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Aga Khan Iii and the British Empire: the Ismailis In AGA KHAN III AND THE BRITISH EMPIRE: THE ISMAILIS IN TANGANYIKA, 1920-1957 ALIA PAROO A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN HISTORY YORK UNIVERSITY, TORONTO, ONTARIO MARCH 2012 © ALIA PAROO, 2012 Library and Archives Bibliotheque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de I'edition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-90374-2 Our file Notre reference ISBN: 978-0-494-90374-2 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non­ L'auteur a accorde une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant a la Bibliotheque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par telecommunication ou par I'lnternet, preter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des theses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, a des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non­ support microforme, papier, electronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriete du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette these. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la these ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent etre imprimes ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformement a la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privee, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont ete enleves de thesis. cette these. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. Canada Ismaili Muslims, followers of Aga Khan III, were scattered throughout the British Empire in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, and in the years following World War I, many Ismailis migrated from India to East Africa. This study demonstrates that Aga Khan III negotiated this migration of Ismailis to Tanganyika, a migration that occurred within the British Empire. Once Tanganyika was declared a British mandated territory by the League of Nations following the First World War, nationals of all member nations, which extended to India, were promised assurances of the same rights that would be offered to them in their own territories. Increasingly, Ismailis from the subcontinent took advantage of established networks of exchanges in commodities, people, cultures and ideas that characterized movement throughout the Indian Ocean. The migration to Tanganyika was intended to improve their quality of life. In Tanganyika, Ismailis were politically grouped with other immigrants from India, despite their vast religious differences. The Aga Khan and his representative leaders in East Africa viewed this as a threat to the community's identity. In turn, Ismailis were encouraged to distance themselves from the other immigrants from the subcontinent in an effort to bolster a sense of communal solidarity in response to this perceived threat. In particular, separate educational facilities were developed and maintained in opposition to the public schools designed to cater to all immigrants from India. In turn, these developments influenced the ways in which Ismailis identified themselves and how others identified them. Focusing specifically on the issue of education, this study examines the strategies that Aga Khan III employed in safeguarding the Ismaili community. In this examination, it is argued that Aga Khan III was able to convince British colonial officials to protect the interests of the Ismailis as loyal subjects disproportionately to other immigrants from the Indian subcontinent, which effectively assisted in perpetuating the process of British imperialism. This study thus sets out to analyze the relationship that was constantly negotiated between Aga Khan III and the British Empire through the lens of education. iii Acknowledgements I am thankful to members of my committee for their tireless efforts in helping me develop this dissertation. They have given so generously of their time, their resources and their wisdom. I am grateful to Ratiba Hadj Moussa who offered insightful feedback during my defence. Special thanks to Thabit A.J. Abdullah who often generated thought- provoking discussions that pushed me to sharpen my analysis. I am indebted to Jose C. Curto who has inspired me throughout my time at York University, providing steadfast support, sound guidance and encouragement that I hope to emulate with my students. Thanks also to Doug Peers, who helped me unearth many ideas during the final phase of my writing, forcing me to think about the coherence of my arguments, in turn greatly informing the project. It has also been an honour and a delight to work with Gwyn Campbell. I deeply appreciate his efforts in shaping both my thinking and scholarship. I am most indebted to Paul E. Lovejoy for accepting to serve as my advisor. His close