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A University of Sussex PhD thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details ICT4D policy for Trinidad and Tobago: Discursive constructions Kieron K.E. Swift Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2017 SPRU University of Sussex ii Summary This thesis uses a contextual case study approach covering the period 1985 to 2011 to examine the construction of Trinidad and Tobago’s ICT4D policy as discourse. The guiding theory of method is contextualism as described in Pettigrew (1990), according to whom a contextual analysis can be characterised as: processual, by emphasising the evolution of actions embedded in specific contexts (structural and otherwise) over time; multi-stakeholder, by recognising the competing viewpoints of reality perceived by actors at different levels; longitudinal, by considering both historical and contemporary views of actions and events. Consistent with this approach a framework has been adopted here that views policy as an iterative process involving the generation of texts from events, the translation of texts into narratives, and competition between alternative narratives resulting in institutions, which, in turn, enable and constrain events. This framework facilitates understanding interactions between actors at multiple levels across time. There are three original contributions to knowledge made in this thesis. Firstly, I have proposed an analytical framework that integrates three separate bodies of literature. The discursive model of institutionalization of Phillips, Lawrence and Hardy (2004) and the ‘policy as discourse’ approach of Shaw & Greenhalgh (2008) and Shaw (2010) are integrated by way of a bridge, the ‘trading zones’ concept of Galison (1997) as extended by Collins, Evans, & Gorman (2007). Thereby, I developed a series of analytical constructs that can be used for contextual policy research, especially in developing countries where dominant policy narratives constrain and moderate discursive exchange when those policy narratives - which were originally articulated in advanced economies - are subsequently transferred into developing countries. Secondly, I have empirically applied the framework to the study of ICT4D policy construction in Trinidad and Tobago, generating new insights in the process. In so doing I critically examined the process of constructing policy as discourse with the aim of identifying ways in which policy could be done differently. A key finding is that the process of discursively transferring previously existing policy narratives into new contexts can result in one of three outcomes: no change - if the introduction of policy narratives had no impact whatsoever on institutions (either by creating new ones, or disrupting existing ones); the construction of policy pidgins (semi-specific yet incomplete proto-languages that mediate discursive transfer) - when discursive transfer, imitation and assemblage of narratives partially occurs; or the construction of policy creoles (full-fledged languages that facilitate not only discursive transfer, but social action) - if the discursive transfer is complemented by translation, editing and social embedding. iii Thirdly, I developed a model of policy creolization through which the two main factors that influence the emergence of policy pidgins and, eventually, policy creoles (both viewed as particular forms of institutions) in a setting of discursive construction were identified, namely: The length of the temporal window over which policy actors have an opportunity to develop interactional expertise to transfer, imitate and assemble narratives, and eventually to translate, edit and embed those narratives into social actions; The degree of intentionality of the discursive action, and subsequently the social action, that policy actors engage in, noting that there are three categories of social action: o Intentional action – which deliberately conveys particular ideas through texts. o Consequential action – which is generated as a by-product of ongoing dialogue among actors during which they may draw on broader narratives. o Emergent action – which arises through discursive contestation and struggle in ways that were not necessarily intended or predicted. This highlights that both intentionality and time are required to bridge the knowledge gaps present between the different contexts, and even so, that the policy construction process in the new context requires practitioners to develop non-trivial levels of interactional expertise. This thesis has implications for policy practice on two fronts. Firstly, the framework can be employed to assist policymakers in creating policy creoles through coordination and interaction between external mainstream narratives and alternative narratives, including those that are locally derived. In doing so, policymakers and policy analysts can unpack the conceptual constructions of their subject domain, learn how to engage with new domains (and thereby gain interactional expertise) and uncover the latent power dynamics that are reinforced by lack of critical analysis. Secondly, application of the framework provides a means of assessing institutional dynamics. This is important because of the powerful normative, cognitive and regulative functions institutions play on the development of new institutions, and ultimately on social action. iv Acknowledgements Completing this thesis has been a journey of self-discovery for me, both personally and professionally. It is a journey that has been both extremely difficult and extremely rewarding. As such, I wish to now give thanks where they are due. Firstly, to My Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ, who sustained me throughout this process and without whom I could not have completed it. To my wife, Amelia, who has been, and continues to be steadfast in her support and love, and who sacrificed much while I was engrossed in doing this work. I truly could not have done this without you and I look forward to attempting to repay you for all that you have given me when I most needed it, which I know is an impossible task. To my mother and brother, Allison and Kevon, who round out the inner circle of my support system, and who have both been peerless in their support and encouragement of my capability to get to this point. My mother especially will be relieved that I have reached this milestone and can get on with the rest of my life. My supervisors, Dr. Piera Morlacchi and Prof. W. Edward Steinmueller, who have both, in different ways, challenged my abilities and extended my capabilities as a researcher. They both exhibited the curious capability of making me feel smarter and better able to proceed after our meetings, which is an excellent quality for a PhD supervisor to have. All friends and colleagues from SPRU from over the years since I first arrived as a Masters student in 2008. To those of you who got to this point before me, I am thankful to have now joined your ranks. To those of you still in the struggle, keep at it, and please take one small piece of advice that was shared with me, but which I, woefully, did not accept soon enough: finish and submit as quickly as you can! There will always be improvements you can make to your work, but that's what the rest of your career is for. To all research participants, for their generosity with their time and their insight during my fieldwork trip in 2011 and in all the time since: all colleagues at what was formerly the National ICT Centre under the Ministry of Public Administration; the Trinidad Guardian and Trinidad Express newspapers for allowing me access to their archives. Any revelatory insight is due to the combined effect of all persons listed here who have so generously shared with me. Any lingering shortcomings of this work are my own. I dedicate this work to my late godmother, Bernadette Hamlet-Clinton, who was an eternal supporter of mine and who passed away on the eve of submission. You may be gone, but you will never be forgotten. v Contents List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix Abbreviations and Acronyms ......................................................................................................... x 1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................1 2. Literature Review ...................................................................................................................6 2.1. Policy ..............................................................................................................................7 2.1.1 Policy as comprehensive rationalism .....................................................................9 2.1.2 Policy as political rationalism

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