Istorijat I Razvoj Penjačke Opreme I Standarda

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Istorijat I Razvoj Penjačke Opreme I Standarda ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić Sportski klub “Tribe” Beograd, 2019. v.1.7 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić Sadržaj Uvod 4 Napredak u penjanju i razvoju opreme 5 Faktor pada i zaustavni trzaj 6 Zaustavni trzaj 6 Faktor pada 6 Oprema 7 Pojasevi 7 Klinovi 9 Boltovi (ekspanzivni klinovi) 10 Struktura i vrste boltova 11 Karabineri 12 Vrste karabinera 13 Mehanizmi zaključavanja 15 Vrste nosa karabinera 17 Snaga karabinera 18 Materijal izrade karabinera 18 Kontrola kvaliteta karabinera 20 Užad i prusici 21 Uže 21 Izum najlona 23 Kernmantle uže (uže sa jezgrom) 24 Jezgro 24 Košuljica 24 Proizvodnja užeta 25 Tipovi užadi 26 Standardizacija užadi 26 Osnovni zahtevi kod testiranja za UIAA 101 standard 27 Prusik 28 Načini upotrebe prusika 29 Gurtne 32 Najlon 33 Dynema, Spectra, Dynex 33 Poliester 34 Kompleti 35 Problemi 36 Šlemovi 37 Performanse plastičnih šlemova 40 2 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić Performanse hibridnih i šlemova od pene 40 Testiranje i standardizacija 40 Oprema za osiguravanje, penjanje uz uže i spuštanje niz uže 41 Oprema za penjanje uz uže (ascenderi) 41 Podela opeme za penjanje uz uže 41 Oprema za spuštanje niz uže (desenderi) 43 Podela opreme za spuštanje niz uže 44 Sprave za osiguravanje 46 Standardizacija 47 Bezbednost prilikom osiguravanja 47 Snaga sprave za osiguravanje 48 Funckionalnosti i pravi izbor 48 Podela opreme za osiguravanje 49 Literatura 51 Napomena: Penjanje je opasna aktivnost. Priložene informacije su informativnog karaktera. Veliki deo navedene opreme više nije u upotrebi. Za pravilnu upotrebu, potrebno je pročitati specifikaciju proizvođača opreme. Takođe, neophodna je pravilna obuka korisnika opreme. Pored neverovatnog tehnološkog napretka u razvitku i poštovanju propisanih standarda, postoji opasnost da nešto od opreme zakaže. Svaki element opreme ima rok trajanja koji je deklarisan u specifikaciji proizvoda. Redovna inspekcija opreme od strane korisnika radi provere kvaliteta je ključna. Nepravilno korišćenje može dovesti do povreda ili smrti. Vodite računa o sebi i o drugima. 3 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić 1. Uvod Prvi zapisi koji su povezani sa penjanjem datiraju još od 400 godina pre nove ere. Naime, otkriveni su kineski akvareli na kojima se jasno vidi povezanost čoveka sa ovim oblikom kretanja. Još početkom XIV veka, pleme Anasazi na jugozapadu SAD, bušilo je rupe u steni na strmim liticama i klesalo stepenike u Čako (Chaco) kanjonu. S obzirom na težinu pristupa ovim lokacijama, pretpostavlja se da su pripadnici plemena Anasazi ovladali nekom vrstom penjačkih veština. Ljudi su se bavili penjanjem hiljadama godina zarad opstanka, sa prvim razvojem specijalnih mehaničkih alata koji se pojavljuju u XV veku. Razvitak penjanja vezuje se za planinarenje, koje postaje sport sa prvim usponom na Mont Blanc 1786. godine. Ovim usponom započeto je “zlatno doba” planinarenja i alpinizma. U sledećih 100 godina, engleski gospodski stalež je uz pomoć francuskih, švajcarskih i italijaskih vodiča, osvajao vrh po vrh. Nadalje, početkom XX veka, penjanje i alpinizam su još uvek bili u usponu. U ranim danima, jedini cilj alpinista je bio osvojiti vrh. Odabirali su najlakšu moguću rutu, ali nakon što su svi vrhovi Alpa bili osvojeni, alpinisti su počeli da istražuju alternativne načine za uspone već popetih vrhova (teže smerove). Alati su se koristili na krajnje primitivan način u odnosu na standarde modernog doba. Iako istorija alpinizma i opsesije stajanja na vrhu planine datiraju još mnogo vekova pre, tek u kasnom XIX i početkom XX veka, ljudi su počeli da istražuju planine i vrhove radi čistog uzbuđenja i uživanja. Godine 1932, American Alpine Journal je u svom članku naglasio da i dalje postoji veliki broj penjača koji se protivi upotrebi čekića, klinova i “bezbednosnih zakačaljki“ (karabinera). Nakon rata, broj alpinista i penjača se znatno povećao. Penjanje, kao oblik aktivnosti u prirodi, je blago postajalo društveno prihvatljivo. Užad su se pravila od konoplje i drugih prirodnih vlakana, tehnike osiguravanja su bile krajnje jednostavne i rizične, padanje je najčešće dovodilo do povreda, modrica, preloma i slično. Mnogi su na penjanje gledali kao na “aktivnost bez padanja”. Sve ovo, dovelo je do