………………………………………………………................129 Παράρτημα Β΄ …………………………………………….……………................131 Παράρτημα Γ΄ …………………………………………….……………................133 Παράρτημα Δ΄ …………………………………………….………………….…...134 Παράρτημα Ε΄ ………………………………………….…………………..…......136 4 5 ΠΙΝΑΚΑΣ ΣΥΝΤΟΜΟΓΡΑΦΙΩΝ ΑΑΛ = Αρχή του Αποχρώντος Λόγου ΑτΑ = Αρχή της Αιτιότητας εάνν = εάν και μόνον εάν ΘατΠ = T. Nagel, Θέα από το πουθενά Ibid. = στο ίδιο M&C = T. Nagel, Mind and Cosmos Ν. = Thomas Nagel ν-Δ = νεοδαρβινισμός ΝεΝ = T. Nagel, «Πώς είναι το να είσαι νυχτερίδα;» Π = προκείμενη (λ.χ. Π1 = πρώτη προκείμενη, κ.ο.κ.) Σ = συμπέρασμα σ-π-σ = «σκληρό πρόβλημα της συνείδησης» ΦτΝ = Φιλοσοφία του Νου vs = versus Διευκρινήσεις: [1] Για όσα έργα της Βιβλιογραφίας αναφέρονται ελληνικές μεταφράσεις, η εμφανιζόμενη σελιδαρίθμηση των Παραπομπών παραπέμπει στην εκάστοτε ελληνική έκδοση. [2] Τα αποσπάσματα του M&C που αποδίδονται στην ελληνική, είναι σε δική μου απόδοση. 6 7 ΠΕΡΙΛΗΨΗ Στόχος της εργασίας αυτής είναι να εξετάσει το πρόβλημα το οποίο ο Thomas Nagel στο τελευταίο του βιβλίο Mind and Cosmos (2012) (M&C), προσπαθεί να αναδείξει, να περιγράψει τις σοβαρές του επιπτώσεις και να εισηγηθεί ενδεχόμενες λύσεις του. Πρόκειται για το πρόβλημα της ουσιαστικής έλλειψης συνεκτικότητας την οποία εμφανίζει η κοσμοεικόνα που μας προσφέρει ο επιστημονικός νατουραλισμός, όπως συμπληρώνεται από τον ν-Δ. Η όλη εικόνα παραμένει ανολοκλήρωτη στον βαθμό που αδυνατεί να συμπεριλάβει λειτουργικά και με πλήρη εξηγητική επάρκεια φαινόμενα, όπως η συνείδηση, η γνωστική ικανότητα και οι ηθικές αξίες. Ο Nagel διαπιστώνει αρχικά, ότι η τρέχουσα επιστήμη με την σημερινή της μορφή έχει φθάσει στα εξηγητικά της όρια και επίσης την ανάγκη να μεταμορφωθεί η τρέχουσα επιστήμη προκειμένου να μπορέσει να αποδώσει μια ολοκληρωμένη και συνεκτική εικόνα του κόσμου. Ακολούθως, προσπαθεί να συνεισφέρει φιλοσοφικά στο όλο εγχείρημα, προτείνοντας θεωρητικές εξηγητικές διεξόδους, όπως ο ουδέτερος μονισμός / παμψυχισμός και η φυσική τελεολογία. Η προσπάθειά μου εξικνείται στην εξέταση βασικών θέσεων του Nagel όπως εξελίσσονται μέσα στο μεγαλύτερο μέρος του όλου του έργου, στην μελέτη των διαφόρων έντονων κριτικών που ασκήθηκαν στο M&C στο πλαίσιο της πρόσληψής του, στην ανασυγκρότηση των βασικών του θέσεων και επιχειρημάτων και στην επισήμανση προβλημάτων που ανακύπτουν από το όλο εγχείρημα. Εν τέλει εκτιμάται ότι το M&C δεν πρέπει να κριθεί μονοδιάστατα θετικά ή αρνητικά, αλλά να αναδειχθούν και να επισημανθούν ορισμένες χαρακτηριστικές αστοχίες και συγχύσεις που εμφανίζει, χωρίς την ίδια στιγμή να ακυρωθεί η όλη προσπάθεια, η οποία διασώζει θετικά χαρακτηριστικά, όπως την συνεχή ανάγκη στοχαστικής μας ενασχόλησης και αντιμετώπισης δύσκολων, αλλά καθοριστικών φιλοσοφικών προβλημάτων. Λέξεις Κλειδιά: Thomas Nagel, νεοδαρβινισμός, εξελικτικός νατουραλισμός, επιστημονικός νατουραλισμός, παμψυχισμός, πρόβλημα νους/σώμα, φιλοσοφία του νου, τελεολογία, συνείδηση, αναγωγισμός, φυσικαλισμός. 8 9 ABSTRACT This study deals with the effort to highlight the main claim of Thomas Nagel’s book Mind and Cosmos (M&C), that is, the assertion that evolutionary naturalism -though not completely wrong- is profoundly inadequate to formalize a coherent and integrated worldview, due to the fact that it ignores or fails to account for crucial aspects of our world, such as consciousness, cognition, values, etc. I understand his argument as an optimistic attempt to prove that we are not just closed Rooms let’s say, but Rooms with a view already from the very beginning. Nagel’s distrust of