THE MEDITERRANEAN IN AN AGE OF GLOBALISATION

Fred Halliday

2008/17

Fred Halliday

Fred Halliday is ICREA Research Professor at the Institut Barcelo- na d’Estudis Internacionals (IBEI). ICREA, Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies, is a foundation jointly promoted by the Catalan Government through the Ministry of Innovation, Universities and Enterprise, and the Catalan Foundation for Research and Innovation (FCRI).

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ISSN: 1886-2802 IBEI WORKING PAPERS

2008/17 The Mediterranean in an Age of Globalisation

© Fred Halliday © IBEI, de esta edición

Edita: CIDOB edicions Elisabets, 12 08001 Barcelona Tel. 93 302 64 95 Fax. 93 302 21 18 E-mail: [email protected] URL: www.cidob.org

Depósito legal: B-21.147-2006 ISSN:1886-2802 Imprime: Color Marfil, S.L.

Barcelona, December 2008 IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 - - - -3- foreward by foreward Graduate Conference, European Consortium for Political for Consortium European Conference, Graduate nd Les Relaciones Internacionales en un mundo en transición, 1 . 2 , 25 August 2008 , 25 London: Macmillan, 1994, Spanish edition Plenary Lecture addressed to the participants of the 2 the participants of to addressed Plenary Lecture Universitat Autonòma de Barcelona Rethinking Internacional Relations, Here Here I would recall a particular, poignant, episode some years ago, which I So much for particular issues. I hope I have said enough to illustrate the ways in ways the to illustrate enough said I I have hope issues. particular for So much I would like to start with some obvious, but I think important, observations about about observations important, think I but obvious, some with start to like would I 1. Introduction See my This paper reflects the contents of the of contents the reflects paper This Science, Madrid: Catarata, 2002. Arenal, Celestino del 2. 1. ing months with attendant research and teaching were well under control. The date returned by train to London, in the company of my good friend, now your president, president, your now friend, good my of company the in London, to train by returned Professor Michael Cox. As the train passed in early autumn sunlight over the river Deal and through the suburbs of London, Mick gave me a running commentary on say might they as país, mi up, grown had he where was this as seeing, were we what com the conference, ECPR reassuring and stimulating a after that, felt I and Spain in ECPR Conference was some years ago, when the main ECPR Conference was held in held was Conference ECPR main the when ago, years some was Conference ECPR Britain, in the ancient cathedral and pilgrimage city a of sort Canterbury, of English equivalent of Santiago de Compostela in Spain. Working as I was at 2005, in CUP the with day of light the saw later which East, Middle the of time IR the on book on a I gave a paper on the role of ideologies in the contemporary Middle East. It was, as I next The ones. news some made and friends old many met I and event, lively a ever which, through creative interaction and tension, broad concerns in social science, and in in and science, social in concerns broad tension, and interaction region. creative through particular a which, with interact may debate, intellectual and academic contemporary shared with our chairman of today, Michael Cox. The last time that I spoke at an context of ideas in social science and contemporary thought in general; and the develop the and general; in thought contemporary and science social in ideas of context the none important but theories, or ideas, of that than ‘real’ more no world, the of ment less, of politics, events, crises theory lectures at LSE for years, trying to counter, on the one hand, a preoccupation with with preoccupation a hand, one the on counter, to trying years, for LSE at lectures theory ignored that theoreticism, a theory, on focus a hand, other the on or, alone, events current and broader challenges I contexts, urged students to look at the of development the inyours, as such conference a of preoccupations and contexts the indeed and discipline, terms of the determinant the three circles: discipline itself and its evolution; the broader in a multiple context, one of at least three concentric circles. All science, all IR, indeed all all indeed IR, all science, All circles. concentric three least at of one context, multiple a in ten creative, but resolved, never and necessary a intersection, an involves science social context broader the and discipline the of concerns specific and theories the between sion or time, the of climate intellectual and scientific social the of that it be historic live, and we which in events of that world’, ‘real the term defensively, somewhat we, what of that changes that, in impact one on way what or we another, do. Indeed in my introductory how we as academic analysts, in this case students of politics and international relations, relations, international and politics of students case this in analysts, academic as we how should we all, of First live. we which operate in world we the to relation our significant, and priorities be our to define deem we research the and do, we work the in that recognise 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers who are associated with, and who aspire to participate in, its workings as a democrat as others EU aswell now comprisethe countries that 27 of the pean’ Iunderstandall gether without seeking to impose on theory, methodology, research agenda. By ‘Euro ‘Consortium’ I understand a group of institutions, cultures, programmes working to By Consortium’. ‘European a of today,that here us hosting is that organisation the science. political and gagement may be reflected in the broader concerns of contemporary thinking on IR en an such region, this in prevailing trends the of many by affected is which and Mediterranean, the shoresof the on is that city how,a about in working and living thoughts some out lay to years, few past the over interaction personal a of born but this in And gender. familiar,of is that ground covering it that of much attempt, an is with today lecture regardmy culture, of role the with affairs, world in lutions the world: with the Middle East, with the Cold War, with the phenomenon of revo in regions or events major some with world, outside the with ideas of tension the have, thisissomethingwecando. we that skills moral least, not and, country-specific theoretical,historical, of bination com the with argue, would I and, them, explain responsibility,to retrospect,our in is it but events, predictsuch to task our emphasised, be to has it not, is It do. we that to surprise us. Herein lies, of course, another, never that remote, challenge to the work forget the ability of people, and events, not to mention restless or incompetent states, never should we insights, historical our all for indeed and, models, and predictions, him, with news of the New York events. For all our theories, and quantifications, and believe not did I and fromschool son my was it rang, phone the afternoon, early the however,was, journey train day,this next of the 2001: September 10 in point some at -4- for manycenturiesandwhich weabandonordiluteatourperil,secularism. versality, individual liberties, equality and, something for which our forebears fought uni to commitment our undermine to Mediterranean, this in committed massacres versity, European of justified crimes least a past not and the colonialism, at revulsion of our MiddleEasternneighbours,weshouldnotallow asupportforpluralismanddi that immediately most world, non-western the of cultures, and concerns, the of ourselves informing while and time same the At Atlantic. the of side other the from not obsession, with hegemony, unipolarity, worldorder andthelikewhichemanates when concern, the hand one the on towards, sceptical be should and concerned, so Wenot ago. centuries two of Enlightenment European the underlay that values the democracy,and broadin reformulationcontemporary the terms reaffirmationand of rights human today,Europepeace, of namely concerns central the to IR and science ment and formulation. Among these I would mention the linking of work in political engage origin, in European, specifically are that values intellectual of set a develop, and defend should USAand the have, of we world, those non-western they the of or be cultures, academic and continents other of contributions disciplinary and retical study,with, theo engage the we from while learn respect,that, First, conclusions. of prosperousand peaceful entity.ic, flow,terms two Fromthese view, my in number a Secondly, I am conscious of, and happy to associate myself with, the rubric of rubric the with, myself associate to happy and of, conscious Secondly,am I welcomes that way a in engage, to way this in tried have I work own my In ------IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------5- This lecture is, in some measure, a tribute to the work of Braudel, beginning