Examining the Relationship Between Commercial Charcoal Production and Socioeconomic Variables in Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria

Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth Science International

24(3): 1-18, 2020; Article no.JGEESI.56248 ISSN: 2454-7352

Examining the Relationship between Commercial Charcoal Production and Socioeconomic Variables in Nasarawa State, North-Central Nigeria

Ekpo Abraham Salamatu1*, Ozim Chukwunonso Emmanuel1 and Adamu Tanko Ogah2

1Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Science, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria. 2Department of Geography, Faculty of Environmental Science, Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. Author EAS designed the study and wrote the protocol. Author OCE performed the statistical analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Also, authors EAS and OCE jointly managed the literature searches, while author ATO managed the analyses of the study. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/JGEESI/2020/v24i330206 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Pere Serra Ruiz, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain. Reviewers: (1) Dione Richer Momolli, Federal University of Lavras, Brazil. (2) Paul Kweku Tandoh, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/56248

Received 10 February 2020 Accepted 17 April 2020 Original Research Article Published 25 April 2020

ABSTRACT

Charcoal is no longer a source of energy to only rural households but also a demanded commodity in urban areas around the world which has resulted in the commercialization of its production, particularly rural dwellers of developing countries such as Nigeria. Given the observed growing significance of charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods in Nasarawa State, this paper examined the relationship between commercial charcoal production and socioeconomic characteristics of the people involved in the activity. The study employed descriptive survey using both qualitative and quantitative data drawn from primary and secondary sources. Questionnaire was administered to 450 respondents randomly sampled from commercial charcoal producers drawn from 6 communities and 3 LGAs of Nasarawa State. Interviews and Focus Group Discussions were also

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Salamatu et al.; JGEESI, 24(3): 1-18, 2020; Article no.JGEESI.56248

conducted and the data obtained were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics in Microsoft Excel and SPSS (version 23). Results showed that commercial charcoal producers in the study area were mostly between 21 and 50 years with dominance of those between 31 and 40 (30.9%) while those above 50 years were least represented (6. 9%).There was slight dominance of women (52.4%) among the producers and the they were mostly primary (44%) and secondary (35.6%) school certificate. Majority (48.2%) had household size of 4 – 6 and more than half (52.9%) were married and earned 20,000 naira and below on monthly basis (46.4%). There is strong relationship between the socioeconomic status of the respondents and commercial charcoal production in the study area. Their socioeconomic status proved to have served significant motivation to their rising involvement in the activity. Also alternative economic activities that guarantees quick monetary rewards and is all age and gender engaging as well as requires no special skill and huge capitals for a start, should be planned for and introduced in the study area by the State Government.

Keywords: Charcoal; commercial; socioeconomic; Savannah; woodland.

1. INTRODUCTION world’s forest is rapidly depleting. The rate of dependence on the savannah woodlands Nature has made several resources available for has exposed the forest to degradation, these man’s utilization. Unfortunately, man’s need is has attracted concerned sectors of the insatiable and consistently growing in scale world government in finding ways to curtail thereby posing danger to available natural this increasing menace against nature. The resources which includes forest resource. United Nations Forum on Forest [4], Charcoal is one of the most utilized product of addresses issues of biodiversity degradation, savannah woodland which is a natural resource, sustainable production and women studies have shown that charcoal is no longer a empowerment as outlined in goals numbers 5 source of energy to only rural households but (Achieve gender equality and empower all also a demanded commodity in urban areas women and girls). around the world which has resulted in the commercialization of its production, particularly Although Africa’s forests support the direct among poor and rural dwellers of developing livelihood of 60 million rural people (providing countries such as Nigeria [1]. In line with Pedro food, medicine, fuel, fibre, non-timber forest [2], any intervention that will be made to protect products as well as social and cultural functions) ecological system while also enhancing income and less directly support 40 million people living through commercial charcoal production must in urban centres in the forest domains [5], seek to understand the nexus between deforestation is continuing at alarming rates in socioeconomic status of the people and many countries [6]. Approximately 30% of the commercial charcoal production activity. Given wood harvested for fuel in Africa is used for that socioeconomic indicators are relative to charcoal production and between 2004 and locations/places; it is imperative to examine the 2009, global wood charcoal production increased indicator variables as they affect commercial by 9%. This is due in large part to the increase in charcoal production in specific area of interest. wood charcoal use in developing African This would make interventions projects more countries, unrelenting charcoal and fuel wood effective, efficient and sustainable given that demand from around the world –especially, developing nations are often devoid of multiple rapidly rising demand from Europe, USA and sources of income and hence, rural dwellers tend China. to over depend on forest resources as source of income. This means that the forests of developing countries (Particularly, Nigeria which ranks The impact of wood fuel and its derivative second to Brazil among top ten wood charcoal (charcoal) gotten from forested woodlands, on production countries) are being harvested at the energy requirements of developing nations unprecedented rates [7]. Often, this is done cannot be underscored. It supplies about 95 unsustainably or not in accordance with local percent of the cooking energy needs in the laws. Road-building by logging companies has developing countries [3]. Inspite of the benefits also opened up remote areas of forests to derived from the forest and forest products, the poaching and illegal logging.

