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Empirical Studies of Christian Prayer: a Review of the Literature

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Empirical Studies of Christian Prayer: a Review of the Literature Journal of Psychology and Theology Copyright 1985 by Rosemead School of Psychology, 1985, Vol. 13, No. 2, 104-115 Biol a University, 0091-6471/4107-3000 Empirical Studies of Christian Prayer: A Review of the Literature JOHN R. FINNEY and H. NEWTON MALONY, JR. The Graduate School o f Psychology Fuller Theological Seminary Pasadena, California Christian prayer is a central religious practice which has received scant attention in psychological research. The two major types of prayer are verbal and contem- plative prayer. A review of the empirical studies of prayer suggests that the work done in this area can be divided into four categories: (a) developmental studies of conceptions of prayer; (b) research on motivations for praying; (c) studies of the effects of verbal prayer; and (d) studies of the effects of contemplative prayer. The studies on the development of the concept of prayer generally have found patterns consistent with Piaget’s stages of moral and cognitive development. Regarding motives for prayer, Welford (1947) supported the hypothesis that prayer is not just a neurotic flight from anxiety. Elkins et al. (1979) found verbal prayer to be generally ineffective in anxiety reduction. Parker and St. Johns (1957) demonstrated that a program of spiritual development that includes verbal prayer can be effective as a therapeutic intervention. The findings of Sacks (1979) suggest that contemplative prayer may facilitate ego development. Opportunities for further research on prayer are discussed. Nowhere is the longstanding breach be- ceived as similar to all social relationships in tween psychology and religion more evident that an imaginative social process takes than in the lack of research on prayer. Only a place mentally in which an idea of oneself few studies of prayer exist in spite of the fact and an idea of the other are related (Strong, that prayer is of central religious impor- 1909; Sunden, 1974). The nature of prayer tance. This article develops a conceptual differs from religion to religion depending model for prayer and reviews research re- upon the way the divine is conceived. In lated to this religious practice. Christianity God is seen to be essentially all-loving and all-powerful, the one who has Definitions of Prayer revealed himself in Jesus, the Christ. In the Prayer can be defined as “every kind of Christian tradition prayer is, thus, intimate inward communion or conversation with the communication with a benevolent deity. power recognized as divine” (James, 1902/ This article will focus on Christian prayer 1962, p. 464). As such, prayer can be con- although it will, at times, review studies which have wider implications. This article is based on a dissertation written by the Heiler’s (1932/1958) phenomenological first author, chaired by the second author and submit- ted to the Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller Theo- analysis of prayer in general, is probably the logical Seminary. most comprehensive. He concludes that Requests for reprints should be sent to John R. Fin- there are two types of prayer, mystical and ney, MDiv, 2261 N. Villa Heights, Pasadena, Cali- fomia 91107. prophetic. Mystical prayer in Heilers 104 J.R. FINNEY AND H.N. MALONY schema seeks union with God and is charac- Prayer: Functions and Processes terized by silent attentiveness to God rather A number of writers have considered the than by words. Prophetic prayer is a spon- function of prayer. Some have viewed it as taneous expression of emotion. Verbal peti- basically an expression of need (Heiler, tion to the divine is the usual form that 1932/1958; Pratt, 1930, pp. 318-320; Selbie, prophetic prayer takes. Heiler argues that 1924, p. 220; Johnson, 1945, p. 112, Hodge, mystical prayer is incompatible with the 1931). Others have concluded that prayer is tenets of Christianity, implying that it is a essentially an affirmation of faith (Ellens, form of do-it-yourself salvation. 1977; Phillips, 1965). Although Heiler’s (1932/1958) distinction Some theorizing has been devoted to the between verbal and mystical prayer has psychological processes active in prayer. stood the test of time, rejection of mystical The one that has received the most attention prayer as a Christian practice has been chal- is hypnotic suggestion (Coe, 1900, 1916; lenged (von Balthasar, 1981, 1982, pp. 333- Cutten, 1908; Hodge, 1931; Horton, 1931; 343; Bouyer, 1963, pp. 406-420; Simpson, James, 1902/1963; Pratt, 1930; Relton, 1925; 1965, pp. 112-113; Tillich, 1967, Vol. 2, pp. Selbie, 1924; Strunk, 1959; Thouless, 1923/ 83-84; Tinsley, 1969). 