and generous readings of my work helped me refine my arguments and push my research in new and exciting directions. He has been a pillar of support through this journey. I also appreciate the advice given to me by Abdul Sheriff, which continues to resonate with me. I would also like to thank Lisa Hoffman and the administrative staff for their assistance in navigating the York administrative system. I owe a great deal to the many generous souls who welcomed me into their homes during my fieldwork. The Mitha family offered material and intellectual support, including a room of my own during my stay in London, England. It is rare to find people as charitable as them in this world. While in Tanzania, the Meghji family took me under iv their care, offering me a home away from home. I will never forget the efforts made by Shabir Mawji in helping me undertake my research throughout Dar es Salaam. I cannot imagine what my fieldwork experiences would have been like without these two families. Words cannot express the gratitude I feel towards Taslin and Riz for the generosity they have extended to me over the years. While at York University, I was blessed to have developed lasting friendships with my fellow graduate students. This community of peers has been an ongoing source of support. I am especially grateful to Reeshma Haji for proofreading my work and helping me rework the text. I owe many thanks to the wonderful friends and family members who supported and encouraged me over the years. It is a privilege to be associated with you. In particular, I have profound reverence for the sacrifices made by my grandparents. 1 will never be able to express how much they mean to me. My parents, who taught me the power of perseverance, patience, and humility, will always serve as sources of inspiration to me. I am indebted to my brother for all of his efforts in helping me achieve this goal. I am lucky to have him in my life. Lastly, I must thank my husband, Mohamed Rawji, for his love, patience and support. Moe, I could not have done this without you. I will forever be grateful for taking that walk with you that one summer night in Upanga. May we continue to walk together for the rest of our lives. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV INTRODUCTION 1 STRUCTURE 8 HISTORIOGRAPHY 12 METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES 15 CHAPTER ONE: THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE ISM AILI COMMUNITY AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE AGA KHAN 19 THE ORIGINS OF ISMAILISM 20 PERIODS OF TURBULENCE 23 ISMAILIS IN NINETEENTH CENTURY INDIA 30 EARLY ISMAILI MIGRATIONS TO EAST AFRICA 35 CHAPTER TWO: ISMAILI MIGRATIONS TO TANGANYIKA 41 AGA KHAN III AND THE BRITISH BEFORE WORLD WAR 1 41 MIGRATION TO EAST AFRICA DURING AGA KHAN ILL'S IMAMATE 47 CHAPTER THREE: ISMAILI MIGRATION TO TANGANYIKA AFTER WORLD WAR I 52 TANGANYIKA: AN INDIAN COLONY? 53 THE ISMAILI COMMUNITY IN TANGANYIKA 72 THE DEMOGRAPHY OF IMMIGRANT GROUPS FROM INDIA IN TANGANYIKA 74 CHAPTER FOUR: ISMAILI IDENTITY FORMATION 84 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A TANGANYIKAN ISMAILI IDENTITY 85 ISMAILI LOYALTY TO THE CROWN 95 ISMAILI INVOLVEMENT IN POLITICS 97 JAMATKHANAS: THE CENTRE OF ISMAILI LIFE 103 AGAKHAN SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS NETWORKS AND OTHER SYMBOLS OF IDENTITY 106 DRESS: A SYMBOL OF CHANGE 115 ISMAILI FESTIVITIES 119 THE ISMAILI PRESS 124 CHAPTER FIVE: SOCIAL RELATIONS IN BRITISH MANDATED TANGANYIKA 135 RELATIONS BETWEEN IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA AND AFRICANS 136 RISING TENSIONS AMONG TANGANYIKA'S IMMIGRANT COMMUNITIES FROM INDIA 146 RELATIONS WITHIN THE ISMAILI COMMUNITY 150 vi CHAPTER SIX: THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION FOR IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 156 THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION 157 THE AGAKHAN SCHOOL SYSTEM 170 OBSTACLES IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA FACED WITH EDUCATION 175 INTEGRATION OF SCHOOLS FOR IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA 189 CHAPTER SEVEN: THE AGA KHAN'S RESISTANCE TO THE AMALGAMATION OF SCHOOLS FOR IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA 193 CASE STUDY: UGANDA, 1934 194 CASE STUDY: MOSHI, TABORA AND MWANZA, 1935 201 CASE STUDY: MUSOMA, 1948 204 GENERAL CONDITIONS OF THE EDUCATION OF IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA 208 A PUSH FOR CHANGE 213 REACTIONS OF NON-ISMAILI IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA TO AMALGAMATION 224 THE LONG ROAD TO AMALGAMATION 229 WHO WAS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EDUCATION OF IMMIGRANTS FROM INDIA? 238 CONCLUSION 248 APPENDIX A: EVENTS IN THE LIFE OF H.
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