In this regard, and bearing in mind the location of this conference, and this As Europeans, we should, defend, moreover, and, in my be view, much more with the title, ‘in an Age of Globalisation’, a formulation I intend to convey recog nition of how in earlier times, that of the Phoenician and Roman empires, that of which, in the second half of the sixteenth century as much as in the first the part with of much as the engage and interact Mediterranean the of countries the twenty-first, other. world beyond, to the east, north and west, as they do with each these orders, could emerge. Thirdly, the French Annales historian the and French founder of the Thirdly, could these emerge. orders, school, Fernand Braudel, whose great work, published in two volumes in French in 1949 and in English in 1972, in The the Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World Age of Philip II, provides a commanding overview of this region as a whole, of the forces, long-term, conjunctural and immediate, that shaped it, and of the manner in town of Ales, Sardinia in 1891 Mussolini’s and Ales, died Sardinia a from week after being released town of preoccupied was Gramsci Macchiavelli, like indeed and Khaldun, Ibn like 1937: in jail with central themes in politics and historical sociology: the rise of and states, consolidation with the role of ideology and legitimacy in consolidating states, with relative the roles of coercion and consent in maintaining political systems, and with the conditions under which alternative political and capable social of forces, challenging states, of the intersection of war and politics, of the role and decay of social solidarity, solidarity, social of decay and role the of politics, and war of intersection the of states, Secondly, Africa. North across societies settled and nomadic of intersection the of and the Italian Hegelian and Marxist Antonio Gramsci, author of itself The a reference back Modern to the Prince, work of another great sixteenth century thinker of this region, Niccolò Machiavelli, and several volumes of Prison Notebooks born in the city, in the Mediterranean it is pertinent to recall some of the great thinkers who have have who thinkers great the of some recall to pertinent is it Mediterranean the in city, these from emerged societies and engaged with this in region the past. I Here would mention three. First, the greatest medieval comparative historian and political ciologists, born so in 1332 from a family major of whose Khaldun, Ibn merchants 1406, in and courtiers Tunis in died recently who reconquista, expelled the by Seville from of fall and rise the of study commanding a is ‘Prologues’, or Muqaddimah, the work, difference, and of difference, the need to educate students, and a public, broader even as we as informed an and with, relationship a maintain to also ‘global’, the understand to pire in which we live. regions understanding of, the societies and political responsible while person; maintaining thirdly, a commitment to separating analytic from ethical or normative concerns, to maintain at the centre of what we re and science social between link necessary the of awareness an about write and search ethical issues, and of the responsibility of social science to address major problems an ofand awareness place,issues of of local,our nationaltimes; regional andfinally, robust robust about, certain elements of the European intellectual tradition that are today somewhat sidelined in social, including political, science: of a the recognition impor history, study to need the of and world, contemporary the shaping in history of tance of peoples, states, economies, also of ideas, as part of the formation of any educated lan of plurality a to, commitment and for, respect a secondly, discipline; or individual and educated any of part necessary a as language of study the to indeed, and, guages 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers derived. From this follows much rhetoric about the cultural legacy, of diversity,in legacy,of cultural the about rhetoric much follows this From derived. is entity regional a as ‘Mediterranean’ the of century,concept nineteenth early cent, re relatively the which from idea the Sea’, ‘Our for Latin Nostrum, Mare of that is One particular, in claims two to regard history,in of role the about Mediterranean ourselves, through critical reflection, from theimpositionofhistoricalmyths. research,emancipate academic to in as much as debate, political, public, of spirit the to allow us to separate real, from imagined, or invented, historical causes, and also, in rather but present, the explains narrative, unity history,a that as argue conceived to Berlusconi. Silvio of that in of than of Atatúrk, or Napoleon, of Garibaldi or II, Philip of age the in Mediterranean the of study the promote to uplifting more rather is it say to it suffice times, the for As exemplar. an is work Braudel’s which of insights, analytic the alone let sources, and languages of mand com the or imagination, intellectual the display can today historians or scientists own social few for our light: modest set more somewhat a also in age, may own our not we when research, work Braudel’s recalling By world. wider the to intricately was linked terms political or economic security, in it be Mediterranean, the of War, Worldfate Cold War in the and as well as centuries, twentieth and nineteenth the of empires European the of study,that in Braudel’s of Europe modern early the -6- ofVilanova Pere Professor writers, recent two by advocated strongly observation, the added be may Tothis Americas. the in colonies new the to look who cessors, east, to Persia and Central Asia, and a Spanish empire, that of Philip II and his suc increasingly looks that Empire Ottoman an between Mediterranean, the of division that was rarely there. Braudel’s own work focuses, in its third, political, part on the unity a presume nationalism, of spread recent more the century,or seventh the in Islam of rise the or century thirdAD, the in unity Christian of end the lament who much is history its more one thanrivalry,Mediterranean, of that ofconflict, unity. some supposed fragmentation, the Those in interaction gastronomic, least, not and, of today. First, because as problems much as there the are, and were, forms of resolving cultural, economic, for promise of little as argued, be may it and, past region’s historical bedrock thatmay servetoday’sneeds,wasmuchinevidence. a of paradigm, same the states, Mediterranean and EU all invited Sarkozy President 1995 and 2005, or at the recent Union of the Mediterranean summit in Paris, to which in Barcelona in those as such conferences, international major of times At use. rary contempo to put and history this from derived be may that tolerance, and teraction This is, however, an instrumental, and in many ways, inaccurate picture of the picture inaccurate and in ways, many is, however, This an instrumental, the of rhetoric, cultural and diplomatic the study,in the and in made is Much To stress the role of history, as I have done in the introduction to this lecture, not 2. The Role of History - - - - - IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 - , ------3 -7- Madrid: Oriente y Mediter y Oriente Madrid: Euroediterráneo: Desafíos y Propuestas, Propuestas, y Desafíos Euroediterráneo: A A brisk, and unflinching, application of the historical sociological knife may, This brief, and non-deterministic, account of history an provides entry into the Social and Political Research Meeting, Florence & Montecatini 19 Terme – 23 March 2003, Balta, Paul Institute; organised University by European the the at Studies Advanced Mediterranean for Programme Centre Schuman of the Robert raneo, 2005. Pere Vilanova, ‘What if the Mediterranean would not or does not exist? Exploring heterodox hypothesis’ Paper presented at the Fourth Mediterranean hypothesis’ ‘What Paper if the presented Mediterranean would not or does not exist? Exploring heterodox Vilanova, Pere 3. together with Malta and Cyprus; nationalist upheaval in the same period, from which from period, same the in upheaval nationalist Cyprus; and Malta with together Albania Serbia, and and emerged; Greece conflictinter-ethnic in the twentieth, Italy, shaping the Balkans and Israel. Whatever else, there is little that is ancient, cultural, gener internally it be power, Military outcome. this in ‘God-given’ alone let ‘natural’, without, was the dominant factor. ated or imposed, as with colonialism, from what we see is the emergence, or rather forcible, coercive, bloody creation of blocs and of states over the past contingent, centuries, above all as a result of four forma Spain, produced which century, sixteenth the in formation state dynastic phases: tive twen early and nineteenth the in delineation and occupation colonial Turkey; France, tieth centuries, out of which emerged the map Arab of states from Syria to Morocco, however, tell a different story. First, for all of the talk of ancient