School of Human & Environmental Sciences Experimental Developing experimental approaches in archaeology at Reading What is ? All archaeologists study the fragmentary records of past human activities, which have been formed and modified over long timescales. Yet the traces we find often relate to activities and skills with which we are not familiar. These traces therefore need to be inter- preted in terms of past ways of life and presented to the wider public in an accessible, questioning and engaging way. Experimental archaeology has an important contribu- tion to make to the achievement of both of these goals. For example it may help us to understand how a build- ing represented only by postholes was constructed, while experimental replication helps us to understand how things were made and used in the past. In partic- ular the microscopic wear traces produced by known experimental activities can be compared with those found on ancient tools. Experiment also helps us to understand how the archaeological record is formed: how artefacts are transported by rivers, the changes that take place when a soil is buried or an earthwork weathers, and the inclusion of micro-traces in the sediments of archaeological sites as a result of specific activities. Like all rigorous scientific methodologies, archaeo- logical experiments seek to control variables in order to make precise measurements concerning those elements of particular interest or importance. For instance, excavations may be conducted at defined intervals to measure how an earthwork changes over time. The key is that good experiments are those which are carried out to test particular theories or hypotheses about the past. They are one of the ways in which archaeologists are developing more explicitly scientific methodologies, appropriate to understanding the particular characteristics of the archaeological record. In archaeology, experiments and hypothesis testing seldom provide proof that one particular theory is correct but they may very well enable that theory to be accepted or refined pending further critical enquiry. Good science is always questioning, always looking for a better answer. Experimental sites can be an important arena in which archaeologists can think critically about the formation processes of their record and put theories to the test in a way that also contrib- utes to education and outreach. Experimental archaeology at Reading Recent years have seen an increasing focus upon experimental archaeology at the University of Reading’s Department of Archaeology. Research by Professor Martin Bell, Dr Wendy Matthews, Professor Steven Mithen, and Dr Rob Hosfield, amongst others, has utilized experimental approaches, with projects exploring topics ranging from handaxe butchery to the modification of buried soils. This research has Butser Ancient Farm was set up by the late Dr Peter Reynolds involved a mixture of academic staff, doctoral research in 1972, near in . Since then it has students and undergraduate students, with experimen- focused mainly on issues of archaeology and has tal archaeology helping to engage dissertation students played an important part in developing understanding of the construction of roundhouses, grain storage in pits, crop yields, with practical and science-based archaeology. and weed floras, and has increased understanding of many In 2007–9 the School of Human & Environmental other aspects of the archaeological record. Sciences at the University of Reading is supporting Since Dr Reynolds’ death in 2001 Butser has continued to a new project, Developing Experimental Approaches in develop, with the addition of a Roman villa created as part of a Discovery Channel television series. Butser has also been more Archaeology, designed to explore ways of develop- influential than Peter Reynolds may ever have envisaged: many ing experimental archaeological approaches in our of the comparable prehistoric experimental sites in Britain research and teaching. The project is led by Profes- are based quite closely on the model he created at Butser. For sor Martin Bell and Dr Rob Hosfield and also involves more information on Butser, including opening times, see: www.butser.org.uk Rowena Banerjea, Dr Alex Brown, Professor Stephen Nortcliff and Dr Wendy Matthews, drawing together the Department and the School’s research expertise in Roman metal working, weapons and body armour experimental archaeology. The project is also develop- ing new inter-disciplinary links (including colleagues from the School of Human & Environmental Sciences at Reading, and other UK and European experimen- tal archaeological sites), and conducting new pilot research projects in experimental archaeology. This booklet introduces aspects of the experimental archaeology with which we are involved at Reading, and offers our observations about how experiment in archaeology may be developed more widely in the future. Our purpose is to encourage a renewal of interest and involvement in experimental archaeol- ogy, and to stimulate students to think about possible experimental questions and projects for dissertation and doctoral research at both undergraduate and post- graduate levels.

Dr David Sim is a skilled professional blacksmith and archaeologist who did his PhD at Reading on Roman iron working. He has carried out experimental studies of the production methods and effectiveness of weapons such as the Dacian battle scythe, and Roman armour. Dr David Sim gives demonstrations of iron working at the Silchester field school in July each year. For more information about the field school and its open days see: www.silchester.reading.ac.uk

