The Ninth North American Caribou Workshop, S3 Kuujjuaq, Québec, Canada, 23-27 April, 2001.

Of reindeer and man, modern and Neanderthal: A creation story founded on a historic perspective on how to conserve wildlife, woodland caribou in particular Valerius Geist

Professor Emeritus of Environmental Science, Faculty of Environmental Design, The University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada ([email protected]).

Abstract: A review of successful systems of wildlife conservation, the North American included, suggests that broad pub• lic support and determined effort by volunteers is essential for wildlife conservation. Since North American wildlife con• servation is the only large-scale system of sustainable natural resource use, and exemplifies the great economic and cul• tural benefits of a renewable resource held in common, its lessons may be profitably applied to Rangifer conservation. Animals that have value are surrounded by myths that tell of their relationship to humans. In our Anglo-American cul• ture reindeer and caribou are rather deficient in this respect. However, reindeer feature prominently in the rise of mod• ern humans and the demise of Neanderthal man early in the Upper Paleolithic. The colonization by humans of the periglacial environments during the last glaciation depended on the rich periglacial megafauna, Rangifer included. Archeological sites of the European Upper Paleolithic show that reindeer were the most important food source. The Upper Paleolithic, characterized by exceptional physical development and health of people, as well as by the first flowering of art, extended from Spain to Crimea with surprisingly little cultural change for some 25 000 years. While the cave paint• ings express an infatuation with dangerous game (woolly mammoth, woolly rhino, steppe wisent, giant deer, cave lions, bears etc), the archeological sites indicate that reindeer was the staple food. Reindeer play a minor role in cave art. Neither this art, nor archeological sites, show any evidence of warfare. It is hypothesized that during a mid-glacial interstadial modern people entered Europe having developed a highly successful system of hunting reindeer using interception based on the discovery of chronologic time. This led to a first flowering of culture based on a rich economy, but also to addi¬ tional hunting mortality of the periglacial mega-herbivores that Neanderthal people depended on. That would explain the slow decline into extinction of the previously invincible Neanderthal people. Therefore, modern humans owe much of what they are to reindeer. We need to reciprocate. What is urgently required is a foundation formed by volunteers for the conservation of caribou, similar to the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, focusing on the severely endangered wood¬ land caribou.

Key words: caribou conservation, cave art, extinction, megafauna, Rangifer tarandus, Upper Paleolithic.

Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14: 57-63

Successful conservation models ulations are in imminent danger of extinction. As A review of the conservation of migratory caribou my basis of comparison I have used first the North and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and its unquestion¬ American model of wildlife conservation that arose able successes, indicates that conservation of these in the past 80 years, as it not only led to the return animals follows the principles of successful conserva¬ of wildlife continentally, but is remarkable in other tion of other species. However, this only highlights ways as well. It shows how to hold and manage a the fact that, by contrast, woodland type caribou and renewable natural resource in public trust so as to reindeer, with the exception of Newfoundland cari¬ defeat Garrett Hardin's Tragedy of the Commons bou, have not prospered and that some unique pop- (Hardin, 1968), that the resource is being used not

Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 57 merely in a sustainable fashion, but has expanded ogy and management are an expression of this grass and multiplied, that a public resource can generate root concern and signify the importance this animal through the private sector remarkable wealth and has to people living in arctic landscape employment, that some markets in wildlife actually While the above is valid for migratory caribou do foster conservation, while others - in particular and reindeer, it is not for most forest or woodland the sale of dead wildlife - are highly detrimental, and forms, be they Eurasian or North American. The while wildlife conservation is linked to a broad- woodland forms are the usually large-bodied races on based public support, it is but a fragment of that the southern rim of Rangifer's continental distribu¬ public which supports wildlife substantially in tion here and in Asia. The societal factors that do return for the use of that resource. Put less delicate¬ apply to elk (Cervus elaphus canadensis) via the Rocky ly, wildlife has blossomed because hunters volun¬ Mountain Elk Foundation or to mountain sheep teered great effort and finances in order to see (Ovis dalli, Ovis canadensis) via the Foundation for wildlife prosper (Geist, 1981; 1995; Geist et al., North American Wild Sheep, have no counter part 2001). The following paper is thus a discourse on the for woodland caribou. Why are elk so captivating to much vaunted "human factors" in wildlife conserva¬ so many persons, but woodland caribou are not? Is it tion. the scenic splendor of mountains which frames elk, Using the North American conservation model as opposed to gloomy tamarack and black spruce one can delineate the conditions for successful con¬ bogs that hide woodland caribou, as my son Karl, a servation, and in so doing discover that these appear wildlife artist, suggests? Is it that herds of migrato¬ to be universals. For conservation of a species to be ry caribou pouring across the television screen oblit¬ successful there needs to be an organized, politically erate concern for the dying woodland forms? It is potent clientele promoting that species. That clien¬ significant in this context that elk or mountain tele is instrumental in generating systems to moni¬ sheep have little role in the livelihood of most mem¬ tor and investigate said species, it fosters common bers of the respective elk and sheep conservation belief about the species that stimulate, entertain and organization. Yet there is much passion for these ani¬ unify the clientele, it insures just and fair distribu¬ mals, even by those that have little hope, if any, of tion of spoils generated by the resource, it functions someday hunting elk or sheep. Instead, members cel¬ in an open and democratic process that reinforces the ebrate their identity with other like-minded via clientele member's status, generates innovation, well-attended meetings to raise funds for conserva¬ maintains and augments useful traditions, and tion, share journals and news letters, support arts enshrines and celebrates its successes symbolically. and crafts symbolizing elk and sheep, weave togeth¬ You may notice that these factors apply to such er tall tales of shared experiences and become active grass-roots conservation organizations as Ducks politically in diverse ways. In a recent book the Unlimited, or The Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, Foundation for North American Wild Sheep and the Foundation for North American Wild Sheep, the Boone & Crockett Club celebrated a quarter century Wild Turkey Federation and others, but also to cur¬ of success in mountain sheep conservation, in which rent societal structures - aboriginal and modern - wild sheep populations across North America that support migratory barren ground caribou in increased by nearly 50 percent (Toweill & Geist, North America and migratory reindeer in Eurasia. 1999). There is the grass-roots clientele of hunters, users of Please note this success is based on private effort caribou and reindeer that are most anxious to see without recourse to coercive or punitive legislation. these animals prosper. These users are organized to It was done without noticeable national or interna¬ see that there is monitoring, research as well as open tional publicity or public incitement, in short, quite discussions of management, and the translation of different from activities associated with convention¬ their concerns into effective political action. al environmental movements. Yet these quiet private Moreover, some of these users are not merely ration¬ efforts were eminently successful as seen by the ally or economically involved with reindeer or cari¬ increase in distribution and numbers of elk and wild bou, but have a deep emotional bond to these ani¬ sheep. Could this be duplicated for woodland cari¬ mals, maintain a tradition of myths and celebrate the bou? There are no clubs organized to specifically culture that thrives about migratory Rangifer. These rehabilitate woodland caribou in mainland North animals are thus far more than a source of livelihood America, although the Newfoundland caribou, a col¬ or economics, but are a source of ongoing cultural orful woodland form by convergence, is thriving. It identity, entertainment, education, the very societal does so due to the dedicated support of glue of communities that hunt migratory caribou or Newfoundland's citizen. The Newfoundland caribou reindeer. Formal gatherings to discuss Rangifer biol- is a subspecies quite distinct in pelage characteristics