peoples, times, and so and times, peoples, ancient of talk the of all for First, story. different a tell however, forth, no state in the Mediterranean than is years,fivemore half hundred a millenni with, association continuous or from, derivation plausible any has none and old, um, the historic or ancient states from which many claim legitimacy or descent. Rather, and, if we include Monaco, the Vatican and Palestine in the total, 27. All of these states these of All 27. total, the in Palestine and Vatican the Monaco, include we if and, claim ancient origins, and seek to derive legitimacy from this, in such a way that the reinforced, is region Mediterranean historic supposedly a of use mystificatory general albeit in an by often the antagonistic claims and way, to self-regarding historic iden of the individual peoples. tity and ancestral roots second issue I want to address, namely formative the what and that about, came states of of map this how of question states the particular, and state formation, and, in historical forces determining the outcome were. There with are now, the independ ence of Montenegro, 24 independent political entities bordering the Mediterranean, and more integratedmoreand intohinterlandthe economies, MiddletheEuropetheyorofbe East, onto which they abutted. Balta, indeed, argues that today we are dealing not with one, but with six Mediterraneans, encompassing the EU democracies on the Africa. and North Arab East, Israel the Turkey, west, the Balkans, nally from Lebanon, Paul Balta, according to which the very Mediterranean concepthas, in political, of security a and economic unitaryterms, but ceased to exist even as, hopefully, it survives in its environmental and gastronomic dimensions. . Once modern communications systems were opened up innineteenth the century, theearly countriespart of of the the Mediterranean conducted more and moreof their trade with the rest of the world by land, not sea, routes and became more the University of Barcelona, and the former Le Monde correspondent, himself origi himself correspondent, Monde Le former the and Barcelona, of University the 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers banking system, on the impact of migration, really a matter of the past decade decade past the of matter a really migration, of impact the on system, the banking media, the industry, on globalisation of impact the in economy, state and the of society in role changing the in interested anyone For interesting today. and Europe in changing countries fast most the of Turkey,one and Germany Russia, ably argu with, is, Spain others, in stable remarkably and ways some in rapid change, of context the social and in political society. internal and In its Spain politics Mediterranean and about European something say to fitting therefore is It themselves. and of what they can, and cannot, do, within the constraints under which they find 3.1 The EnduringAutonomy of States selected five. to-day,of Spain would and I Catalonia the of reality the with IR of professor politan contemporary, when not immediate, themes, ones Of raised by the context. encounter of a and metro experience Mediterranean the by raised are that questions broader produce and use in teaching across Europe, and we elsewhere. Then, literature let me globalisation discuss some the in present while which, themes mention me let First years. four past the over environment this in working and living by attention my to porary trends in the Mediterranean region, and which have been very much brought contem by exemplified are which globalisation, on and IR on debates general the to central be, should view my in or are, which themes some discuss me let aspirations, -8- a matterofmonths. within is consent, divorce,by which in supported, is marriage gay which in women, elected, in 2004 and in 2009, has produced a cabinet in which half of the ministers are prove of the late dictator, General Franco, ap and people, yet whereyoung a any socialist government, including twice people, of third a war,almost civil the of start the of anniversary seventieth the on 2006, in conducted polls opinion to according and hand, one the on where, country a is This effect,the 1970s. late in the in democracy since, to transition lastgeneration, the within role, cultural and financial national inter an gender,to towards attitudes changed prosperity,democracy,to to to come has which country a all, of role.first Toimportant is, and This Spain. of case the take the impact of globalisation, states, in their autonomy and distinct interests, still retain man experienceandaspiration. stuffinterestedhu the anyone of in as well as scientist, social any of attention the command to enough unpredictability, and experimentation of field a laboratory, a are particular, in Catalonia and general, in Spain then generations, between guage, society,on alone, behaviour,of patterns shifting on lan culture,least attitude, not Against this background, and with these, for sure not attainable, intellectual attainable, not sure for these, with and background, this Against The main theme I want to underlie is that for all that we talk of, and recognise,and of, talk we that all for that is underlie to want I theme main The states, of students IR, of or politics of students whether all, of first are, We 3. The Mediterranean Today ------IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------9- At the same time, the very autonomy of states that Spain has sought to put to In a word, against all the pressures for conformity within the EU, and NATO In international affairs, Spain has a record second to one in support of interna My one serious difficulty with my Spanish and Catalan colleagues is that they the Mediterranean and deep into Africa, knows this. The inequality, and the universal universal the and inequality, The this. knows Africa, into deep and Mediterranean the Spain, like country a in And globalisation. of, despite not of, part are it, of perception this sea. Perhaps the most dramatic economic fact, perhaps the most dramatic of in indeed and persistence the is region this characterising economy, political ternational increase in massive income differentials between the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean, rising from 15: 1 a decade or so ago, to The perhaps political today. 18:1 consequences of this 9 are that not more only is the income and welfare gap rising, but everyone on the southern side, and way beyond the states bordering good purpose serves to limit other processes that seek to bind the states and econo mies of these regions closer together and, not least, to lessen the very large income which exist differentials between the and European states non-European that border but on the other, an attempt to promote dialogue, understanding, on the basis of secu of basis the on understanding, dialogue, promote to attempt an other, the on but lar and universal values, with the states and societies of the Middle East, a response ter against ‘war ‘evil-doers’, of rhetoric the from culture, and tone in miles, million a and for many Spain has suffered, ror’ has resorted. lite to which the USA and torture is no Spanish Guantanamo. but there years, the experience of terrorism, ble originality, ble independence, originality, and commitment to democratic values that few other countries can After equal. the March 2004 bombings in Madrid, in which 193 people died, many of them immigrants on their way to work on local was trains, not there a Spain’s con single anti-Arab, or anti-Moroccan anti-Muslim incident in this country. tribution to the European, and global, response to the rise vigilance, of security and Islamist police heightened terrorism a has necessary, is as and hand, one the on been, fellow EU states, in eastern Europe or, more immediately, across the Tyrrenian Sea. the Tyrrenian across immediately, more or, fellow EU states, in eastern Europe the west, against all our emphasis as students of on politics structures and determinant factors, and Spain has, in recent international years, shown an admira affairs tional understanding and the maintenance of peace, in seeking to encompass debate on Constitution, European the for backing terrorism, in of which it has more law, direct experience of than most, rule within a the debate on of demo defence the and values working the on cratic it be policy, social in regressions egregious more the to resistance in and from or parliament European the from emanating immigration, on or gender, on week, debate on issues of Catalan autonomy and national rights, you have in everyday life in a city like Barcelona a level of lived, everyday existing, bilingualism, and mutual in the world. almost unique tolerance, that are are are not proud, and vocal, enough about Barcelo like the city a things in have you they achievements, own have their about Spanish achieved. the of For modesty all the city, other any of envy the be would that bookshops life, musical a centres, cultural na and you have