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In addition, the economic hardship, poverty, rate of forest replacement [15]. With Nigeria unemployment and increase in the price of oil losing about 3.5 percent of its forest yearly, witnessed in past few years, have necessitated which is between 350,000 and 400,000 [16] the need for people to find alternative means of hectares of forestland, the World Bank has making a living in respect of domestic cooking extended Nigeria Reducing Emissions from energy in Nigeria. During the colonial periods, Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) large number of people used firewood as Readiness Programme to Nasarawa State. domestic energy fuel, after the colonial era; there was a change in status quo, people embarked Given the observed growing significance of more on the use of electricity, fossil fuels such as charcoal in rural and urban livelihoods, kerosene and gas as cooking energy. particularly in Nasarawa state, the attention of several authors has been recently drawn to the Nowadays, millions of households use charcoal environmental consequences and socioeconomic as domestic and outdoor recreational cooking implications of its production. Omoakin et al. [17] energy as a result of epileptic power supply, studied the environmental and socio-economic scarcity and increase in the price of oil and gas. correlates of charcoal production in Oriire According to UNDP [8], an estimate of 2.5 billion Local Government Area, Oyo State, Nigeria. people lack access to modern energy services. Also, Ajadi et al. [18] looked at “subsistence They rely on traditional biomass sources such as living and global climate change: implications of wood fuel (and its derivatives), agricultural bio-charcoal production for farmers in rural areas residues, and animal dung to meet their basic of Nigeria”. They used a 25-item questionnaire energy needs [9]. These activities are leading to to examine socio-economic implications of destruction of forest cover, a situation charcoal production for farmers of aggravated by illegal commercial logging [10]. rural communities in Nigeria. Tunde et al. [19] FAO [11] indicates that between 1990 and 2005, studied the impact of charcoal production on the Nigeria lost 35.7% of its forest cover and only sustainable development of Asa Local 12.2% of the country’s land is currently forested Government Area, Kwara State, Nigeria. In their while 350,000 hectares of land in the country are study, they use questionnaire, focus lost to desertification annually. group discussions and interviews to conduct a survey on the inhabitants and producers to In 2010, Nigeria had 8.9Mha of forest cover, explore their views on method of production and extending over 9.8% of its land area. It provides the effects on their health and environment refuge for everything from rare and endangered respectively and Jamala et al. [20] looked at plants and animals to ferocious militias accused socioeconomic implications of charcoal of brutal crimes against humanity. In 2016, it lost production and marketing in Nigeria. 72kha of forest, equivalent to 5.4 Mt of CO₂ of emissions [12]. It is difficult to imagine that such Saving Nasarawa’s forest from the chainsaw and vast ancient woodlands are at risk of extinction. axe of encroaching humanity is essential to the But they are disappearing at an alarming rate. health and productivity of much of the national According to the UN Food and Agriculture economy as forests are known to play the roles Organization [13], indigenous (also known as of watersheds, defences against soil erosion and “old-growth”) forests in Africa are being cut down regulators of local weather conditions. Hence, at a rate of more than 4 million hectares per year this paper examined the relationship between which is twice the world’s deforestation average. commercial charcoal production and Furthermore, the Federal Government of Nigeria socioeconomic characteristics of the people [14] estimates that, about 150 trucks transport involved in the activity in a bid to devise a means charcoal to markets within and beyond North of making the activity sustainable. Central region per week. Households produce about 25 maxi bags of charcoal per month and 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS sell about 95 percent of the output either within or outside the region. The study was carried out in Nasarawa state. The state has an approximate land area of about This poses a worrying threat to the natural 27, 271.50 square kilometres and located in the existence of tree biodiversity in the study area basement complex of north-central Nigeria and the assertion (i.e. threatened forest) is between longitude 6º45’03’’ and 9º45’03’’ of the underpinned by the Resource Watch Agenda’s Meridian and latitude 7º 45’ 00’’ and 9º 35’ 00’’ of claim that extractions from the forest outpace the the Equator. It shares geographical boundaries