3 Experimental archaeology tools, foods and structures Martin Bell & Steven Mithen in teaching and learning Preparing the report (Bell 2007) on our recent cam- paign of excavations on Mesolithic sites in the Severn Experimental archaeological sites and Estuary threw up all sorts of questions about how things were made and done in this period which could projects offer ideal contexts for teaching be partly addressed using experimental methods. We and create excellent possibilities for subsequently organised a Mesolithic experimental synergies between teaching and research. weekend at Butser, involving Reading students and volunteers in a mixture of teaching and research The opportunity to observe examples of activities (below left). In our Severn Estuary excava- buried soils formed over a known period tions we had found artefact distributions suggesting the existence of small, circular tepee-like structures. of time under known conditions has Our work at Butser showed that such a structure could been especially invaluable to our MSc be erected in less than a day and could provide sleep- ing accommodation for a nuclear family of 4 or 5. Our students here at Reading, excavations had also produced many heat-fractured while experimental contexts focus the stones and we discovered that these provided a very mind of the fieldworker on the formation effective way of cooking a salmon. We also conducted experiments replicating the wear traces left on bone processes of the record under excavation. artefacts used to prepare hides and work wood: these were helpful in interpreting the wear traces found on our Mesolithic bones. Although these were only small-scale, two day experi- ments (which we would like to take further) the exercise was extremely valuable, at a key stage in the post-excavation process, for thinking through in a practical way some of the problems of interpretation. Experimental methods were also similarly important in another of our Mesolithic projects: Professor Mith- en’s Southern Hebrides Project (Mithen 2001). Here a series of experiments explored knapping, tool manufacture and usages, and food preparation. Once again the experimental results aided in the interpreta- tion of the project: for example the hazelnut roasting suggested that the most effective ovens are relatively shallow pits (combined with limited roasting times), and suitably small pits were identified at the site of Staosnaig (below left). The manufacture of an ‘Obanian’ harpoon took a total of six hours, suggesting that such items were curated, but also revealed that the required techniques could be quickly discovered and mastered with limited practice (arguing against the need for specific antler crafts‘men’).

4 • The role of spoken language in the learning of basic Experimental archaeology knapping skills (Adam Donnelly) • Handaxe manufacturing decisions as evident in re- and student research fitting sequences from replicated examples Experiments can also form the core of first rate (Faye Nash) student dissertation topics at all levels, promoting The following pages include short summaries of four well-defined problems, providing opportunities to student projects in particular: experimental archery combine field and laboratory work, and producing orig- exploring the effectiveness of later prehistoric arrow- inal and innovative data amenable to robust graphical heads (Tom Williams); experimental use-wear analysis and statistical analysis and interpretation. investigating the functions of Early ‘projec- In the last few years there have been increasing tile points’ (Dr Sam Smith); woodworking experiments numbers of experimental archaeological research with later prehistoric axes (Anna Ward); and experi- projects undertaken by Reading Archaeology under- mental butchery assessing the impact of varying graduate and postgraduate students. Recent and handaxe symmetry upon performance current examples include investigations of: (Dr Anna Machin). • The geoarchaeological and forensic properties of pits (Robert Power)

The effectiveness of later prehistoric arrowheads (Tom Williams)

A 2007/8 undergraduate dissertation by Tom Williams ratings, generating similar draw weights and charac- (BA Archaeology, 2005–2008) used experimental teristics to later prehistoric bows. The target was a pig archaeology to investigate the effectiveness of carcass (representing a typical later prehistoric hunted different types of flint arrowheads from the Neolithic species), with each arrowhead type shot from each of and early periods. The experimental the three longbows over 20 yards range. Arrowhead research formed part of a wider investigation into accuracy (hit/miss) and penetration depths later prehistoric arrowheads, including the form vs. were measured. function debate and the potential of the individual The experimental results provided a number of valu- types to function as effective projectile points. The able insights into each arrowhead type: experiments specifically explored: • 25 out of 82 arrows shot hit the target (30% • The penetration and accuracy of the arrowheads success rate) • The potential for re-use of the arrowheads and the • Average penetration was 15.87cm nature of their user-wear and damage • The barbed and tanged arrowheads were the most • The relationships between the effectiveness of arrow- effective (measured by accuracy and penetration) head types and bow poundage across all three bows The experiments used a range of replica arrowhead The experiments suggested that barbed and tanged types knapped by John Lord (barbed and tanged, arrowheads were the most effective and represent an chisel, oblique, and petit tranchet), hafted with ‘optimum’ later prehistoric design. This supports the bitumen and nettle fibre rope onto modern shafts concept of evolutionary development in flint arrow- with modern fletchings (to reduce the number of head design and challenges earlier suggestions of the experimental variables). The arrows were shot from non-utilitarian role of barbed and tanged arrowheads three modern longbows with different poundage based on funerary associations.