physicalism is not something new for him, but something that can be found throughout most of his previous books and articles. So, we can follow the course of his thought that culminates in M&C. In fact, Nagel seeks to provide a plausible way out of the dead end of reductive naturalism. His solutions come in the forms of neutral monism or panpsychism and teleology. However, these are not final. He indicates that we could proceed to a Baconean like program, for a reformed science able to support and express this broadened and enriched worldview. I focus my attention on in the various critical reviews and forms of reception of M&C, which testify the multifaceted character of the book and help us realize its many dimensions. Its interpretation depends to an important extent on which parts or aspects of Nagel’s work attract the attention of different reviewers according to their background and priorities. As a conclusion, I try to bring out not only what I consider to be major negative elements and flaws of M&C, like his opinion about evolutionary biology (new-Darwinism) or the pessimism that he endorses regarding the future capabilities -or better- shortcomings of science but also positive aspects or future challenges to it.- Key Words: Thomas Nagel, neo-Darwinism, evolutionary naturalism, scientific naturalism, panpsychism, mind/body problem, philosophy of mind,, teleology, consciousness, reductionism, physicalism. 10 11 ΕΙΣΑΓΩΓΗ Ξεχωριστή θέση στην τρέχουσα φιλοσοφική έκφραση της αναλυτικής φιλοσοφίας στις Η.Π.Α. κατέχει ο μέχρι το 2016 - έκτοτε ομότιμος - καθηγητής φιλοσοφίας και δικαίου στο Πανεπιστήμιο της Νέας Υόρκης Thomas Nagel, ο οποίος έχει καταθέσει σημαντικό έργο σε τομείς, όπως η ηθική φιλοσοφία, η πολιτική φιλοσοφία και η ΦτΝ. Από το 2006 μέχρι το 2009 πραγματοποιήθηκε στον τομέα Art & Science του Πανεπιστημίου της Νέας Υόρκης ένα πρόγραμμα με θέμα τις σχέσεις μεταξύ επιστήμης και θρησκείας, στο οποίο προέδρευε ο Th. Nagel, ενώ συμμετείχαν και άλλοι καθηγητές. Καρπός του προγράμματος αυτού αποτελεί για τον N. το βιβλίο Mind and Cosmos (Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False) (2012). Το έργο αυτό από την στιγμή της έκδοσής του δίχασε την φιλοσοφική και επιστημονική κοινότητα εξ αιτίας των θέσεων που υποστήριζε ο συγγραφέας. Η ευρύτητα και η σημασία των θεμάτων που θίγει το έργο αυτό, η κριτική την οποία ασκεί και κυρίως οι λύσεις που φαίνεται να προτείνει, αποτέλεσαν τους κύριους λόγους για τους οποίους επελέγη ως βασικό θέμα της παρούσης διπλωματικής εργασίας. Κύριο μέλημα και στόχος του N. είναι να διατυπώσει ένα επιχείρημα το οποίο να αμφισβητεί την επάρκεια της επιστημονικής αναγωγιστικής νατουραλιστικής κοσμοεικόνας, όπως αυτή συνεπικουρείται από τον ν-Δ και κυρίως, όσον αφορά την δυνατότητά του να προσφέρει μια πλήρη, ολοκληρωμένη και επαρκή εξήγηση. Συνεπώς, να ασκήσει κατ’ αρχήν μια αρνητική κριτική σε αυτό που θεωρεί ότι αποτελεί το κυρίαρχο σήμερα εξηγητικό μοντέλο. Στην προσπάθειά του αυτή, βασική του προκείμενη αποτελεί η ανάγκη να υφίσταται επαρκώς διατυπωμένο ένα διπλό εξηγητικό σχήμα, το οποίο απαρτίζεται από μια ιστορική εξήγηση και μια συγκροτητική εξήγηση. Η ύπαρξη μιας μόνον εκ των δύο αυτών τύπων εξήγησης δεν πρέπει να μας ικανοποιεί. Και είναι εδώ ακριβώς που -κατά τον Ν.- η επικρατούσα αναγωγιστική κοσμοεικόνα αποτυγχάνει και μάλιστα σε τρία χαρακτηριστικά προβλήματα της φιλοσοφίας: το πρόβλημα της συνείδησης, την ικανότητα της ανθρώπινης γνώσης και τις ηθικές αξίες. Στη συνέχεια,
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