Salamatu et al.; JGEESI, 24(3): 1-18, 2020; Article no.JGEESI.56248

with Kaduna state in the north, Federal Capital tree biodiversity. Reconnaissance survey was Territory (FCT) in the west, Kogi and Benue carried out in the study area prior to the states in the south, Taraba and Plateau states in administration of questionnaire, conducting of the east. Nasarawa State has a population of interviews and focus group discussion. This 1,926,221 as the current projected population enabled familiarization with, as well as obtaining with a population density of 75/km2 (190/sg mi) of first-hand information about the study area making it one of the most densely populated through observation and casual interactions with States in the country [21]. The vegetation of the people. Nasarawa state is Guinea savanna and the floristic composition is heterogeneous with a Questionnaire containing both open and closed- variety of species. ended questions was used as a tool for data collection. It was administered to commercial Based on the number of producers identified to charcoal producers in the study area and to be involved in commercial charcoal production in ensure thoroughness, respondents were each of the six study communities, the Krejcie enlightened on how to answer the questionnaire, and Morgan's sample size determination table and were also assisted in the case of personal Krejcie and Morgan [22] was used to select disability or language barrier. A total 450 copies appropriate samples for the study. The number of of the questionnaire were administered to the producers identified in each community and its sampled respondents. associated sample size are presented in Table 1.

This paper utilized both qualitative and In addition, interviews and Focus Group quantitative data. The data collected were in line Discussion (FGD) were conducted to enhance with the aim of the paper. The study drew from the data collected through questionnaire. The both primary and secondary sources of data. focused group discussion was conducted Primary data on socioeconomic status of the amongst three groups of producers based on people involved in commercial charcoal age categories with gender balance comprising production; the reasons why they engage in of 8 – 12 participants in each group having charcoal production; the preferred tree species younger generation producers (30 years and for the production and reasons, were sourced for below), middle age producers (31 – 45 years) the study. Secondary data were obtained from and older generation producers (46 years and publications, annual and quarterly reports and above). Two FGD sessions per age group were books (hard and soft copies) that deals with the conducted in each of the selected communities in concepts and issues of charcoal production and the study Area.

Fig. 1. Nasarawa state showing the LGAs Source: Reproduced from Nigerian McMillian Atlas Map

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Table 1. Sample size determination

LGA Community Population Sample Size Akwanga Aricha 85 70 Gudi 85 70 Doma Agwashi 55 48 Idadu 90 73 Karu Songo-Gitata 120 92 Saningye-Panda 130 97 Total 450 Source: Reconnaissance Survey/ Krejcie and Morgan [22]

The acquired data was analysed using and 40 years of age. Those between ages of 41 descriptive (tools: frequencies, means, and 50 and those who were above 50 years percentages and cross-tabulation) and inferential accounted for 12.1% and 4.3% of the sampled (tools: chi-square) statistics. The raw data charcoal producers in Akwanga respectively. collected from the field was coded and analysed There was evidence of child labour among using Microsoft Excel spreadsheet (office 2016) charcoal producer in Akwanga and this could be and SPSS version 23. The results of the analysis attributed to high participation of women in the were presented in form of tables and charts. activity within the area as most women tend to use their children to augment their energy and 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ensure effective production. This implies that commercial charcoal production is an all age and 3.1 Age Distribution of Respondents gender engaging activity and with the growing economic hardship in Nigeria and Nasarawa State in particular, it is likely that more rural The age distribution of the respondents is shown dwellers in the study area will tend towards the in Fig. 2. Majority (78.2%) of the respondents forest for survival given that there is no were between the ages of 21 and 50 years. age/gender restriction, hence more pressure on Those between 31 and 40 years constituted the forest woodland and the need to accesses the 30.9% of the respondents, followed by those in sustainability of their production processes and the age bracket of 41 – 50 years (24.2%) and device/advice sustainable approaches if need be those between the ages of 21 and 30 years and also provide alternative economic activities in (23.1%). Those who were 20 years and below the study area. accounted for 14.9% while the rest 6.9% constituted those whose ages were above 50. It A discussant in Aricha community of Akwanga is not a surprise that majority of the charcoal LGA stated that: “As you have seen from producers in the study area were between the the production sites, charcoal production involves ages of 21 and 50 since the age category depicts lots of activities which allows people of the active periods of human life, given especially different ages to participate including children as that the activity of charcoal production is an young as 6 years of age”. Plate 1 shows some of energy demanding venture. The implication is the roles children plays in charcoal production in that more trees are likely to be cut for the purpose Akwanga. of commercial charcoal production since most producers are energetic to embark on consistent On the contrary, in Doma LGA, the dominant age production which guarantees their economic group among charcoal producers was 31 – 40 wellbeing. This finding is corroborated by those of years which accounted for 29.8% of the several authors [23,24] who also in their study sampled respondents in the area. This was discovered dominance of the active age followed by those between ages 41 and 50 categories in charcoal production. (28.1%), 21 and 30 (19.0%), 20 and below (14.0%) and then those who are above 50 years Furthermore, age distribution of the respondents (9.1%). Also in Karu, those who were between 31 based on Local Government Areas revealed that and 40 (39.2) were mostly involved in charcoal in Akwanga, majority (36.4%) of the charcoal production, followed by those between 41 and 50 producers were within the ages of 21 – 30 years. (30.7%), 21 and 30 (15.9%), above 50 years Those who were 20 years or below accounted for (7.4%) and then those below or equal to 20 years 26.4%, followed by 20.7% who were between 31 of age (6.9%).