still in Spain, for how long I cannot a say, serious newspaper culture that does not demean its readers with gossip and with drivel, as is the case in Brit ain and elsewhere. For all the repetitiveness and intermittent parochialism of public 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers so much European, as American: thus we have, from west to east, WesternSahara, east, to west from have, we thus American: as European, much so external power has any mediating or effective role, or, where it does, this power is not the at no where uncertainty look and conflict of areas five least we at identify can we region,if Yetwider disputes. in issues resolve, to not if contain, to least at role, a played have EU NATOthe both whereand – Macedonia Kosovo, Bosnia, – goslavia intervention in the Mediterranean. An exception are some of the states of Former Yu sharedof security,talk the all effectiveor cooperation multilateral no or therelittle is of foreign policy and of security, topics that should receive a lecture in themselves. For ancient faultlines,orculturalandreligious difference, dividestheMediterranean. about in regard to this issue of welfare and prosperity that, more than any supposedly training systems, and a massive population explosion, there is little to be complacent and education inadequate unemployment, and under- widespread With face. tors, time frame, inadequate to meeting the challenges these states, and their EU interlocu broader any in slow,and, been has change power,such political their to tied is that lucrative markets, and the reluctance of authoritarian states to yield economic control vestors, including Arab investors, to place their money elsewhere, in more secure and Mediterranée (UPM) summit la in Paris. pour YetUnion recent for a the variety of of reasons, as the process, preferenceBarcelona of 1995 in the of goals been have Such ment, trade, employment and education in the countries of the Mediterranean south. invest for programmes economic of decades recent over talk much entail, been has unemployment there and inequality such which implications security and social along thecoastsandinneighbouringwaters. exposure,areand found from dehydration dying or alreadydead them of many ple, peo desperate of boatloads week after week that means inequality Italy,this in as -10- 4. us a thing or two about all that tell could them, of one least at or question, Irish the on extensively written has Cox, who Michael Professor EPRC, the of chairman current the involved: parties the of reluctance,refusal, spirit, of meanness the bloody-mindedness, the opportunism, the the least not and conflicts, local of intractability the namely recognise, rarely too we and withcloseon40,000killed,there isnone. war between the Turkish state and Kurdish rebels that has the been conducted last, since the 1984, in while ‘process’, word the with adorned usually role, international of sort there some least is at four first Kurdistan.the Cyprusand In Lebanon, Palestine, sity Press, 2000. Michael Cox, Adrian Guelke andFionaStepheneds, This endurance of conflict reflects in part something that from the top down top the from that something part in reflects conflict of endurance This inadequacy,The regardin evident also is states issues of to competitiveness, or inequality,trans-Mediterranean this of face the In long-term evident the of and 4 . Recent events in Georgia, a conflict in which it would A farewell toarms?From ‘long war’ tolongpeaceinNorthernIreland Manchester: Manchester Univer ------IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------11- Here we Here in are a world globalisation, where in the sense of the of reduction rival These inter-state among differences countries of the north are, of course, repli cannot yet assess, the rise, in a number of southern Mediterranean states, of powerful of powerful states, in the Mediterranean rise, a yet of assess, cannot southern number and in some cases armed, Islamist groups: peaceful in Egypt, Turkey, Tunisia and, to ries between states, and of conflict between societies, as well as in the sense of building building of sense the in as well as societies, between conflict of and states, between ries has, yet institutions, had, little In impact. and/or transnational international stronger rather of tourism in terms is this of globalisation, all evidence is indeed there Gaza, and Aviv, Valley Tel Beirut, Bekaa Istanbul, the Diyarbakir, in style: life least, at some for and, less evident. And to these regional conflicts, we must also add, with consequences we should have endured for now 24 years without any significant external involvement, external significant any without years 24 now for endured have should wishes the with less, or more accords, this if even scandalous, and remarkable, itself is of both parties involved. in Kurdistan is there no two-sided is state there conflict.in Indeed,Kurdistan for students of non-state ac tors and conflict, the Kurdish case is interesting in that the external support for the earlier in and Armenia, and Greece, in supporters from inputs token few a with PKK, Europe, western in diaspora Kurdish the from comes Syria, by backing episodic years particularly At Germany. the same time, that a conflict of this magnitude, equal in human, moral and military scale, to the conflict between Israelis and Palestinians, flicts that I listed, as well, if in less muted form for the moment, in the Balkans. Thus in Thus Balkans. the in moment, the for form muted less in if well, as listed, I that flicts at odds, in Palestine, not only is it a case of are Algeria and Morocco Sahara, Western Arab states, notably Syria and Arabs, Egypt, but having Israel of ri and different the Lebanese the with pot, the stirred long have Israel and Syria Lebanon, in projects, val Only rivalry. in remain Turkey and Greece Cyprus, in well; as stirring of plenty doing was somewhat deficient in attention and diplomatic investment, with negative conse negative with investment, diplomatic and attention in deficient somewhat was point. this and the Balkans, only underscores quences in both the South Caucasus cated in the south, and are evident in each of the give ongoing Mediterranean con moment; above all, the bitter, and enduring, disagreements over Iraq. The Spanish, as Spanish, The Iraq. over disagreements enduring, and bitter, the all, above moment; have also had some pertinent Process, things custodians to of say the EU’s Barcelona to proceed Barcelona of, acknowledgement or to, reference without who, those about launch their own ill programmes, thought out in each case, for security and prosper French, the 2004, in initiative East Middle their with Americans the – region the in ity 2007 for OSCE the of chairmanship own Madrid’s That recently. more UPM, the with Basque country, to go with the EU and NATO majority on recognising the independ majority on recognising to go with the EU and NATO Basque country, the of conduct the at Ministry Foreign Spanish the of indignation the Kosovo; of ence British delegation to the 2005 Barcelona review process, when last minute objections Downing from to Street the on compromise agreed Palestine, led the Egyptian presi dent, and then all other Arab heads of state, to cancel their participation at the last At the same time, this failure to build regional institutions, and to resolve conflicts, reflects the continued vitality of inter-state In differences. Spain, forreasons of press interest and one national often policy, gets a different and revealing insight into the and of the of the Italians, loudly, the opposition themselves: states of EU divergences to Spaniards, Germany’s more quietly, 2005 bid to join the UN Security the Council; the and Catalonia in implications, domestic for concern of part in born refusal, Spanish appear that there are no angels, have given us yet textbook, another, case of all this. 