5 Making and using stone tools (Sam Smith)

Sam Smith’s doctoral research (2000–2006) undertook a detailed study of chipped stone points from Early Neolithic (c. 11,500 BP) sites in Southern Jordan. Tra- ditionally, the function of many of these pieces had been assumed to correlate with typological classes, for example ‘projectile points’ were assumed to have been arrowheads. The research tested this assumption through a micro- scopic examination of tool edges, in an attempt to ascertain their function. A key aspect involved a programme of experimental replication of point manufacture and use. Working with the skilled flint knapper John Lord, Sam created several hundred replica tools and used them for a range of tasks. The experiments indicated that the wear traces found on many of the archaeological ‘projectile points’ were actually the result of them being used as drill bits or perforators. These conclusions facilitated a new under- standing of this artefact type and have significant implications for the interpretation of Early Neolithic chipped stone assemblages.

Distinguishing axes through woodworking (Anna Ward)

Anna Ward prepared her 2006/7 undergraduate dis- sertation on an experimental study of the facets left on wood worked with replica later prehistoric axes of flint, bronze and iron, combined with an analysis of the woodchips and other debris produced by pointing hazel roundwood billets using the different tool types. Facets produced by using a bronze axe were closely comparable to those on Bronze Age timbers from the Severn Estuary. Digital microscope photography was used to record the facets produced by flake removals and metrical analysis was carried out on the facet and chip dimen- sions. The data produced was examined statistically enabling Anna to accept the validity of the two hypotheses posed at the outset: that both the facets and debris produced by different types of axe can be distinguished. This is important because wood worked with particular metals (eg. copper or iron) is not infre- quently attested well before the earliest dated use of implements of those metals in specific areas. This is presumably because of the curation and re-use of materials: the wood evidence can thus provide a new perspective on dates of material culture change in particular places.

6 The implications of handaxe symetry for experimental butchery (Anna Machin)

As part of her doctoral research (2003–2006) Dr Anna Machin sought to establish clearly the relationships between the degree of handaxe symmetry and their effectiveness as butchery tools, through large-scale, controlled experiments. The experimental methodology included a series of quantitative and qualitative components: • 30 fallow deer were butchered (ages and weights were restricted to animals under 2 years old and 50– 60 lbs to reduce carcass variability). • The methods used by each butcher (a professional game butcher and a Palaeolithic archaeologist) were distinct but internally consistent. • The handaxes were all capable of butchery (i.e. all had a length of cutting edge) but all exhibited variability in frontal and side symmetry (measured digitally after Marshall et al. 2002). • Handaxe morphology and dimensions were The statistical analyses of the data suggested some also recorded. influence of frontal symmetry upon handaxe effectiveness. However, there are several qualifiers • The butchery sessions were videotaped and logged, concerning replicability, outlier exclusions, and the generating butchery timing data for each carcass and strength of the observed relationships. The partial the individual activities (e.g. skinning, filleting etc). influences may reflect slight gains in efficiency linked • The butchers also “thought aloud” to produce a to the reduced amount of time it takes to locate a good verbatim record, and scored each handaxe (e.g. handhold on a symmetrical handaxe following weight distribution; ease of use). rotation, or that certain butchery methods render The timing data were modelled to remove the impact symmetry advantageous. of increasing butchery skills over the course of the In summary, factors other than functional considera- experiments. Regression analyses and rank correlation tions for animal butchery may be playing a key role were applied to the resultant data: in the decisions by hominin stone knappers to impose • There was only partial evidence that increasing high degrees of symmetry on some of their handaxes. frontal symmetry increases the effectiveness (i.e. reduced butchery times) of handaxes as butchery tools. • These results were also mitigated by a series of factors, including the removal of outliers from the data-sets (Machin et al. 2007), and the limited replica- tion of significant results (for the role of symmetry) across the data sets for both butchers. • The majority of the variation in butchery time could not be explained by any of the handaxe morphology variables. • Although side symmetry was not statistically signifi- cant for butchery, the verbatim record did refer to the importance of cutting edge symmetry (e.g. ‘the angle I’m finding really hard because it’s kind of asymmet- rical’) and other aspects (e.g. degree of refinement, angle, degree of curve) which may contribute to the unexplained variation.