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Fig. 2. Age distribution of respondents Source: Data Analysis 2018

3.2 Gender Distribution of the males (77%) and that high number of women in Respondents the population was not expected due to the physical nature of the activity. This could be due The gender distribution of the respondents is to differences in culture, religious believe and presented in Fig. 3. It was revealed that out of the economic opportunities between the study 450 charcoal producers sampled for the study, locations. Plate 2 shows the presence of women 236 representing 52.4% were female while the in commercial charcoal production in Akwanga male counterpart accounted for 47.6%. The production area. dominance of female in the charcoal production business was mostly noticed in Akwanga Local Conversely, more male producers than female Government Area where out of 140 sampled were observed in Doma and Karu Local respondents, 64.3% were female and 35.7% Government Areas (LGA). Out of the 121 male. This highlights the important role of women sampled respondents in Doma LGA, 54.5% were in the charcoal production venture and could be male and 45.5% female whereas in Karu LGA, attributed to the culture and religious believe in out of 189 respondents, males accounted for 52% the area which permit women to engage in such and female 48%. The dominance of male in these venture as well as lack of alternative economic two locations could be attributed to the tedious ventures that best suits their gender. This high nature of commercial charcoal production presence of women in commercial charcoal which requires a lot of energy as well as gender production within the study area indicates roles and responsibility based on the local increasing involvement of people of diverse culture. Alannah [26] found that cultural factors gender in the business due to the quick financial pertaining to religion, human strength and land reward as found in this study. This in turn poses dictated gender roles. adverse effect on the surrounding woodlands as their operations were found to be solely based on 3.3 Educational Attainment of the traditional method which requires more trees to Respondents be cut to ensure lucrative production. This finding disagrees with that of Beatrice et al. [24] who The educational attainment of charcoal producers found that more males were involved in charcoal in the study area as presented in Table 2 shows production than women and also that of Herd [25] that the producers were comprised mostly of who reported that charcoal production in the primary school (44%) and secondary school Chicale Regulado, Mozambique is dominated by (35.6%) leavers. There were also quite a large

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number of those who had no formal education common-goods attitude. The general pattern of accounting for 13.1% of the total respondents educational attainment was also mirrored in the while the remaining 7.3% consisted of those who three LGAs except for Akwanga where those who had attained one form of tertiary education or the had attained tertiary education (10%) were found other. The educational attainment of commercial to be more than those who had no formal charcoal producers in the study area indicates education (5.0%). This could be due to the that they may not be well informed about the presence of colleges of education in the area consequences of their actions and inactions as it which most of the respondents hinted to have concerns vegetation cover. This implies attended. Those who had attained primary and increasing trend of forest degradation as most of secondary levels of education in the LGA the producers approaches the use of forest accounted for 45.7% and 39.3% respectively. In resources (trees) for their business with the Doma, majority (46.3%) of the respondents had

Plate 1. Use of children in charcoal production process at Gudi community (9°0′52.499″N 8°16′9.827″E) Source: Authors’ Photography (2018)