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers region andfrom theothersideof Atlantic, theUnitedStates. this to ties historic no with state today,a still Mediterranean the of end eastern and southern the on states many for and recentdecades of much for and, Britain, of state island remote rather the all, of interloper improbably most the by period, Soviet the since and during before, WorldRussia, to Warby prior I, empire Austro-Hungarian the by Turkeyexcepted: and France Mediterranean, the of waters the border not do much of the responsibility for security has rested, or been appropriated, by states who indeed, one of the ironies of the history of this region in the past century, or more, that is, It fail. to likely is and blocked, remainsTurkish process, the accession of that EU, the into state another incorporate to attempt ambitious most there.The be to was ria even refusing to visit Paris for the UPM Summit in July because the President of Alge can agree on nothing and remain divided by bilateral conflicts – the King of Morocco no better; the Arab states of North Africa, formally united in the Arab Maghrib Union, achieved little or nothing, and the ill-prepared Sarkozy UPM initiative is likely to fare the Barcelona Process, supposed to bring the EU and the southern states together, has low: so is region the in institution-building recordof the wonder,that Small indeed, whole. a as region the of those before interests, state, national, their to look ception, ex without states, these interests, shared or destiny common a of invocation the all and, secondly, fortheregion asawhole. people of Algeria, who experienced a previous terrible war against French colonial rule, mated150,000 people died, must give us pause and concern, first for the long-suffering armed outrages in recent weeks, and in a country in whose civil war of the 1990s an esti minutesmore flying time from Barcelona than Madrid, has been the scene of repeated Lebanon, Palestine, Libya, and, most of all, Algeria. That Algiers, a capital city onlylarge fivedegree,a Morocco, in undeclaredwitharmedand intentions capabilities,and in -12- partial, the with none, ago, century a of cities cosmopolitan so or dozen the Of kans. by the World and Cold Wars, and, more recently, by conflicts in Lebanon and the Bal irrevocably so, by the history of the past century or so, by nationalist homogenisation, little hatred and fear. Secondly, all of this, or nearly all of this, has been a diversity,destroyed, not trade, and languages, of rush the beneath and, groups different between therehierarchyrestedmales, clear authority elder a power ties, established was of in individualist, society aspires: people were allocated to ethnic and religious communi model of cosmopolitanism was very different from that to which modern, liberal and in, centuries, say,Tangiers,or Venice,Beirut, Alexandria, this twentieth Algiers, Livorno, Istanbul, Salonika, early and nineteenth the of musics and literatures guages, lan religious, peoples, of mixture the all for First, reservation. of grains some with taken be to need evocations such But enclosure. and homogeneity ethnic religious, national, of myths counter to least not purposes, of number a Toevoke serve may pasts these shores. these around flourished that cosmopolitanism a of cities, Mediter ranean century twentieth early and nineteenth of life cultural and literary the of talking in also and empires, major the of ofthe life urban the inevocations discussing in past, is made, classical Much field. cultural the in one, important an ollary, This fragmentation of the region, and the primacy of state interests, has its cor interests,its state has of primacy region,the the and of fragmentation This for First, self-evident. are analysis contemporary for this of implications The ------IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------13- . And, as is evident is as And, . 5 Polity Press: Cambridge, 1999. Polity Press: Global Transformations Global Transformations The Mediterranean has experienced not all, for sure, but in significantrespects My second theme is globalisation itself. First three obvious, but necessary, histori necessary, but obvious, three First itself. globalisation is theme second My David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, Jonathan Perraton, Anthony McGrew, David Held, 5. tics’ – for me not to need to repeat the theoretical arguments here arguments theoretical the repeat to need to not me for – tics’ in any encounter or of theoretical theory, pluralism, with an empirical case, the raw some of the phenomena which today characterise globalisation. You are all prob ably familiar enough with the general arguments on globalisation, with the division schools into – different for example, the taxonomy of David Held and his co-authors ‘globalscep and hyperglobalists’, ‘transformationalists’,’ into field the divides which world to ransom, selling a at product ten times or above more its average and cost per bar foresight political of failure a but failure, structural, or inevitable, an not is This rel. results The governance. global call to come recently, more have, we what of is it as will, forecourt. station petrol every on seen be to are states and by private companies, in recent decades. This is most obviously the case with with case the obviously most is This decades. recent in companies, private by and states the of rises price oil the from on decades four nearly market: energy world the to regard and price global to eye an with person sensible any to obvious was it when 1970s, early political stability that inter-governmental regulation was needed, we remain, as recent events have shown so well, of prisoners risk political speculation, price fluctuations, the holding companies, distribution and states, of group a of irrationality sheer the and of trade, the speed and minimal cost of transferring financial and other information, the the information, other and financial transferring of cost minimal and speed the trade, of of role the media, or the impact of migration, we not are dealing with phenomena that are completely novel, or without historical precedent, or comparative import. The sec of opening its with globalisation, of impact the of awe be may we as much that, is ond by co-ordination, global of failures massive register must we societies, markets, minds, 3.2 Globalisation, Visible and Invisible Visible Globalisation, 3.2 not when clarity, least at or scepticism, for need the First, perspective. of restorations cal fastidiousness, of criteria, with to regard the originality or specificity of the contempo rary epoch: whatever is ‘new’ in contemporary globalisation, be it the rise in volumes has any impact more widely, this does not serve as a good omen. this does not serve as a good omen. widely, has any impact more ies of the Mediterranean interior, such as Sarajevo, Jerusalem and Cairo are losing, in the cities Of new cosmopolitan character. their pluralistic have not lost, when they Marseille years, recent of migration and globalisation the by produced Mediterranean and Barcelona, we may have some, moderate, expectations, but it is too early to say how stable, creative, or open the cosmopolitanism of such new cities, the Mediter ranean equivalents of London, Berlin, Angeles Paris, will Los be. If the Italian model and increasingly beleagured, exceptions of Istanbul and Beirut remain, and even cit 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers by the end of this century, when not before: such longue durée processes were veryprocesses weredurée longue such before:century, notthis when of end the by water,short of shortages major with faced and/or water sea under either be will coast, some informed predictions have it, most of Barcelona and of the Spain’s Mediterranean environment,the of whether,issue argument.the single is a One in combined mally as term, ones that must equally claim attention. Let me here mention four, themes not nor ry relate mainly to the present, to the immediate. There are, however, other, more long- government bailoutpolicies. ing, there would not be the interest there is in the centrally fixed rate of interest, or in noth for counted it underestimated:if be not should crisis this manage and mitigate to agencies, multilateral other and Bank, Development European the via lectively, col and members, EU other and Spain of case the in as individually states, of ability Yet,changes. the événementiel, or events-based, the immediate, the be would tions, distinc Braudel’s of terms in arewhat, These exports. Chinese in rise the affectedby more even be to continue will and greatly been industry,has textile Catalonia the in Industry,people. particular 620,000 in over year,drop this a 8% over a down is whole as Spain in TourismEurope. in worst the 25%, down activity with crisis, serious a undergoing is industry construction Spanish The it. to challenges major pose that support thehyperglobalists. world economy, the full import of which we are far from having fully in view, would the in trendscurrent and to economies Mediterranean and European of vulnerability might, the funds, wealth sovereign by least not acquisition, asset and investment transnational in trends can Recent approaches. region theoretical three this all for framework: support theoreticalprovide major other or one of favour in debate the facts, the empirical reality, of the Mediterranean today does not automatically resolve -14- 7. 