7 Experimental approaches Archaeological buildings: the Longbridge Deverill and the formation of the Martin Bell In 2006 the main roundhouse at Butser Ancient Farm, archaeological record the Longbridge Deverill Cowdown roundhouse, began to collapse. As it was dismantled we had the opportu- nity to carry out the small-scale excavation of a trench Recent research at Reading has highlighted across the structure (below left). These excavations the contributions which experimental enabled us to explore the hypothesis that the struc- approaches can make to our understanding ture may have failed just 14 years after construction because, due to timber availability when it was made, of the formation and modification of the the inner post ring of this double ring roundhouse was archaeological record, whether dealing of ash rather than oak: the latter would have lasted longer. Notably, the two inner posts we sectioned had with built structures (ranging from the rotted and cracked just below the ground surface. construction and destruction of buildings The building was originally erected on the surface to the sedimentary, micromorphological of a ploughed field without a terrace being created. The floor had stones evenly dispersed through the and biological evidence for human top 20cm as a result of earlier cultivation, whereas activities within them) or artefact scatters outside the building, where the surface had since been associated with structures and vegetated, a 40mm thick earthworm-sorted stone- free horizon had formed over the previous 14 years. activity areas. A central hearth created on the roundhouse’s ground surface had been in very regular use over the 14 year life of the building, and when sectioned it showed remarkably superficial sub-surface traces of heat red- dening. Charcoal was sparse and the maximum depth visibly affected by heat was 130mm. The trampled floor only retained its distinctive form where pro- tected from the elements; where wetting and drying occurred subsequent to the removal of the roof, earth- worms had begun to appear and trampled floor layers were indistinct after just a few weeks exposure. Overall, many traces of the building such as the floor, hearth, wattlework, and drip feature from the roof produced only superficial traces which might not survive over archaeological timescales, especially if the site was subsequently cultivated. In May 2008 we obtained a small number of comparable samples from experimental structures at the Somerset Levels and Moors Centre (these structures are based on buildings originally excavated at Glastonbury Lake Village).

8 Life-history of buildings and • Elemental enrichment in metal-working areas site-formation processes The outputs of these experimental analyses are being compared to multi-period archaeological sites, includ- Wendy Matthews, Stephen Nortcliff, Alex Brown & ing Silchester and Çatalhöyük. Rowena Banerjea Studies of traditional architecture suggest that archae- A wide range of interdisciplinary experimental and ologists can readily identify activity areas and explore ethnoarchaeological research is being conducted by the creation of social settings and the histories of the international team at the Neolithic site of Çatal- events within buildings and settlements through höyük in Turkey in order to widen our knowledge greater attention to the study of architectural surfaces of materials, architecture and environment. This and micro-residues in sediments, where preservation work, conducted with the local community, includes is sufficiently good. Microstratigraphic and micromor- construction of an experimental house (www.catal- phological analyses enable high-resolution analysis of hoyuk.com). Such studies of traditional practices and four independent lines of inquiry in the study of the knowledge are urgently needed in the face of rapid life-history of buildings: urbanisation and environmental change. These are particularly vital to our understanding of the inter- • The origin, manufacture and properties/affordances relationships between different materials, activities of building materials and surfaces on floors, plat- and ecological zones over seasonal, annual, and longer- forms, walls and, potentially, ceilings in term cycles. Research at Reading has included study of: upstanding buildings. the properties, technology and life-histories of archi- • The impact of activities and natural agencies on these tectural materials and buildings; animal penning; and surfaces, including impressions of mats and the sources and combustion of different types of fuel floor coverings. for food preparation and cooking. • The multiple biographies of the mineral, biological and artefactual micro-residues on surfaces through in situ micro-contextual study of the traces of the pre-depositional and depositional histories of each component including: source material, abrasion, Thin section (B) from Building 2, Çatalhöyük (A), showing plaster fragmentation and burning. floor (1) and fuel raked out: charred wood (2) and dung ash (3). • On-going post-depositional histories. Recent geoarchaeological and palaeoenvironmental analyses have highlighted a series of major problems in the interpretation of material assemblages, site- formation processes and settlement space. Central to these problems are the wide range of variables that affect pre-depositional, depositional and post-deposi- tional histories of micro-artefacts, sediments, plant remains and organic matter, including: environment, human agency, materials and timescales. A Current research at Reading is seeking to identify these variables and design research strategies for their measurement and examination through inter-discipli- nary and multi-proxy characterisation of experimental B archaeological spaces and taphonomic processes. Our experimental analyses are specifically focusing upon: • Improved interpretation of soil micromorphology on archaeological sites by establishing key comparative data sets • Taphonomy of phytolith and pollen assemblages • The nature and taphonomy of organic matter and black carbon using 13C NMR and BPCA Black Carbon analysis