Fig. 3. Gender of sampled charcoal producers Source: Field Data Analysis 2018

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primary education, followed by 25.6% with was found that more than half (52.9%) of the secondary education, 24% with no formal commercial charcoal producers in the study area education and 4.1% who had attained tertiary were married, 24% were single while 18.9% were educational level. Similarly, in Karu, 41.3% had those who had lost either their wives or primary education, 39.1% secondary, 12.2% had husbands. The rest constituted 3.6% who has no formal education and those with tertiary been separated from their spouse and 0.7% who education accounted for 7.4%. The large number are having other forms of marital relationships. In of respondents in the primary education category Akwanga, 48.6% were found to be married, coupled with a significant number who had no followed by 32.1% who were single, 14.3% formal education is an indication that charcoal widows/widowers while those who were production has been considered as self- separated from their spouse and those who employment by the majorities who have not been indicated other kinds of marital relationship employed and have failed to advance their accounted for 3.6% and 1.4% respectively. In education. The findings on educational attainment Doma, 57% were married, 22.3% were concur with Shively et al. [27] who argued that widows/widowers and 19% were single while charcoal producers in Uganda have the lowest 1.7% were separated. The marital status as level of education. It also affirms the theory of observed in Karu indicated that 52.9% were social cost which explains that the actions of married, 21.2% were single and 20.1% have lost charcoal producers are driven by an undesirable their spouse to death, while those who effect – poverty. were separated and those who have other forms of marital status accounted for 4.8% 3.4 Distribution of Respondents by and 0.5% respectively. This high rate of Household Size marriage among commercial charcoal producers confirms the statement by one of the It was observed that the inhabitants of the study FGD participants in Doma production area area believed strongly in extended family system, that: “most of us are married and have at least hence their household size was determined by two or more children, we therefore must do the husband, wife(s), children and relatives. Table whatever we can to ensure that our families are 3 shows that almost half of the respondents (217) being provided for. Commercial charcoal representing 48.2% had family sizes of 4 - 6 production is a quick rewarding activity with persons, followed by 20.9% who had family sizes consistent demand, it can be started with no or of 7 – 9 persons. Those who had family sizes of very minimal capital and requires no special skill, 1-3 persons accounted for 14.9%, those from hence the reason for our involvement in the family sizes of 10-12 persons represented 11.3% activity”. while the rest 4.7% were those whose family sizes were above 12 persons. Findings from the 3.6 Monthly Income of Respondents study indicates that large family sizes serve as major sources of labour for commercial charcoal Table 4 presents the monthly income of production. The implication is increased pressure commercial charcoal producers in the study area. on the forest resources existing in an already It was found that about half (46.4%) of the fragile ecosystem of the study area evidenced by producers earn 20,000 and below, on monthly the deforested environment. basis. This is followed by 41.1% who earn

3.5 Marital Status of Respondents between 21,000 and 49,000 and 12.4% who earn 50,000 and above. The high number of producers The marital status of sampled commercial in the 20,000 and below and the 21,000 – 49,000 charcoal producers is presented in the Fig. 4. It earning category could be attributed to the poor

Table 2. Educational status of charcoal producers

Level Akwanga Doma Karu Total Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % Tertiary 14 10.0 5 4.1 14 7.4 33 7.3 Secondary 55 39.3 31 25.6 74 39.1 160 35.6 Primary 64 45.7 56 46.3 78 41.3 198 44.0 No Formal Education 7 5.0 29 24.0 23 12.2 59 13.1 Total 140 100 121 100 189 100 450 100 Freq. = Frequency, % = Percentage Source: Field Data Analysis, 2018

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Plate 2. Women participating in commercial charcoal production at Gudi community (9°1′1.969″N 8°15′25.034″E) Source: Authors’ Photography (2018)

Fig. 4. Distribution of respondents by marital status Source: Field Data Analysis 2018

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Table 3. Household size of the respondents

Number of persons Akwanga LGA Doma Karu Total Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % 1 – 3 26 18.6 10 8.3 31 16.4 67 14.9 4 – 6 81 57.9 40 33.1 96 50.8 217 48.2 7 – 9 27 19.3 32 26.4 35 18.5 94 20.9 10 - 12 4 2.9 31 25.6 16 8.5 51 11.3 Above 12 2 1.4 8 6.6 11 5.8 21 4.7 Total 140 100 121 100 189 100 450 100 Source: Field Data Analysis 2018 governance of the charcoal sector in the study LGA owns a company that produces and area, which allows middle men to exploit the exports charcoal out of the country and also producers as revealed in an interview with some distributes to far places within the country, such of the producers. The World Bank [28] as cited by as Lagos and Port-Harcourt. This finding implies Kifukwe [29], suggested that although commercial that the almost immediate monetary reward from charcoal production is a major source of income commercial charcoal production is strong among developing economies, the charcoal attraction of people in the business hence sector is still being poorly governed. In Akwanga exerting more pressure on already stressed LGA, 44.3% of the charcoal producers constituted ecosystem of the study area. those earning 20,000 and below on monthly basis, 42.1% earns between 21,000 and 49,000 3.7 Distribution of Roles in Commercial while 13.6% earn 50,000 and above. In Doma, Charcoal Production by Gender and more than half (56.2%) of the producers earn Age Group 20,000 and below, 39.7% earns between 21,000 and 49,000 while only 4.1% earns 50,000 and The chi-square and cross-tabulation result of the above. Similar to earnings in Akwanga, 41.8% of test of association between the roles commonly the sampled respondents in Karu earns 20,000 performed by commercial charcoal production and below, 41.3% earns between 21,000 and and their gender and ages are presented in 49,000 while 16.9% earn 50,000 and above. The Tables 5 to 8. high number of producers in the 50,000 and above earning category at Akwanga and Karu Table 6 show the relationship between gender could be attributed to the locations where they and the various roles performed in the process of sell their products as most respondents from commercial charcoal production within the study both LGAs claimed to sell their charcoals in Abuja area. The Pearson Chi-Square result of the and Keffi. A particular Chinese man in Karu association between gender and roles shows