6. Poppe best may,the it in day one though this, on wrong proved be to yet have I dimension war, gender a not without is which relations, internet, the not migration, transnational not trade, or not interstate of area no is there that years, 25 for as done I have to propose, continue and I it but as central regard contested, remains and been has relations international and of politics study in the of gender place The identity. gender choices, life life, publicly family of often world if shaped, private, internationally not more when the in and opportunity of equality life, political in participation employment, of realm, public the in it be it, affecting are balisation or heroes of history, he is said to have answered ‘estuaries’ and ‘forests’. Braudel’s historical vision much part, the first of the three major parts, and for more than three hundred pages, of The MediterraneanandtheWorld intheAgeofPhilipII See Rethinking InternacionalRelations The second is the issue of gender, and of how changes associated with glo with associated changes how of gender,and of issue the is second The For all their theoretical abstraction, however, the paradigms of globalisation theo economy world the in affectedchanges being the is by Spain time, same the At Chapter 7‘HiddenFrom InternacionalRelations:Women andtheInternacional Arena’. 6 : indeed when once asked who, in his theory, were the agents vol. 1,pp.25-352PartOne,‘TheRoleoftheEnvironment’. 7 ------. IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------15- Thirdly, let Thirdly, us not forget, as social scientists, that the primary form of human Two particular, and very divergent, areas where the presence of gender is under is gender of presence the where areas divergent, very and particular, Two multi-ethnic community, multi-ethnic it community, is constantly evident how language intersects with, and helps educa wealth, to language, relations structure, of access power, to technology, least at well, as relations interpersonal and leisure of gamut wide a indeed, and, tion, until quite late into the At night. the same time, as is evident not so much in written more importantly, deaf and blind to of the language role in the contemporary world. importantly, more I do not claim to have fully understood, to have gotten my head around, this ques tion, but in everyday life in where a this working city, day involves encounter with, and at least passive understanding of, three languages – Catalan, Spanish and Eng lish – and where dozens of languages are spoken in the cafes, bars, schools of a new interaction, one that also serves to structure power, identity, and life in general, is not is general, in life and identity, power, structure to serves also that one interaction, not law, economics, not politics, not but sociology, language. This is a theme which we are all daily aware of, but which Anglo-Saxon literature on globalisation and on international relations almost always ignores, monolingual as it is in approach and, are larger than the foreign aid budget of western countries. In particular, and my than an aid the larger budget foreign are of western countries. In particular, to only money send migrants women correlation, 100% a shows far so survey ecdotal women. The men are not to be trusted. So it is mothers, grandmothers, sisters, aunts in a who process receive the the consequences money, of which we can guess at, but studied. which have not, as yet, been properly case of Spain from North Africa and Latin America, back to their countries. But Africa if and we Latin North case of Spain from look more and closely, we only have anecdotal information to go on, we can ask to which institution this money is sent. The answer is not to banks, not to the state, not to women. In and, within the to family, the but, church, almost always, to the family, that transfers financial of feminisation hidden, dramatic, a been has there words order be replaced by endless images of bearded, shouting, men with guns, on one side, and side, one on guns, with men shouting, bearded, of images endless by replaced be clean-cut, One and of knuckle-brained, the security most on culture the other. a new, dramatic, and least studied, aspects world of is the this post-9/11 re-masculinisation usu but major, a plays gender where area other The west. and east in space, public of here talking are We remittances. migrant of transmission the in is role unnoticed, ally of billions of dollars being and by sent rising migrants, every every in year, year, the studied: one in etc., the and matter the of counter-terrorism way terrorism, in which, with the rise of new forms of armed violence and organisation, and security policies the in post-9/11 the west, above all in to the USA, view, public women, and life and public of what out pushed are been generally have values, women’s as of thought of bishops, COPE, on such questions as gay rights, secular education and the ordi the and education secular rights, gay as questions such on COPE, bishops, of nation of women priests, this only matched by the reassertion of religiously sanc disguised as tioned tradition, patriarchy, in many Muslim countries, and, indeed, in Israel as well. which gender is present in contemporary Mediterranean globalisation and poli tics: massive changes in patterns of female employment over the dramatic falls pastin some countries, including Spain, generation,in birth rates; the central, when not alarmist, presence of issues of the headscarf or veil in debates on immigrationand secularism in European and other societies,and spiteful campaign includingconducted by the Turkey; and Vatican, theby the ferociousSpanish conference rian fashion, occur. In brief here, I would only indicate aself-evident, few, areas in 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers in the mainstream literature, journals, conferences on globalisation and IPE, where all Moses Naïm and Michael Woodiwiss, does look at this, but of it that is a as topic such little literature, registered academic little a and groups, Italian related and mafia the Glenny,on Misha books of and work recent the as such journalism, Some unseen. is that more, possibly and half, least at part, other the ignore we but moon, the of side look, as we only can with some accuracy, at what we can see, and measure, the bright we like, the and trade world regulations, globalisation, of studies conventional our globalisation, money, of flow the of if and as, is It countries. between illicit, and licit goods, of people, side undocumented and criminal unseen, submerged, the whole of the area is This term’. ‘medium variant English rough a in conjuncturel, termed challenging, most perhaps that I want and to draw attention to here and which falls into the time frame that Braudel fourth the that, topic another for so equally is this deficient. most is globalisation on literature English-language mainstream the where one the here, mention I themes the all of perhaps is, but analysis awaits globalisation’ of tics broad subject, what I provisionally and somewhat This grandiosely term on. ‘the sociolinguis so and ‘cafeteria’, English as same the ‘cafetería’ Spanish is nor courtyard, inner enclosed an of that original, Spanish its to correspond not does ‘patio’ English the around: way other the applies same The maikhilyásson. el as Spanish colloquial know,I as far so in nor known all, dance at the English does in exist not do bullying, and jogging, cycling, for , bulling footing, bicing, like some, and English, in meant words, but most of these do not mean in Spanish usage of today what they originally English apparently with replete now is example, for Spanish, used. being languages international relations, all affect the vocabulary and promote shifts of meaning in the in events suggest, I may even, change, legal culture, drugs music, pop fashion, net, but in spoken usage, globalisation, and processes associated with it, be they the inter -16- 8. Russia including countries, of largenumber the account into take us Let trail. tistical sta no leaves narcotics, world, the in traded commodity largest second the that fact the account into take us low. Let too far is 15-20% at figure the puts which services, and goods of movements for terms broad in finance, figure and trade world UN-derived of percentage the conventional the that is place, takes things proper no these where of world, control the in half over well countries, other of dozens the of ses sense, based on newspaper reporting, on court cases, on anecdotal material, on analy tion andsoon. regulation,of transnationalisa world in licitly proceedingand be smoothly to seems International Woodiwiss,Michael Naïm, Moses 2006; Press, Pluto London: Glenny, Misha I cannot, by the very nature of the issue at hand, give precise figures, but my but figures, precise give hand, at issue the of nature very the by cannot, I continent, unexplored largely a remain globalisation of sociolinguistics the If Global CorruptionReport, McMafia. Crime without Frontiers without Crime McMafia. Gangster Capitalism. The United States and the Rise of Global Organized Crime Organized Global of Rise the and States United The Capitalism. Gangster 8 Cambridge UniversityPress: annual. Illicit. How Smugglers, Traffickers and Copycats are Hijacking the Global Economy, Global the Hijacking are Copycats Traffickers and Smugglers, How Illicit. London: The Bodley Head, 2008; Peadar Kirby Peadar 2008; Head, Bodley The London: London: Constable and Robinson, 2005; Transparency2005; Robinson, and Constable London: Vulnerability and Violence and Vulnerability New York: Doubleday,2005; York:New . The Impact