58 Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 from other caribou. Put in other words: placing es, dogs, cats - even pigs! Currently, there is little woodland caribou on an endangered species list mythology or public knowledge about caribou and might have some benefits, but having an organized reindeer, excepting in aboriginal and northern com¬ citizen group root aggressively for woodland caribou munities that depend on caribou for sustenance. would be much better. There is little celebration of caribou or reindeer in arts and crafts, as there is of elk, deer or even moun¬ tain sheep. There are but a few songs, poems or pop¬ Pitfalls in caribou taxonomy ular books dedicated to caribou or reindeer and even A brief excursion into caribou taxonomy is essential such are invariably about the migratory barren at this point. The common term Woodland Caribou ground forms (Calef, 1981; Russell, 1998). There are encompasses a collection of diverse boreal forest no annual conventions dedicated to caribou that (taiga) and mountain-welling caribou, as, unfortu¬ draw thousands of urban-based lay persons for atten¬ nately does the taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus dance as is the case for elk, mountain sheep or caribou Gmelin 1788, as used by Banfield (1961). turkeys. The common and scientific name have been applied Excepting northern communities, North Ameri¬ not only to the usually large, dark caribou with min¬ can society does not celebrate caribou or reindeer. imal display coat markings and their diagnostic However, we ought to! The reindeer may well have short antlers, but also to sedentary populations of been the very best friend we ever had, and even more barren-ground caribou (R. t. groenlandicus Linnaeus noteworthy, reindeer may have been essential to the 1767) that happen to have achieved large body size, rise and success of modern humans. Without rein¬ to the colorful Newfoundland caribou (R. t. terrae- deer Neanderthal might still be alive and well in novae Bangs 1896), to the migratory Labrador cari¬ Europe and modern culture may have never arisen. bou (R. t. caboti Allen 1914), and to the big Osborn's Buried deep in the studies of diverse scholarly disci¬ caribou (R. t. osborni Allen 1902) of north-western plines are data and insights that show just how British Columbia . Banfield (1961) lumped caribou important the Eurasian version of caribou, the rein¬ of the same skull length into the same subspecies deer, once was to us in our struggle to survive and (see Geist, 1998: 319-326). If one confines the terms thrive. It happened during a critical formative peri¬ Woodland caribou or R. t. caribou to just the dark, od of modern humans, during the early Upper southern form with its diagnostic pelage and antler Paleolithic, late in the Pleistocene, when we gained form, then one realizes how few Woodland Caribou the upper hand and displaced the once invincible are left and how critical it is to find ways to uphold Neanderthal man. Yet there is no evidence for war• their numbers. In Eurasia three subspecies have at fare. Neanderthal people faded slowly into extinc¬ least some woodland characteristics, the European tion over many millennia, just as we only slowly col¬ forest reindeer R. t. fennicus Lonnberg 1909, the onized all of ice age Europe. Reindeer appear to be Siberian forest reindeer R. t. valentinae Flerov 1933 the key-species that made our ascent possible and and the far-eastern Okhotsk reindeer R. t. phylarchus shaped us towards creating the modern world we live Hollister 1912, which, judging from its nuptial in. It's a tale based on interdigitating caribou biolo• coat, is a true caribou and not a reindeer (Heptner et gy with periglacial ecology and archeology. al., 1988; Geist, 1998: 326-328). An enlightened veterinarian once quipped that a perfectly balanced ration for a cat, was a mouse. What, one may ask, might it be for humans? Despite Modern man and reindeer: A modern the popular "out of Africa hypothesis" of human ori• creation story gin, the answer appears to be a reindeer or caribou. Essential to conservation are positive myths that cel• Reindeer, are not merely the staple food of people ebrate the animal. What positive myths exist in gen• living in cold circumpolar climates, but were the eral in North America about caribou? Rudolf the chief food of the European Upper Paleolithic Red-Nosed Reindeer and his fellow reindeer pulling (Bouchud, 1975; David, 1985; see Geist, 1998: 335¬ Santa's sleigh at Christmas time, comes closest. 336). That is, the aboriginal Ice Age ancestors of However, even here there is erosion. Quite often one Europeans were tied closely to a food economy dom¬ sees today white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), inated by reindeer, and that for some 30 000 years antlered "Bambies", replace the reindeer. White- during the latter half of the last, the Würm tailed deer with their smaller, more-baby-like faces Glaciation. Reindeer are thus not only "in the genes" and big eyes have become, increasingly, the symbol¬ of northern Europeans, Asians and North Americans, ic deer of North America and even Europe (Geist, but very much "in the genes" of all those who 2001). We have considerable mythology about hors• descended from the Eurasian Cro-magnid popula-

Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 59 tions of the late Pleistocene. The following is based tions fostering motherhood, from before conception on my book (Geist, 1978) and on an excellent sum¬ towards - and that's crucial - a long lactation period mary article on Neanderthal man in Der Spiegel to support the child's growth. This must have been (Schult, 2000), unless otherwise cited. followed by an ontogeny made deliberately rich in The Upper Paleolithic was a crucial and remark¬ physical and intellectual activity. Since lactation is able period of both, human history and evolution. here a critical factor, every effort had to be applied to Here people reached a degree of luxurious physical keep mothers in a contented state, as stress quickly development unequaled since. It was a period of terminates milk production. The emphasis on high¬ great cultural activity as well as stability over a huge ly developed bodies and brains can only be achieved geographic area, as reflected in the nature of its by a conspicuous manipulation of reproduction, with vibrant art and artifacts, and in the lack of evidence a knowledgeable emphasis on individual develop¬ for warfare (in sharp contrast to the following ment and welfare. Excellent physical and mental Mesolithic and subsequent periods). There were development was probably a precondition for the many unique attributes: for instance, we expect col¬ demanding athletic and intellectual challenges mas¬ onizing populations of large mammals exploiting tered routinely by our ice age ancestors. The Venus virgin habitats to grow into luxury phenotypes. That Cult appears a logical outgrowth of extreme concern is, normally, a passing phenomenon, because with about the state of female partners, in the demanding population growth and the occupation of available role of giving birth and nurturing children of high habitat, body size soon shrinks, as resources are physical and intellectual abilities, and this insured reduced by intra-specific competition. However, the continuity of the tribe under very hard living humans in the Upper Paleolithic appear to be conditions. Emphasis was thus on individuals as irre¬ exempt from that rule. They show superlative phys¬ placeable, precious carriers of tribal life, not on mas¬ ical development not only when they enter Europe sive reproduction - as in agricultural cultures, which about 40 000 years ago, but for millennia after mil¬ by necessity are linked to warfare and high mortali¬ lennia till the close of the glacial period about 12 ty. In the Upper Paleolithic attention was heaped on 000 years ago. Not only are individuals tall, with an individual to foster its abilities, not on maximiz¬ rugged athletic bodies and bones free of diseases, but ing tribal numbers. However, with great value they also achieve brain sizes about a quarter greater placed on each individual, warfare becomes unthink¬ than ours. Brain size in large mammals tends to able - particularly against physically superior neigh¬ shrink with domestication and poor nutrition. bors such as Neanderthal man. The Upper Paleolithic was the first age of Art Cave art shows us some of these demands, namely, flourishing as evidenced by cave paintings, carvings, mastery with primitive weapons over large, power¬ sculptures and decorations of clothing and self. It ful, intelligent creatures that populated the late displayed in the Venus Cult a conspicuous focus on Pleistocene megafauna. Cave art is a record of woman as expressed in carvings, personal adorn¬ achievements, occasional bragging (Geist, 1978: ments, cave sculptures and pebble art. There is noth¬ 322-323; Guthrie, 1999). There is infatuation with ing remotely comparable in earlier cultures or in the megafauna and dangerous hunts, but no evidence contemporary Neanderthal artifacts. Music, as an of bragging about warfare. Meanwhile, the bulk of idea, was already developed as evidenced by bone the food came from reindeer. flutes and whistles, and so was apparently symbol¬ Moreover, our modern Cro-magnoid ancestors did ism, as evidenced by abstract signs that accompany not appear within a landscape unoccupied by Upper Paleolithic cave art. humans, quite the contrary. They appeared in Europe We can decipher some of that culture by applying despite the presence of Neanderthal people. They our modern knowledge of how to grow large, athlet¬ slowly, ever so slowly replaced Neanderthal people as ic human bodies. Some of that is found not in these shrank in distribution over some five to seven anthropology, but in Animal Science, an agricultur¬ millennia and went finally extinct about 28 000 years al discipline which focuses on how to manipulate the ago. There is no evidence that the "take over" by Cro- growth of live stock environmentally. Their findings magnoids was hostile, as there is no evidence for war¬ reflect also on human biology. The athletic bodies, fare, neither in the archeological record nor in the but above all the large cortex of the brain indicate a copious, expressive cave art. Overlap of luxurious ontogenetic development, luxurious not Neanderthal's Mousterian and Cro-Magnon's Upper only in food, but in conditions that had to be delib¬ Paleolithic artifacts are exceptional. Neanderthal and erately maintained in order that children might Cro-Magnon remained segregated. This displace¬ achieve the physical development they did. Out of ment of Neanderthal man is most remarkable, as in necessity, the focus had to be on generating condi- earlier millennia Neanderthal dominated modern