9 Sampling buildings and activities In addition to the geoarchaeological sampling, at Lejre, Denmark consultations with the Lejre staff documented the construction, repairs to, and decline of, the indi- Rowena Banerjea vidual buildings and the duration and frequency In August 2007, research student Rowena Banerjea of the range of activities which took place within carried out fieldwork at Lejre Historical and Archaeo- them. The outputs of these consultations will assist logical Research Centre, Denmark (www.lejre-centre. in formulating a framework for future experimental dk) as part of the Life-history of buildings and site- archaeological research which analyses activity areas formation processes project. Her work is generating and the formation processes of archaeological deposits experimental data to compare with early Roman within buildings. occupation deposits from Insula IX at Silchester (Hampshire, UK). The fieldwork samples targeted soil micromorphologi- cal (Banerjea) and plant micro-fossil (Banerjea and Dr. Alex Brown) assemblages, geochemical traces (Baner- jea), and the nature of organic matter (Prof. Stephen Nortcliff) in activity-related occupation deposits within experimental archaeological buildings. Samples were collected from two buildings within the reconstructed Iron Age village: the disused ironworking forge (right) and the ‘peasants’ building. With the latter were a disused cattle stable (in use 1965–early 1980’s), a crop grinding area and a hearth used for heating and Pollen, phytoliths and human activities cooking. Building materials such as daub, thatch and straw were also collected as reference materials. Rowena Banerjea & Alex Brown Buildings within the reconstructed Viking village Pollen dispersal by wind and insects results in its trap- provided an excellent opportunity to study the chang- ping within soils and sediments as they accumulate ing use of space and spatial variations in occupation over time. Where pollen is preserved in oxygen-free deposits, due to differing stages of building collapse. A (anaerobic) conditions, it can be analysed to recon- sunken-shack (below left) previously used for goat and struct past vegetation and the activities of humans in sheep penning and bone-working was sampled, with the landscape over a variety of timescales and, in this roof failure resulting in soil development across half of research, to understand past rural and urban the structure (below right). settlement ecologies. The comparative analysis of experimental archaeologi- Phytoliths form in the cellular skeleton of plant tissue cal samples, archaeological occupation deposits, and from the silica which is deposited while the plant is external controls will provide valuable information alive. As plants decay the mineralised cells (phytoliths) regarding the taphonomy of micro-refuse and plant remain in the soil, resulting in a localised distribution micro-fossil assemblages in the archaeological record, which is particularly useful for identifying ancient as well as increasing knowledge of the geochemical activity areas which have utilised plants. Experimen- enrichment and behaviour of phosphate and heavy tal analyses play an important role in understanding metals in activity areas (e.g. metalworking the depositional pathways and formation processes of and stabling). pollen and phytolith records in modern occupation

10 deposits, as an aid to investigating traces of activities in a diverse range of archaeological settlement contexts. Pollen samples have been analysed from Lejre and Butser. At Lejre the Iron Age Zone building 2 and the Viking Age sunken hut include stable areas for cattle (IA zone) and sheep and goat (VA zone). High levels of grass pollen were recorded in both samples, most likely derived from grasses growing in proximity to these buildings and blown through the entrances, but it is also included in the animal dung (VA zone) that litters the floors. Cereal pollen in Iron Age building 2 is most probably derived from hay used as cattle fodder. The Viking Age sunken hut also produced two grains of Cannabis pollen, derived either from a herb patch 30m away, or resulting from hemp production. Samples from the Longbridge Deverill roundhouse at Butser include significant amounts of cereal pollen (entrance and internal eaves samples), and are closely related to areas of crop processing (entrance) and storage of thatch and hay (internal eaves). The hut floor is a compacted agricultural soil rather than a prepared surface, so the cereal pollen may derive from Destruction by fire agricultural activities prior to the construction of the roundhouse. However, analysis of the floor sample did Karl Harrison not produce any cereal pollen, so it is probable that Karl Harrison is a part-time PhD student at Reading the cereal pollen recorded elsewhere relates to specific who works as a professional forensic scientist. As activities/activity areas within the roundhouse. This part of his forensic work he has had to investigate is being tested through analysis of further samples burnt structures and develop an understanding of within the roundhouse, from the buried soil exposed the sequence of events which produce the observable beneath the boundary bank, and from external traces of fire. His doctoral research involves investigat- control samples. ing the effects of fire on structures. Karl uses modern fire science techniques to help interpret the evidence Phytolith analysis will help to test the pollen observa- of burnt structures in the archaeological record, and tions, as this technique enables cells from different archaeological approaches to stratigraphic excavation parts of the plant to be identified (e.g. husks from crop to inform the development of new methods for the processing activities). Soil micromorphology and analy- forensic investigation of fire. sis of control samples will assist with understanding the depositional pathways of plant remains in these Burnt experimental structures have been an impor- various contexts, in particular when deciphering tant element in developing this approach, especially assemblages that may consist of a mixture of residual a construction based on an Anglo-Saxon sunken floor plant remains from falling thatch, animal dung, building at , Suffolk, which was recently animal fodder and crop processing activities. burnt down, apparently by arson. Karl and a team from West Stow were able to carry out one of the first detailed recording exercises of a burnt ‘archaeologi- cal’ structure, which has enabled him to document a detailed reconstruction of the course of the fire and the physical effects of its various stages, including modifications of the magnetic properties of the adjacent soils.