Table 4. Distribution of the respondents by monthly income

Income (naira) Akwanga LGA Doma Karu Total Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % 20,000 and below 62 44.3 68 56.2 79 41.8 209 46.4 21,000 – 49,000 59 42.1 48 39.7 78 41.3 185 41.1 50,000 and above 19 13.6 5 4.1 32 16.9 56 12.4 Total 140 100 121 100 189 100 450 100 Source: Field Data Analysis

Table 5. Chi-square result of commercial charcoal production roles by gender

Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 162.379a 5 .000 Likelihood Ratio 199.728 5 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 94.163 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 450

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Plate 3. Stages of charcoal production process at Saningye-Panda (9°14′34.579″N 7°50′14.961″E). Source: Authors’ Photograph 2018 that there was a statistically significant (p-value < 54% were female while the male counterpart 0.01) association between gender and the roles accounted for 46%. In Karu LGA, out 160 performed by commercial charcoal producers. participants in the role, 51.3% were male while Furthermore, a cross-tabulation of gender and 48.8 were female. roles in commercial charcoal production as presented in Table 7 shows that cutting of tress This situation confirmed the statement by a for charcoal production and stacking of woods at discussant from Songo-Gitata community that: the kiln location were mainly the role of men. Out of the 104 respondents who engaged in tree “Women here mostly engage in less energy cutting and wood stacking, 100% and 93.6% demanding roles of charcoal production were male respectively. Although covering of the process in order to meet their small-small stacked wood with grasses and/or sand proved needs such as buying of their toiletries, to be a female dominated role in the State, the hence they only sell their labour to main situation was quite different in Karu LGA. Overall, producers whenever such needs arises. out of 378 respondents who engaged in the role, Also, those who engages in the production

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proper often contract out the energy sapping dominated by people of younger ages in the aspects of the production males”. study area. Out of the 157 participants, 31.2 % were those between 21 and 30 years, 24.8% Furthermore, burning and monitoring of charcoal were 20 years and below, 22.3% were 31 – 40 burning aspect of the production process shows years while the least age group that participated that both gender was very well represented with in this role were those between 41 and 50 slightly male dominance. Out of 427 participants, (14.6%) and above 50 years (7.0%). This is in 53.9% were male while the rest 41.6% were conformity with the statement by a discussant female. This slight male dominance of male in from Idadu community that: this role was also reflected in Doma and Akwanga production areas. However, in “Even though people of different ages Akwanga, more women were found to be participate in this work, some aspects of the engaging in the role where out of 128 work can only be accomplished by young participants, 68.8% were female and 31.2% were people who are energetic and very active. male. This could be attributed to the high For example, older people cannot go through involvement of women in the business as the rigours of tree cutting/transporting as well observed in the LGA coupled with more socio- as carrying logs around for the purpose of cultural freedom that is being enjoyed by women stacking, hence they often rely on the in the area as indicated by a discussant from services of younger producers to accomplish Gudi community during FGD. Conversely to the such tasks” case of tree cutting and wood stacking, the raking and separating of dirt from formed Another female discussant from Aricha added: charcoal was found to be female dominated role with 61.5% female participant out of 239. “I cannot carry heavy logs, so I tip my Packing/bagging of charcoal was similarly younger male children or neighbours to dominated by women in the study area, out of assist me stack the woods which I usually 378 participants, 57.9% were female. This finding purchase from operators I cannot also cut implies that although there is a pronounced the trees by myself”. involvement of women in commercial charcoal production in the study area, they were mostly Although the role of covering stacked logs with concerned with less tedious aspects of the sand/grasses was quite spread across the production process as male participants assisted various age groups in the study area, it was them with such roles. This is in corroboration with observed to be mostly performed by those in the the findings of [24,26,30,31] who found that 41 – 50 years’ age bracket (28%), followed by 31 women in commercial charcoal production often – 40 years (25.9%) and 21 -30 years (22.5&). contract the tedious aspects of the production Similarly, burning and monitoring of the charcoal process to payed labour or rely on the services of burning process was also dominated by same adult male member of their families. age groups as in covering of stacked logs. Out of 427 participants, 28.6% were between 31 and 40 Table 8 shows that there is statistically significant years, 28.1% were between 41 and 50 years and association between the ages of commercial 23.2% were in the range of 21 – 30 years. In the charcoal producers and the roles they performed. same vain, out of 239 respondents who The Pearson Chi-Square result was significant at participated in raking and separation of p-value < 0.01. Furthermore, Table 8 presents dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal, 39.7% the breakdown of the roles different ages were between 31 and 40 years, 23.8% engaged in. Out of the 104 participants of tree accounted for those in the 21 – 30 years’ age cutting those within the ages of 21 and 30 years group and 18.8% 20 years and below. (37.5%) dominated the role, followed by those Furthermore, dominance of same age groups whose ages were 20 and below (30.8%), 31 – 40 was recorded for packing/bagging of charcoal years (20.2%) and 41 – 50 (11.5%). In Akwanga product. Out of 378 participants, those between LGA, those who participated in tree cutting were 31 and 40 years accounted for 29.6%, followed mostly (65.2% out 23 participants) 20 years and by those between 41 and 50 years (27.5%) and below, while in Doma and Karu LGAs, it was those who were 20 years and below (23.0%). those between 21 and 30 years of age and they This finding indicates that the more tedious accounted for 64.9% of 37 and 31.8% of 44 aspects of commercial charcoal production are participants respectively. Similarly, the role of handled by those within the active age brackets stacking the cut wood for burning was mostly and the participation in different production roles