of Globalisation of Impact The - - - - - , IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 - - - -17- In this vein, we must also recognise the existence, despite EU and OECD Lest we blame let all us of not this the forget on peoples and far cultures away, world of trade, and of finance, is moving steadily in favouris of thea latter.challenge And this for academic analysis, and for ourand regulation.understanding of trade, finance significant part of what globalisation brings in its train, acquired greatly enhanced enhanced greatly acquired train, its in brings globalisation what of part significant capabilities and, one suspects, aspirations. With all the new money in the world, every with drugs, for forget, not us let side demand the on pull, insatiable an with day new forms of technological transfer and management, with the established inability mechanisms of to resist, or even monitor, such processes, my sense is that the ratio of visible to invisible, of legal to illegal, of licit to illicit, activity in the Scandanavians, and which most certainly includes my country and of origin, equally Ireland, encompasses Spain, complic evasion, of forms low-key particularly relatively perhaps long-established, old, which in its regional and local ity forms, and in corruption, have now, with the moneyadvent management, of with thenew infusionforms of largeof amounts technologyof cash, with,and in effect, a failed to notice the large, and it seems rising, incidence of corruption,of annual falsificationreports, accounting fraud, bribery and the like which areassociated with corporate life in the USA and Europe, be itVolkswagen, Enron, the the Spanishsubprime credit coastal industry, construction Of industrythe legal and immunity its municipalof the allies.current butprime there is aminister broader pattern,of seen inItaly perhaps everyI countrywish in Europe toexcept thesay little, Andorra. To this we can add the Andorra. of role To other tax havens which, while outside the developed world, act in conjunction with, and– withthe theCayman protectionIslands, of,Aruba our and states others East.in theNor Caribbean,does our, Dubai Europeanin theand MiddleOECD, the slightest acquaintance responsibilitywith the financial reporting of theend past years canhere. have No-one with pressure over recent years, of several major zones of financial and fiscal irresponsi fiscal and financial of zones major several of years, recent over pressure bility, so-called ‘tax havens, in Spanish more honestly paraisos fiscales,Western in Europe itself: Monaco, Lichtenstein, the Channel Islands,now and,are, adjacentand to where where the only official language is Catalan, the Pyrenean state of contribution of old Europe to all of this. First and foremost, when we talk about illegal illegal about talk we when foremost, and First this. of all to Europe old of contribution trade, be it in drugs, in capital, in women we must not look only at the supply side, but also at demand: it is sustain our and societies pay who, for directly or indirectly, for it. must bear responsibility this trade and who America, America, where there are no statistics, no independent monitoring, no political con trols on such matters. Where, above all, the hitherto existing state, authoritarian and inefficient as it was, did provide and basic social security, and economic goods: ask and others. Afghans, the Somalis, Iraqis, and much of the former Soviet Union, large parts of Africa, the Middle East and Latin and East Middle the Africa, of parts large Union, Soviet former the of much and 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers and, more specifically, the claim that in some way the Muslim world is historically an Civilisations’ of ‘Clash supposed the Turkishof that namely on Union, European the into least entry not debate, public contemporary much bedevils, and besets, that ing events,butshyingawayfrom sustainedengagementwiththistheme. shap in nationalism, or freedomrevolution, as such ideas, world-historical of role the occasions coy,moresome been on recognisinghave we relations, international the emphasis has Mann four-part structure Michael of state power – ideological, economic, sociologist military and political historical the proc of the work of recent part The essential an ess. is values of set a of, imposition forced or in, belief ideology,us, the reminded all above Gramsci and Machiavelli as and workplaces, and religiouscommunities,families, political as such units smaller of those in as systems, social domestic of stability and functioning the of studies In name. their in rival ones. People, many people, are prepared to fight, die and, let us not forget, kill promote movements opposition them, promote States this. on spent is money of lot a and them, instilling in education, and socialisation throughand insist, People events. peoples states, shaping in role a play indeed do ideas it, theorise we however that, the world, from contemporary the with seem, and history would modern with it acquaintance side, briefest one on theory Setting come. to more doubt no and constructivism, now debates’, ‘great self-styled of end no that, and this cultural the in role a play individuals, turn, influential ideational the history. and debate, events We shaping by agent-structure the have held or religion, or nationalism as such held collectively they be ideas, far how of issue the on handle a get to it found have politics and international relations. It is remarkable how difficult our social sciences 3.3 Ideologies -18- 9. European other was it Russia, and Germany between sandwiched Europe Eastern in countries most for indeed and Spain, and Germany,Italy France, and Britain for cerned, Turkey was, at best, a secondary factor con in the history are of most Europeanconflicts states: and antagonisms historical as far As WorldWarI. in Austria and each other, ending with the fateful decision of the Young Turks to side with Germany various times with, and against, European powers, as the European powers did with at allied Ottomans the that pattern, fixed no was there that is evident becomes what history, European then in Empire, Ottoman the specifically states, Muslim of record actual the at look we however, If, analysis. political and social to psychology child developmental from transposition false a is image very The ‘Others’. need, or have, states, or nations, ways, of imprecise and metaphorical most the whether,but any in questioning for first, permitted, be may One Europeanthe ‘Other’. constitutes sense, psychoanalytic collective substantive supposedly some in and, Europe, to tagonistic Michael Mann, Finally, I want to say something about ideas, and values, and their role in in role their and values, and ideas, about something say to want I Finally, A disabused study of history may, however, assist in clarifying the other issue other the may,clarifying history in however,of assist study A disabused The Sources ofSocialPower , vol.1Cambridge.CambridgeUniversityPress, 1986. 9 . In - - - - IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 ------19- Yet Yet in one respect, and not least because of the failure of these other radical ex If we look at the Mediterranean in modern times, we can see it has been the are the been has it see can we times, modern in Mediterranean the at look we If Nostrum, Nostrum, not the and, of invocation in semi-mythologised the world, contemporary the past. models from irrelevant largely our advocating, and remaining loyal to, our core values, of democracy, individualism, individualism, of democracy, values, to, our core loyal and remaining our advocating, first secularism the and for the perhaps rule of On law. constitution, the this on basis and lies countries the possibility of Mediterranean improved relations different between It is democracy, sea. this around Mare societies and of states this of a community make truly in history, time will which century twenty-first the in rights human and prosperity that it is in Europe’s values, and in the implementation of those values in public life, in in life, public in values those of implementation the in and values, Europe’s in is it that to contribution greatest our that affairs, international in and national, and local Europe politics, Western as Just lies. peoples between understanding greater to and peace world with and War, Cold of decades four after Europe, Eastern in communism over prevailed an impact far than greater that of Ronald Reagan and his missiles, so our best contribu in lies states neighbouring between, conflicts and with, tensions of lessening the to tion tion, and of the project more generally, is a crisis of authority and ideas, of ‘hegemony’, ‘hegemony’, of ideas, and authority of crisis a is generally, more project the of and tion, integration, economic of not understood, have well would Gramsci and Machiavelli one in this, do to least,at moment the for not, is which need we security, inter-state of or well, why proceeding is which