(Left) Rowena Banerjea sampling the floor of the Longbridge Deverill roundhouse at Butser for pollen and phytoliths.

11 Experimental earthworks The analytical properties of the buried soil are cur- rently being investigated at Reading by Amy Poole and Martin Bell Chris Speed as part of research into the chemistry These experiments have played an important role in of buried soils. The surface of the bank showed the developing our understanding of how soils and the early stages of soil development and humus incorpora- biological evidence within them change as a result of tion and there were clear signs of calcium carbonate burial. Other related research questions concern the leaching and deposition within the bank. The ditch investigation of the decay and preservation processes sediments were markedly asymmetrical with a greater affecting buried artefacts, and the processes of erosion volume of sediment coming from the outside than and sedimentation affecting bank and ditch earth- from the bank side. This confirms earlier observations works themselves. Of particular significance in this by Peter Reynolds and is the opposite of what archae- area of research have been two linear experimental ologists normally expect. The probable explanation earthworks: Overton, Wiltshire (constructed in 1960 concerns aspect and compass direction, emphasis- on chalk) and Wareham, Dorset (in a sandy heathland ing the significance which Reynolds attached to this environment). Professor Martin Bell has been responsi- parameter in his original design for the ble for the most recent excavations of both of octagonal experiments. these earthworks. Further work will be following up these investiga- A second generation of octagonal experimental earth- tions with excavation of the octagonal earthwork (on works were set up by Peter Reynolds in the mid 1980s. brickearth over clay) which Reynolds’ created in 1986 Those experiments were principally concerned with at the Roman Palace site at Fishbourne, West Sussex. vegetation colonisation, weathering and sedimenta- This will provide an opportunity to observe, record, tion in relation to aspect, hence the octagonal form. and analyse a buried soil of a type not previously inves- Although relatively little has been published on the tigated experimentally, and to record the weathering octagonal earthworks to date, we are now embarked and sedimentation process of the bank and ditch. on a programme of excavations to look at the buried An earthwork constructed on Lower Chalk at soils, earthwork erosion and ditch sediments at Wroughton, Wiltshire has also recently been investi- these sites. gated by Emma Gilbert for her MSc Geoarchaeology An earthwork on Upper Chalk within the present day dissertation. She compared the micromorphology, Butser site at Bascombe was subject to small-scale exca- chemistry, land snails, and earthworm granules in the vation by Reading students 16 years after construction, 20 year old buried soil with those in the present-day in December 2007. The buried soil had been culti- unburied soil. Like Overton, Wroughton highlighted vated up to the point of burial and was low in organic the significance of vegetation matt and soil chemistry matter, making it unattractive for faunal activity, such for molluscan presence and survival, even on sites of as earthworm sorting and mixing. calcareous bedrock: under certain vegetation condi-

12 tions, periods of stasis will be under-emphasised and periods of calcareous subsoil disturbance over-rep- resented in the molluscan record. This earthwork research has emphasised the role of faunal agency, particularly earthworms, in the formation of the archaeological record, thus revisiting the pioneering earthworm research of Charles Darwin which has been a formative influence on the development of experimental geoarchaeology.

Artefact scatters in slope environments Rob Hosfield A key branch of experimental archaeology has con- cerned the modification of artefact scatters and applications of the resulting data to taphonomic inter- pretations. While an important element concerns the fluvial transportation of lithic artefacts (e.g. Hosfield & Chambers 2005), there is also the issue of artefact supply from fluvial floodplain and valley slope sur- faces into active channel zones. Recent research has therefore been undertaken as a first step in seeking to improve understanding of the potential time-lags between artefact discard (behaviour) and their fluvial re-deposition (assemblage formation). This work is exploring the re-working of multi-period/ multi-material artefact scatters on low-angled slopes within a lowland river valley environment. The experi- ments were conducted at the University of Reading’s farm site at Sonning, on the southern floodplain and lower terraces of the Middle Thames. The experimen- tal artefact sets included replica flint flakes, Roman ceramic building material fragments, and Roman fragments, derived from spoil heap material (at the University’s Silchester excavations) and experi- mental knapping programmes. The artefacts were emplaced in October 2007 on a low-angled terrace slope, which was a mixture of exposed plough soil and low agricultural scrub. Recording and monitoring of the artefacts between October 2007 and February 2008 indicated no move- ment of any of the scatters, despite varying climatic conditions during this period and the range of artefact sizes and weights. There was also very little evidence The low-angled experimental slope and an experimental lithic of artefact fragmentation. scatter at Sonning Farm, Reading. The results of this pilot experiment indicated the potential stability of different artefact scatters upon a partially-exposed low-angled slope surface during interglacial-type autumnal and winter conditions at 50° latitude. Further studies will continue to explore Opposite page: Professor Stephen Nortcliff and Dr Wendy artefact movement in different climatic (e.g. per- Matthews discuss the 16 year old buried soil below the Butser octagonal earthwork (left). The soil buried for 20 years by the iglacial) and topographic (e.g. steeply angled slopes) Wroughton octagonal earthwork and investigated for Emma settings, and over longer time-spans. Gilbert’s MSc dissertation (right).