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decreases with increase in age. Beatrice et al. of the roles in charcoal production processes and [24] noted that due to the tedious nature of the participating gender and age groups in the commercial charcoal production, its operations study area. Plate 4 in addition to what Plate 3 are mostly carried out by energetic adults within reveals also shows scenes of questionnaire the productive age bracket. Plate 3 shows some administration, interviews and FGD.

Plate 4. Second to last stages of charcoal production activity at gudi, akwanga LGA (9°1′1.969″N, 8°15′25.034″E and 7° 51' 49.963" N, 8° 20' 40.214" E) Source: Authors’ Photograph 2018

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Table 6. Roles and gender cross-tabulation

LGA Role Gender Total Male % Female % Akwanga cutting of tree 23 100 0 0 23 Stacking of logs 34 81 8 19 42 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 43 35.2 79 64.8 122 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 40 31.3 88 68.8 128 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 24 27.6 63 72.4 87 Packing/bagging of charcoal 42 33.1 85 66.9 127 Doma cutting of tree 37 100 0 0 37 Stacking of logs 43 100 0 0 43 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 49 51 47 49 96 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 60 52.2 55 47.8 115 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 24 33.3 48 66.7 72 Packing/bagging of charcoal 44 48.4 47 51.6 91 Karu cutting of tree 44 100 0 0 44 Stacking of logs 70 97.2 2 2.8 72 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 82 51.3 78 48.8 160 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 97 52.7 87 47.3 184 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 44 55 36 45 80 Packing/bagging of charcoal 73 45.6 87 54.5 160 Total cutting of tree 104 100 0 0.0 104 Stacking of logs 147 93.6 10 6.4 157 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 174 46.0 204 54.0 378 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 197 46.1 230 53.9 427 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 92 38.5 147 61.5 239 Packing/bagging of charcoal 159 42.1 219 57.9 378 Source: Data Analysis 2018

Table 7. Chi-square result of commercial charcoal production roles by age

Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square 173.218a 20 .000 Likelihood Ratio 207.345 20 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 6.071 1 .014 N of Valid Cases 450

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Table 8. Roles and age group cross-tabulation

LGA Role Age Total 20 and below 21 - 30 31 - 40 41 - 50 Above 50 Akwanga cutting of tree 15 (65.2) 1 (4.3) 4 (17.4) 3 (13.0) 0 (0.0) 23 Stacking of logs 19 (45.2%) 7 (16.7) 6 (14.3) 10 (23.8) 0 (0.0) 42 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 26 (21.3) 38 (31.1) 28 (23.0) 30 (24.6) 0 (0.0) 122 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 23 (18.0) 38 (29.7) 37 (28.9) 30 (23.4) 0 (0.0) 128 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 18 (20.7) 33 (37.9) 32 (36.8) 4 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 87 Packing/bagging of charcoal 20 (15.7) 41 (32.3) 37 (29.1) 29 (22.8) 0 (0.0) 127 Doma cutting of tree 6 (16.2) 24 (64.9) 5 (13.5) 2 (5.4) 0 (0.0) 37 Stacking of logs 7 (16.3) 19 (44.2) 13 (30.2) 4 (9.3) 0 (0.0) 43 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 7 (7.3) 26 (27.1) 54 (56.3) 9 (9.4) 0 (0.0) 96 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 8 (7.0) 33 (28.7) 65 (56.5) 9 (7.8) 0 (0.0) 115 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 8 (11.1) 12 (16.7) 52 (72.2) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0) 72 Packing/bagging of charcoal 6 (6.6) 23 (25.3) 55 (60.4) 7 (7.7) 0 (0.0) 91 Karu cutting of tree 11 (25.0) 14 (31.8) 12 (27.3) 7 (15.9) 0 (0.0) 44 Stacking of logs 13 (18.1) 23 (31.9) 16 (22.2) 9 (12.5) 11 (15.3) 72 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 26 (16.3) 21 (13.1) 16 (100) 67 (41.9) 30 (18.8) 160 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 25 (13.6) 28 (15.2) 20 (10.9) 81 (44.0) 30 (16.3) 184 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 19 (23.8) 12 (15.0) 11 (13.8) 24 (30.0) 14 (17.5) 80 Packing/bagging of charcoal 23 (14.4) 23 (14.1) 20 (12.5) 68 (42.5) 26 (16.3) 160 Total cutting of tree 32 (30.8) 39 (37.5) 21 (20.2) 12 (11.5) 0 (0.0) 104 Stacking of logs 39 (24.8) 49 (31.2) 35 (22.3) 23 (14.6) 11 (7.0) 157 Covering of stacked logs with sand/grasses 59 (15.6) 85 (22.5) 98 (25.9) 106 (28.0) 30 (7.9) 378 Burning and monitoring of charcoal 56 (13.1) 99 (23.2) 122 (28.6) 120 (28.1) 30 (7.0) 427 Raking and separation of dirt/debris from newly formed charcoal 45 (18.8) 57 (23.8) 95 (39.7) 28 (11.7) 14 (5.9) 239 Packing/bagging of charcoal 49 (13.0) 87 (23.0) 112 (29.6) 104 (27.5) 26 (6.9) 378 Source: Data Analysis 2018