60 Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 people and displaced them as well as confined them tent confrontation hunters. This would indicate, for geographically. Thus at the beginning of the last, the instance, that hybridization with modern people was Würm glaciation, about 80 000 years ago, Mouster- unlikely, as it lowered crucial physical abilities in the ian tool kits replace pre-Aurignacian tool kits in the hybrid, making it impossible for it to safely match Mediterranean basin. In short, Neanderthal replaces the hunting abilities of pure Neanderthal men. us and confines us in North Africa. However, at the Hybrids would lead short lives and be poor first glacial maximum about 60 000 BP and maxi¬ providers. Archeological evidence suggests that mum desertification in Africa, modern people skirt¬ Neanderthal People dismembered large prey and ed around Neanderthal to the south and east and probably froze or buried it in large chunks. break out through the Levant, the eastern Confrontation hunting paid off, in that it minimized Mediterranean, to colonize southern Asia and the need for dangerous hunting, by producing large Australia. That left Neanderthal in control of Europe masses of meat from large prey at set periods. for as long as glacial conditions lasted. During Neanderthal probably lived from kill to kill. glaciations Neanderthal appeared invincible. However, that must have limited Neanderthal man However, a long interstadial erupted about 40 000 to the best existing wintering areas of the megafau¬ years BP, which marked the entrance of modern peo¬ na where prey densities were sufficient to insure liv¬ ple into Europe - despite Neanderthal. The onset of ing from kill to kill. Neanderthal people apparently interstadial or interglacial conditions is a very diffi¬ lived at much lower density than did Cro-Magnon cult time for humans. Neanderthal would have been people, as well as in smaller social groups. affected. While this interstadial ebbed and flowed How can one account for this gradual displace¬ modern people formed a wedge between the conti¬ ment of Neanderthal by Cro-Magnon people, as well nental ice sheath to the north, and the alpine glaciers as for the superlative physical development of Cro- to the south. This wedge of modern people slowly magnoids, despite competition by Neanderthal peo¬ expanded west and south, and Neanderthal slowly ple for the wildlife resources of Europe? One can shrank in distribution around mountain ranges, and make a case that the reindeer played a key role in the finally suffered extinction. This left modern humans explanation. Without reindeer, Neanderthal would as the sole occupants of Europe with the return to probably be still around and there would probably full glacial conditions in the second half of the have been no remarkable Upper Paleolithic, and Würm Glaciation. probably no modern world. Neanderthal man was very different from us. Reindeer are central to explaining how modern When placing the idiosyncrasies of its morphology man displaced Neanderthal man without the need into the ecology and behavior of its preferred prey, for overt warfare. Reindeer and caribou are favored the largest-bodied as well as the hairiest of the by interglacial conditions when tundra and alpine periglacial megafauna, then it appears the plant communities expand at the expense of Neanderthal hunted in a unique and dangerous way. periglacial loess-steppe, which shrinks in response to He specialized in close-quarter confrontation hunt¬ glacial withdrawal. As the loess-steppe shrinks, so ing, in which only two hunters needed to cooperate. does its associated megafauna of large grazers, such Parasitizing its prey's proclivity to confront preda¬ as mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), rhino tors, hunter A lures the prey into an attack. Hunter (Coelodonta antiqutatis), bison (Bison priscuis), horses B attaches himself to the prey's hair distracting it (Equus przewalskii) and giant deer (Megaloceros gigant- from A. While B hangs onto the bucking, whirling teus). That is, the primary food of Neanderthal man, beast, hunter A kills the prey with hand-held the mega-herbivores of the periglacial loess steppes, weapons (Geist, 1978; 1981). This hypothesis shrinks in abundance and geographic distribution. explains not only much of the characteristic mor¬ However, reindeer become more abundant. phology of Neanderthal, but also of its weapon, its Cro-Magnon had developed a new way to harvest frequent bone breakages and its pattern of bone reindeer. These were taken in interception hunts, breakages, which followed that of rodeo cowboys. killed in excess, and the excess converted into stored Neanderthal men had to be enormously strong, foods. The ability to intercept reindeer depended on quick, exceedingly agile and utterly death-defiant, linking reindeer migrations to chronologic time. but also very kind, generous and caring to compan¬ Such is apparently expressed in lunar calendars, as ions to allow recovery from bone breakages. were carried about in the form of the "baton de com• Moreover, during the early Würm Glaciation mandement" from reindeer antlers (Marshack, Neanderthal man changes progressively, enhancing 1972). The discovery and use of chronologic time its anatomical characteristic. That suggests that its was an enormous innovation, which was probably mode of hunting selected severely for highly compe- derived from two sources: (1) an ancient origin of

Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 61 modern-type people in the deserts of North Africa, ed with Neanderthal man for tens of thousands of and therefore exposure and challenges of clear night years as one of its prey species. If Cro-Magnon as well skies, inviting observation. Modern people arise as Neanderthal man made inroads into the popula¬ from archaic populations during the enormous tions of the slow-to-reproduce megafauna, at a peri¬ Penultimate or Riss glaciations beginning about 225 od when this fauna was declining due to a warming 000 years ago, a glaciation that during its maxima climate, then it would push Neanderthal increasing¬ must have turned most of Africa into a desert. (2) ly towards the mountain fronts where the alpine gla¬ Interstadials bring some deglaciation and thus the ciers there. Right up against the glacial fronts were rise of ocean shore-lines above the continental the winter ranges of the megafauna as illustrated shelves, creating large expanses of shallow, produc¬ today by the periglacial ecology of caribou in tive seas. This would lead to coastal boat technology Greenland (Meldgaard, 1986). Cold temperatures at and a general need for navigation. Given the ability the glacial front insure powdery snow throughout to keep calendar-time chronologically, one can apply winter, snow soft enough to be scraped from forage. such to predicting reindeer migrations, as such move During warm cycles much of the winter forage, by chronologic time. Given the ability to predict except at the glacial fronts, may be iced over by sud¬ reindeer migrations, one can plan ahead, kill in den melts and becomes unavailable to wintering excess of current need and conserve the rest for future mega-herbivores. We expect their populations to use. decline. It is thus likely that while reindeer were the This requires the ability to conserve meat and fat. staple food of the Upper Paleolithic, it allowed mod¬ Many Upper Paleolithic sites appear to be meat-pro¬ ern hunters to focus on more glamorous, but declin¬ cessing sites. These are characterized by large accu¬ ing species (giant deer, mammoth, woolly rhino, mulations of small, thin blades, such as would be steppe bison, horses) and deplete them further, required carving meat thinly in order to dry and essentially robbing Neanderthal people of their food smoke it. Cro-magnoids, as already noted, appear to supply. have their origins in deserts. They were, therefore, The above is currently a mere hypothesis, but a students of the movements of heavenly bodies, as hopeful one. New findings might disprove or sup¬ well as the conservation of food through desiccation, port it. In the meantime it may serve as an example long before they settled in the rich, periglacial of how a wildlife species may gain relevance for a regions of glacial Europe. These technical innova¬ broader public. Without reindeer, human history in tions probably led to their domination of Eurasia would have been very different. Neanderthal Neanderthal despite the latter's superior strength, people might have survived and we might not be agility and speed. here. Being able to kill an excess of reindeer, and there¬ by securing adequate food for the long term, Cro- magnoids were free to indulge in recreation and fan¬ Where do we go? cies. One of these was to hunt truly dangerous game. Our history shows two principle approaches to In short, while they ate reindeer, they dreamt of wildlife conservation, a monopolistic one and a pop¬ challenging woolly mammoth, woolly rhino, bison, ulist one. In the former a small group within society bears (Ursus arctos), lions (Panthera leo), giant stags holds exclusive rights to some of the wildlife etc. Migratory tundra reindeer were clearly identi¬ resource from which it draws benefits and which it fied as such by the archeological record, and by rein¬ in turn protects and fosters. The populist model, deer images in cave art. Other smaller-bodied hoofed however, makes all citizens de facto owner of the mammals were also taken, ibex (Capra ibex) and resource, and these delegate management authority chamois (Rupicapra rubicapra) in colder climatic peri¬ through their political leadership. The monopolistic ods, red deer (Cervus elaphus), aurochs (Bos primige¬ model was most common in the history of wildlife in nius) and horses in warmer periods. However, cave Europe, and entailed the exclusive right to wildlife art suggests that hunters were dreaming of much by an elite. This model informs us that exclusive more dangerous, demanding game. With their food monopolies over wildlife lead to severe repercussions secured they were free to hunt the remnants of the by the excluded, and to a public dislike of wildlife, periglacial megafauna - that Neanderthal probably which in Europe has never been eliminated. The depended on. monopolistic model, but in limited form, has also a With the coming of Cro-Magnon people to Europe history in North America, such as the Hudson's Bay about 40 000 years ago, woolly mammoth and the monopoly on beavers, or the division of a landscape giant deer decreased in abundance and eventually into exclusive trapping or guiding territories, as went extinct (Lister, 1994; 1995). Both had co-exist- practiced in British Columbia (Ball, 1985). The best