13 New horizons and collaborations

Experimental crop growing Emma Jenkins The Water, Life and Civilisation project’s crop growing experiments are being conducted in Jordan in collabo- ration with NCARTT (National Centre for Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer). They are designed to evaluate and develop Rosen & Weiner’s (1994) proposal that the number of con-joined cells in multi- celled wheat phytoliths can be indicative of irrigation, by introducing additional variables into the experi- mental design which Rosen and Weiner employed. Three different crops are being grown: durum wheat (T. durum), common barley (H. vulgare) and sorghum (Sorghum halapense). In the first year of experimenta- tion these were grown under four different irrigation regimes: no irrigation (0% of the crop water require- ments), sub-optimal irrigation (80% of the crop water Garden Agriculture on (Louise Jones) requirements), optimal irrigation (100% of the crop water requirements) and over-optimal irrigation (120% of the crop water requirements); in the second and third year an additional sub-optimal category of 40% was added. The experiments are being conducted in three differ- ent crop growing stations: Khirbet al-Samra is located to the northeast of Amman and has an annual rain- fall of approximately 150mm per year; Ramtha is in Northern Jordan and has approximately 300–350mm rainfall per year; and Deir ‘Alla is in the Jordan valley and has approximately 250mm of rain per year. Each plot measures 5m x 5m with a space of 1.5m Recent and ongoing multidisciplinary research into garden agriculture on Easter Island, in particular the use of rocks between plots. A drip irrigation system is employed (both on the ground surface and as a lithic mulch), is and reclaimed waste water is used at Khirbet al-Samra contributing towards ongoing debates into the adaptive and Ramtha whilst mixed water is used at Deir ‘Alla. responses to natural and/or anthropogenic environmental Water analyses were conducted before experimenta- change, landscape management, and issues tion began, showing that the water was within the of sustainability. Jordanian standards for use in crop irrigation. Meteoro- Louise Jones’ MSc Geoarchaeology dissertation research logical data are available for all three stations and soil is using multiple geoarchaeological methods combining pollen, phytolith and starch residue analysis to identify samples were taken from the plots prior to and during the crop plants grown in archaeological gardens, with each year of experimentation. The experiments are micromorphological analysis of the soils’ microstructure currently ongoing: for up-to-date news see the project and inclusions identifying features not observable at the website: www.waterlifecivilisation.org. macro-scale. By comparing samples from archaeological garden sites located on exposed slopes (and subject to dis- turbance from cows, horses, and people) with a restored archaeological garden (surrounded by trees, containing crop plants and protected from disturbance), this research is examining differences in the archaeological record and therefore key issues of preservation and interpretation.

14 original dissertation and doctoral research. The way forward It is this objective of encouraging more experimental Perhaps the most important role which experimental activity through sites such as Butser that motivated archaeological sites play is educational and experien- the project’s one day workshop (to be held at Butser tial, helping school children and the public to think Ancient Farm in June 2008). The goal of the work- about past ways of life in a tangible and accessible way. shop is to provide a context in which representatives We are often told by undergraduates that their inter- from experimental archaeological sites can explore est in archaeology was sparked by a visit to such a site. key issues for the future of experimental archaeol- The prominence of experimental sites and activities in ogy: means by which experimental work can be archaeological television programmes also highlights encouraged at heritage sites, developing contribu- their key role in archaeological outreach. tions from academic research staff into experimental projects, identifying and promoting opportunities for The Developing Experimental Approaches in Archaeology student dissertation research and field experience, project has enabled us to take stock of the current and exploring relationships between higher levels of state of experimental archaeology in Britain and experimental activity, the development of the sites, to form the view that more needs to be done to and the provision of funding. We hope that a key encourage active engagement between the research output of the workshop will be contributions to the community and experimental sites. Experimental development of best practice and the growth of benefi- sites are of huge importance in terms of education cial links between the experimental sites themselves, and outreach but those running them are often con- and a summary of the workshop discussions will be cerned that the demands of these roles leave little posted on our project website (post-July 31st 2008): opportunity, or resources, for active experimentation. www.reading.ac.uk/SHESresearch/Archaeology/Science/ Yet an active experimental programme is clearly an Experimental.html important part of what makes these sites interesting for children and the public alike. We feel that one Two papers summarising aspects of our current solution is to encourage university and other research experimental research at Reading are also to be pre- organisations to make more active use of the resource sented at the World Archaeological Congress in Dublin represented by experimental archaeology sites. As we in July 2008 and we hope that these papers and the demonstrate in this booklet these sites are excellent circulation of this booklet will also help to stimulate venues for learning how to excavate, appreciating how international discussions concerning the way forward the archaeological record forms, and carrying out for experimental archaeology.