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4. CONCLUSION which a large and currently unknown percentage of the rural population relies. Commercial charcoal producers in the study area were mostly between 21 and 50 years with Therefore, regulatory system should be organised dominance of those between 31 and 40 (30.9%) among the commercial charcoal producers and while those above 50 years were least registered formally so that they can access represented (6.9%). The use of child labour in the incentives for acquiring sustainable technologies production process was common in Akwanga for charcoal production. This will reduce the production areas. Respondents’ sex distribution quantity of tree species felled. Also alternative revealed slight dominance of women (52.4%) economic activities that guarantees quick among commercial charcoal producers in the monetary rewards and is all age and gender study area, however, there were slightly more engaging as well as requires no special skill and men than women in Karu and Doma production huge capitals for a start, should be planned for areas. The producers were mostly primary (44%) and introduced in the study area by the State and secondary (35.6%) school certificate holders Government. with a significant number of those with no formal education (13.1%). CONSENT

Majority of the commercial charcoal producers As per international standard informed and were found to have household size of 4 – 6, that written participant consent has been collected is, 57.9% in Akwanga production areas, 33.1% in and preserved by the authors. Doma and 50.8% in Karu. Cumulatively, it was 48.2% while those with household size above 12 COMPETING INTERESTS (4.7%) were the least represented. More than half (52.9%) were married, 24% were single while the Authors have declared that no competing rest had either lost their spouse or in one form of interests exist. relationship or the other. Most (46.4%) of the producers earn 20,000 naira and below while a REFERENCES few earn 50,000 naira or above on monthly basis. There were more high income earners in Karu 1. Catherine N, Reto G. Charcoal as an (16.9%) and Akwanga (13.6%) production areas energy resource: Global trade, production than those of Doma (4.1%). and socioeconomic practices observed in Uganda. MDPI. Resources. 2019;183(8):1- There is strong relationship between the 27. socioecomic characteristics of the respondents DOI: 10.3390/resources8040183 and commercial charcoal production in the study 2. Pedro ZM, Mansour M, Marc JM, Sophia area. Their socioeconomic status proved to have B, Frank V, Ana CL, Emily W, Almeida AS, served significant motivation to their rising Genevieve P, silda N, Casey MR, James involvement in the activity. Continued rise in the P, Maria JM, Natasha SR, Isla MG. uncontrolled wood species extraction for Environmental conservation and social commercial charcoal production without benefits of charcoal production in corresponding measures towards restoration or mozambique. Ecological economics. 2018; conservation, will reduce the capacity of trees 144:100-111. cover to provide pasture, control soil erosion, Available:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolec medicine and energy requirement for society and on.2017.07.028 livestock in study area. 3. Food and Agricultural Organization. Assessing forest degradation: Towards the Policies that aim to decrease consumption such development of globally applicable as deployment of more efficient cook stoves are guidelines. Forest Resources Assessment certainly well intentioned and logistically practical. Working Paper 177. Rome. 2011;1-109. However, the decreased consumption, and 4. United Nations Forum on Forest. United therefore decreased demand, will further Nations Forum on Forests Input to the exacerbate the standard of living for the High-Level Political Forum. 2017;6. numerous rural charcoal producers. Driving down (Accessed 11 November, 2018) the price and physical demand of charcoal is Available:https://sustainabledevelopment.u likely to stifle the charcoal production markets, on n.org/content/documents/15629UNFF.pdf

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