62 Rangifer, Special Issue No. 14, 2003 example of the populist model is the modern system Books, Scarborough, Ontario. of wildlife conservation in North America (Geist, David, N. 1985. The Noallien (level 4) assemblages and 1995; Geist et al., 2001). It is an exceedingly suc¬ the Noallien culture in Western Europe. Peabody cessful model which in less than a century returned Museum, Bulletin No. 37. Harvard University, wildlife to North America from the edge of extinc¬ Cambridge. tion. It is similar to the native model of moose (Alces Geist, V. 1978. Life Strategies, Human Evolution, alces) management among Labrador Cree. It is this Environmental Design. Springer-Verlag, New York. model which has pregnant lessons for all manage¬ Geist, V. 1981. Neanderthal the hunter. - Natural History ment of natural resources, woodland caribou includ¬ 90 (1): 26-36. ed. Geist, V. 1995. North American policies of wildlife con• What can one learn form history? One learns that servation. — In: V. Geist, V. & McTaggart-Cowan, I. caribou conservation thrives by a broad, but organ¬ (eds.). Wildlife Conservation Policy, pp. 11-129. Calgary, ized public support. Currently, caribou do not enjoy Alberta. Detselig, the support or attention that elk, deer, wild sheep, Geist, V. 1998. Deer of the World. Mechanicsburg, Pa., turkeys and grouse have over much of this continent. Stackpole Books. Only migratory caribou and reindeer in the north Geist, V. 2001. Whitetail Tracks. Krause publications, Iola, enjoy great local support, but this does not extend to WI. the declining remnants of the woodland forms, here Geist, V., Mahoney, S.P. & Organ, J. F. 2001. Why and in Eurasia. It is admirable to have meetings such Hunting Has Defined The North American Model of as we have here with a strong mix of native stake¬ Wildlife Conservation. — In: Transactions of the 66th North holders, managers and scientists. However, it is American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference, pp. imperative to reach beyond and make caribou rele¬ 175-185. vant continentally and vivid stories why caribou and Guthrie, D.R. 2000. Paleolithic art as a resource in artio- reindeer are important to us are relevant in this con¬ dactyl paleobiology. — In: E. S. Vrba & G. B. Schaller text. There is need for a broadly based Caribou (eds.). Antelope, Deer and Relatives. Yale University Press, Foundation that can act effectively in the political New Haven. arena - irrespective of endangered species legislation. Hardin, G. 1968. The tragedy of the commons. — Science In particular we need a foundation for the endan¬ 162: 1243-1248. gered woodland caribou and reindeer. The larger Heptner, V.G., Nasimovich, A.A. & Bannikov, A.G. question being is how to make this happen. 1988. Mammals of the USSR, Vol. 1. Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. Translated into English from Russian by P. M. Rao, edited by R. S. Hoffmann, Smithsonian Acknowledgements Institution Library & National Science Foundation, This paper was improved by Brian C. Gordon and an Washington, DC. anonymous reviewer. Lister, A.M. 1984. Evolution and ecological origin of British Deer. — Proc. Royal. Soc. Edinburgh 82B: 205-229. Lister, A. & Bahn, P. 1995. Mammoths. Boxtree, Literature cited London. Ball, G. 1985. The Monopoly System of Wildlife Marshack, A. 1972. Upper Paleolithic notations and Management of the Indians and the Hudson's Bay symbols. — Science 178: 817-827. Company in the Early History of British Columbia. — Melgaard, M. 1986. The Greenland Caribou - zoogeogra¬ B.C. Studies, No. 66, Summer 1985, pp. 37-58. phy, taxonomy and population dynamics. — Meddelelser Banfield, A.W.F. 1961. A revision of the reindeer and om Grønland, Bioscience 20: 1-88. caribou genus Rangifer. — National Museum of Canada Russewll, H.J. 1998. The Nature of Caribou. Douglas & Bulletin 117. Ottawa. McIntyre. Vancouver, BC. Bouchud, J. 1975. Etude de la Faune de l'Abri Pataud. — Schultz, M. 2000. Todeskampf der Flachkopfe. — Spiegel In: Movius Jr., H. L. (ed.). Excavations at Pataud les eyzies 12/20th March 2000: 240-255. (Dordogne)., Peabody Museum, Bulletin No. 30, Toweill, D.E. & Geist, V. 1999. Return of Royalty. Wild Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Sheep of North America. Boone & Crockett Club, Calef, G. 1981. Caribou and the Barren-Lands. Firefly Missoula, Montana.

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