reason important more much a is there However, question. in conjunction with other democratic states, to the east and to the west, if we can, namely ever. First, we need to set our own house in order, as Europeans, and recoup the ground ground than the is of important more values, models, recoup the of of issue ideas, ideological and periments, Europeans, as order, in house own our set to need we First, ever. we have lost in the face of Berlusconi and his like. The crisis of the European Constitu with independent socialism in the Yugoslavia of Tito, the Albania of Enver Hoxha, the Hoxha, Enver of Albania the Tito, of Yugoslavia the in socialism independent with to through Algeria, FLN’s the and Libya Qaddafi’s Nasser’sEgypt, of socialisms Arab not and, Israel in Zionism of Turkey, in Kemalism of aspirations national-military the to be forgotten, the Maltese socialism of Dom Mintoff. Now we seem to have drawn away such from visions, and must content ourselves with the modest, more perhaps and Sarkozy’s UPM. Process aspirations of the Barcelona anodyne, more na for an amazing range of ideological experiments, of left and right, colonial, fascist, colonial, right, and left of experiments, ideological of range amazing an for na Medi The other. the on revolutionary and reformist nationalist, side, one on religious terranean has been a veritable lake of utopias: from the Africana Italia of Em Victor manuel and Mussolini, Pax Britanica, Spain’s war in Algérie the Française, Rif, more Americana, all Pax recently the aspirations of imperial powers, via the experiments ism, fascism. Above all our concept of a democracy, word that does not exist in the Bible, has ancient, roots secular, but has been given meaning by the social conflicts, civil wars, of the past two centuries. and, not least, revolutions was for many European states the colonial world. As for Europe having ‘Christian and this roots’, linked to a claim monolithic, that timeless, are moral such and ‘roots’ cultural foundations, we need only recall, first, that Europe has quite secular, other, coun the animate that values political the that and well as sources moral and political tries of the EU as today, they do the states and protest movements of the southern shore of the Mediterranean, are products of modern politics, of nationalism, social states that were most important. The cultural ‘Other’, whether menacing or exotic, 2008/17 • IBEI Working Papers over time, in the Mediterranean often change their names, religions, state location as location religions,state names, their change often Mediterranean the in time, over nature their change entities, human all like that, clubs, football and airports of sites it need not: for cities are spaces, architectural and economic ensembles, more recently the Americas, isstrikingindeed. port in 1591, and Tel Aviv by Jewish settlers in 1909 sixteenth century, who transformed what had earlier been a fishing village into a free the in Medici the by Livorno 1565, 995 Vallettain in AD, Malta abs of Knights the by Ar the by Almeria, AD. 410 in Empire Roman the of fall the since established been areasurban sea, inland this say,of, four,only people, 250,000 over repeatI four, have which occurred to me recently, which is that of and all the several correct,dozen cities that borderis believe I that, observation simple a you with share me let terranean, myself falling into primordialism or atavism, or misty-eyed verbiage about the Medi lar religions, nations or states, to which we conventionally refer. Indeed, at the risk of Mediterranean these predate all the other forms of collective existence and in the particu in cities: continuity,namely and antiquity historical such claim indeed can that creation political, and human one institution, one is there But ‘Islam’. or climate, ish deemed to explain contemporary behaviour, be this the ‘the Span English character’, then are that religions, or fault-lines continui nations, as such entities, to asserting histories long or ties of terms in past, the of terms in present the explaining of tions tempta the against elsewhere and lecture this in argued have I cities. namely lives, ‘civilisations’ the primary source of reference for most of us in our working and social which and relates to the entities which are,Barcelona, more than nations, states, religions, classes, so-called is that city wonderful the in working and living by case my -20- 10. liness, lack of public responsibility and aesthetic sense of northern cities, can fail to be developers’ sooftenholdsway. ‘the termed euphemistically are England in what and rulers, modernising philistine and megalomaniac where east, and north the of cities many some in as worse, for or cated and organised, to choose how to use this inheritance, for better, as in Barcelona, edu aresufficiently free,we if individuals as inheritance genetic our food, and wine languages, Like at. arrived democratically and rationally consciously, choices, our but future, our and present, their determine that Barcelona of quarters, ‘Chinese’ or son, namely that it is not the urban past, not the Roman walls, or the so-called ‘Gothic’ les democratic potentially and creative modern, important, an lies this in well. And

case. I ammost gratefultotheItaliancolleagueswho, attheECPRConference itself,drew attentionto Livorno,acityIhadpreviously missed,asthefourth And here, let me conclude, with mention of a topic particularly underlined in underlined particularly topic a of mention with conclude, me let here, And 4. The Centrality of Cities No one who visits or lives here, least of all anyone used to the depradations, ug This should be enough to reduce us all to being weak-kneed primordialists, yet 10 . The contrast with, say, Africa, or ------IBEI Working Papers • 2008/17 - - - - -21- This, urban life in its full and sense, creative is not a merely matter of adminis ramifications for politics and internationalrelations, as much as for tourism, leisure, concern to us all. is something which can, and should, be of architecture, civil society, civil of society, subsidiarity and the rest, this, perhaps the fundamental cornerstone of a global, human, world order is too easily forgotten. Here Europe, and European have a history, a special responsibility responsibility, of aesthetic, public health, cul so than the more in setting an example, and nowhere tural and democratic character, admirable city in which we are now gathered. This too is something I have and learnt, greatly appreciated, from living and working here and something which, in its for living a balanced, healthy, life, but also a cornerstone of democracy itself: without itself: democracy of cornerstone a also but life, healthy, balanced, a living for functioning urban institutions, without a lively and properly independent civil so without ciety, the cultural life associated with it, with responsible and authoritative control, urban life becomes a jungle, oppressive, dysfunctional, polluted, stressed, inhuman. Indeed in all the literature on global governance, on the role of states, of trative, of architecture, or what, in the demeaning English language phrase is termed is phrase language English demeaning the in what, or architecture, of trative, ‘local’ government. It is not only of existential and economic importance to the more than 50% of the world’s people who now live in cities, and an essential precondition of many cities in the UK and the USA, let alone with the images monstrous of urban upon thrust being are that people, sentient living without almost markets, modernity, down clamped and bulldozed the Lumpur, Kuala Dubai, Shanghai, from images in us Beijing of the Olympics, cities increasingly without lungs, without decent cities idea, critical public or eccentricity aesthetic market, single a without without bookshops, without soul. in a word without civil society, chiringuitos and fresh showers, as well as by the public squares, avenues, buildings no one who walks around and other towns. Equally, Tarragona Girona, of Barcelona, modernised, and traditional once at markets, wonderful the notice to fail can city this that dot the urban landscape, ‘the lungs areas of urban inner and a space public city’ impoverished the with as this Contrast them. one termed Barcelona paper recently this, or indeed in any of the smaller towns, and seaside resorts up and down the Costa the down and up resorts seaside and towns, smaller the of any in indeed or this, Brava, to the north, and the Costa Dourada, to the south. For all the impact of illegal building sites and municipal scandals to which Spain, abetted by swarm of financial speculators from outside, Russian and British, has been subjected, one cannot help sea their with maintained, are areas urban these which with care the by struck being their restaurants, and cafes night late and air open their maritimos, paseos walks, side struck by the beauty, the order, the care, the the struck by order, civic the responsibility evident beauty, in a city like