1956; Valentine, 1929). Theoretical dis- Verbal and mystical prayer appear to be eussions of mysticism and meditation are different phenomena, however. Some grounds for speculating that additional Christian theologians (Macquarrie, 1966, psychological processes involved in pp. 437-438; Tillich, 1967, Vol. I, pp. 112- contemplative prayer include regression 113, 126, 267; Vol. Ill, pp. 120, 192-193), (Freud, 1929/1961; Allison, 1966, 1968; argue that both are the work of the Holy Arieti, 1967; Committee on Psychiatry and Spirit on the basis of such texts as Romans Religion, 1976; Fingarette, 1958; Kris, 1936; 8:15-16. This view perceives both verbal and Maupin, 1962, 1965; Owens, 1972; Prince & mystical prayer as God within us relating us Savage, 1972), a deautomatization of per- to God above us. Thus, both can be seen as ception and cognition (Carrington, 1977; the same in essence. Deikman, 1966; Goleman, 1971; Omstein, More detailed classifications of the types 1971), a conditioning of a lower level of of prayer have been developed both by those arousal through induction of a relaxation speaking from within the Christian tradition state (Shapiro, 1980), and desensitization (Magee, 1957) and spokespersons for psy- (Goleman, 1971; Carrington & Ephron, chology (Clark, 1958, pp. 312-325). Heiler’s 1975; Otis, 1974). (1932/1958) basic distinction has been af- Beyond studies on the frequency of firmed and refined. Verbal prayer has been prayer (Strommen, 1971, pp. 553-554, 560), subdivided into such categories as petition, the empirical work that has been done can be intercession, thanksgiving, and adoration. divided into four groups: (a) Develop- Mystical prayer has come to be more com- mental studies of conceptions of prayer; monly known as “contemplative” prayer, (b) research on the motivations for praying; which can be defined as giving one’s full (c) studies of the effects of verbal prayer; attention to relating to God in a passive, and (d) studies of the effects of contem- nondefensive, nondemanding, open, non- plative prayer. verbal way. Thus, the essence of contem- plative prayer is not a technique but a par- Empirical Studies on Prayer ticular type of interpersonal response to God. The purpose of contemplative prayer Developmental Studies of is to wait on God to deepen one’s confidence Conceptions o f Prayer in his power and love so that one can grow in Regarding the first category of the re- Christlikeness. search on prayer, six studies have been done 105 PRAYER REVIEW on the development of the concept of prayer Welford (1947) surveyed 63 male students (Brown 1966, 1968; Godin & Van Rooey, between 18 and 25 years of age who were all 1959; Goldman, 1964; Long, Elkind, & church-goers. The subjects were given Spilka, 1967; Thouless & Brown, 1964). All descriptions of six situations, three of which of these deal with the period of childhood were pleasant and three unpleasant. They through adolescence. These studies have were told to imagine themselves in the situa- been reviewed elsewhere in detail (Godin, tions and to rank order the anecdotes on 1971, pp. 134-135; Elkind, 1971, pp. 673- three bases. The first ranking was the order 675). Patterns consistent with Piaget’s in which the situations would stir their emo- stages of moral and cognitive development tions and was used as an indicator of affect. were generally observed (Godin & Van The measure of frustration was based on the Rooey, 1959; Goldman, 1964; Long, Elkind, extent to which the situations would be & Spilka, 1967). It was also frequently found beyond their power to handle them, except that with increasing age, there is a decline in by praying. The third ranking was the likeli- the belief that prayer will have material hood that they would pray in the situation consequences (Brown, 1966, 1968; Godin & and was the prayer measure. Van Rooey, 1959; Goldman, 1964; Thouless Correlating rank orders, he found signifi- & Brown, 1964). A third conclusion of the cant relationships (p < .01) between prayer research on the development of the concept and affect (r = .51 ), prayer and frustration (r of prayer in childhood and adolescence is = .59, and affect and frustration (r = .38). that a child’s concept of prayer develops When frustration was partialled out from the from vague associations with the term correlation of prayer and affect, the mean “God” to a private conversation with God correlation was still significant (r = .33, p < in which very intimate things are shared .01). When affect was partialled from the (Long, Elkind, & Spilka, 1967). Finally, it correlation of prayer and frustration, it, too, has been observed that as a child matures was significant (r = .47, p < .05). Thus, his chronologically there is a movement in the hypothesis was confirmed. content of petitionary prayer from ego- The subjects were also asked why they centric wish fulfillment for such things as were more likely to pray in some situations candy and toys to altruistic desires for such and not others. These reasons for prayer things as peace on earth (Long, Elkind, & seemed to divide into two groups. One Spilka, 1967, p. 103). group saw prayer as a means of changing the situation, while the other group tended to view it as a way of altering their subjective response to the situation.
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