References Contact details

Bell, M. 2007. Prehistoric Coastal Communities: The Mesolithic in Professor Bell, Dr Matthews, Professor Nortcliff, Dr Hosfield Western Britain. Council for British Archaeology Research Report and Professor Mithen would all be delighted to talk to potential No. 149. York: CBA. doctoral research students about possible PhD topics in experi- Hosfield, R.T. & Chambers, J.C. 2005. River gravels and flakes: new mental archaeology (Bell, Hosfield, Matthews, Mithen) and soil experiments in site formation, stone tool transportation and science (Nortcliff). transformation. In M. Fansa (ed.) Experimentelle Archäologie in For more information about our undergraduate and postgradu- Europa, Bilanz 2004, Heft 3: 57–74. Isensee Oldenburg: Verlag. ate degrees, please contact: Machin, A.J., Hosfield, R.T. & Mithen, S.J. 2007. Why are some SHES Teaching Office handaxes symmetrical? Testing the influence of handaxe mor- Geoscience Building phology on butchery effectiveness. Journal of Archaeological University of Reading Science 34: 883–893. Whiteknights Marshall, G.D., Gamble, C.S., Roe, D.A. & Dupplaw, D. 2002. Lower Box 227 Palaeolithic technology, raw material and population ecology. http:// Reading, RG6 6AB ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/specColl/bifaces/index.cfm (10 January [email protected] 2005). Tel +44 �0�118 378 7966 Mithen, S. (eds.) 2001. Hunter-gatherer : [email protected] the Southern Hebrides Mesolithic project, 1988–1998. Cambridge: Tel +44 �0�118 378 6713 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. Rosen, A.M. & Weiner, S. 1994. Identifying ancient irrigation: a new method using opaline phytoliths from emmer wheat. Journal This document is © Copyright University of Reading 2008. It was designed by Frances Taylor and printed in of 21: 125–132. June 2008 by Herald Graphics.

15 Acknowledgements to the butchers (David John and Dr Matt Pope), Dr Gil Marshall (handaxe We are grateful to Christine Shaw, symmetry measures), Colin Grayer Steve Dyer, Maureen Page, Simon Jay, (Statistical Services Centre, University Joyce Herve, and Dai Morgan-Evans for of Reading), John Lord (the experi- facilitating and encouraging our work mental handaxe assemblage), and the at Butser. We are also grateful for col- British Academy (Small Research Grant laboration from the Science Museum SG-40888). Rob Hosfield would also (Wroughton), Fishbourne Roman like to thank James Lamburn (Sonning Palace, West Stow Country Park, and Farm Director, University of Reading) Somerset County Council: Levels and for permitting access to the Sonning Moors Centre, and the Çatalhöyük Farm site as part of the experimental Research Project. Rowena Banerjea scatters work, and to Rebecca Kiff acknowledges funding and collabora- (Crops Research Unit, University of tion with Lejre Archaeological and Reading) for supplying data from the Historical Research Centre, Denmark. Sonning and University weather sta- Thanks also to all of the Reading tions. Images for Karl Harrison’s undergraduate and postgraduate text supplied by West Stow Anglo- students and other volunteers who Saxon Village and St. Edmunds have been involved in these experi- Burough Council. ments. Earlier work on the Overton and Wareham experimental earth- The Developing Experimental works was funded by NERC and English Approaches in Archaeology project has Heritage. For their involvement in, been funded by the School of Human and support of, the experimental & Environmental Sciences, the handaxe butchery project, thanks University of Reading.

Reading Archaeology

For further details about the Developing Experimental Approaches in Archaeology project or other experimental archaeological work at the University of Reading, please contact: Professor Martin Bell ([email protected]) Dr Rob Hosfield ([email protected]) Department of Archaeology University of Reading Whiteknights Box 227 Reading, RG6 6AB [email protected] Tel +44 �0�118 378 7966 www.reading.ac.uk/archaeology