toga da je bilo potrebno preduzeti nekakve mere kako bi penjanje kao aktivnost bilo sigurno. Sredinom XIX veka, došlo je do zastoja i napretka na ovom polju kada su materijali i tehnologije postali dovoljno razvijeni. Bezbednost same opreme znatno je poboljšana u trenutku kada se sa prirodnih vlakana prešlo na sintetička, kao i razvitkom metalurgije. Takođe, jedan od najznačajnijih faktora je bio i momenat kada je započeta upotreba penjačkih standarda koji su se kasnije znatno unapređivali i razvijali. Svi trenutni standardi Evroposkog komiteta za standardizaciju i Međunarodne 1 planinarske i penjačke federacije (UIAA ) zasnivaju se na istraživanju ljudskog tela i samog uticaja opreme na telo. Sigurnosni zahtevi su stoga zasebno definisani za svaki segment opreme. Samim tim, broj nesreća je drastično umanjen. Početak standardizacije u penjanju vezuje se za početak 60-ih godina, ali oni su praktično bili izostavljeni kada se radilo o otpornosti dinamičkog užeta na habanje. Uže, kao centralna komponenta bezbednosti nije imala 1 “Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme” poznate kao “International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation”), standard UIAA, sada poznatiji kao CE. 4 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić propisane standarde i kao takvo je izazivalo zabrinutost za potpuno pouzdan i siguran penjački sistem. Iako se najveći deo penjačkih nesreća blisko vezivao za nedovoljnu obučenost korisnika opreme i nepažnju, veliki deo se i pripisivao kratkom veku trajanja užeta. Inovativniji dizajn užeta ili novi propisani standardi su mogli znatno da umanje broj nesreća. U nadi da razumemo zašto je postojao zastoj u pojedinoj standadrizaciji, ova sekcija prikazuje istoriju tehnološkog napretka penjačke opreme. Dublje razumevanje najosnovnijih komponenti kompleksnog penjačkog sistema je neophodno kako bi se poboljšao trenutni sistem. 1.1. Napredak u penjanju i razvoju opreme Kako su se granice penjanja pomerale, a pod ovim mislimo na težinu penjanja, uporedo sa time, napredovala je i oprema. Celokupan razvoj opreme vezan je za individualce koji su u slobodno vreme na različite načine pokušavali da olakšaju sebi uspone. Kada su američki penjači započeli razvoj opreme i tehnika kao pripremu za prvi uspon na Grand Teton 1989. godine, Evropa je uporedo pokazala izrazito naprednu povezanost tehnologija i penjanja. Do samih promena u opremi, prvenstveno je došlo do promena u dizajnu koje je zatim propraćeno daljim razvitkom užarije i pojaseva za penjanje. Evropski standardi (EN) se sprovode u jednoj od tri Evropske organizacije za standardizaciju (ESOs) – i to CEN, CENELEC ili ETSI. Testiranje užadi je standardna praksa ovih organizacija još od 1960. godine. Fizičke osnove standarda koji se propisuju su zasnovane na otpornosti ljudskog tela. Znamo da je gravitaciono polje zemljine kugle 1G ili 9.8m/s​2.​ Granica bezbednosti u penjanju leži između 1/10 (fizika) i 1/5 (UIAA) aktivne dužine užeta po trenutnim UIAA/CE standardima dinamičkog užeta. Prema ovom scenariju, sila koju telo može da izdrži je oko 12kN (kilo njutn - jedinica za silu). Ova brojka dolazi iz stare vojne specifikacije Sjedinjenih Američkih Država za padobrance i samu aktivaciju padobrana. 1.2. Faktor pada i zaustavni trzaj Zaustavni trzaj Faktor pada i ​zaustavni trzaj dva su najvažnija koncepta u fizici penjačkog pada. Kako bi razumeli penjački pad, važno je podsetiti se na osnovni zakon fizike: ​dok objekat padne, on skladišti energiju​. Prilikom zaustavljanja pada, ta energija se razlaže na komponente penjačkog sistema (užeta, osiguravaoca, sidrišta i samog penjača). Energija se prenosi kroz lanac osiguranja u vidu 5 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić sile. Ovo je ono što u penjanju nazivamo zaustavni udar ili udarna sila. Vrednost zaustavnog udara se odnosi na sve faktore u apsorpciji energije: istezanje užeta, osiguravaoca, penjača i količine užeta koja “procuri” kroz spravu za osiguravanje, itd.. Uprošćeno, penjač koji pada u trenutku zaustavljanja “proizvodi” silu čiju ćemo posledicu nazvati ​zaustavni udar​. Najveći deo tog zaustavnog udara će upiti uže ali dobar deo će se preneti na penjača, osiguravaoca (ukoliko postoji) i sidrišta koja učestvuju u zaustavljanju. Te delove zaustavnog udara koje trpe penjač i svako sidrište u sistemu zovemo zaustavni trzaj. Faktor pada U penjanju, sa upotrebom standardnog dinamičkog užeta, faktor pada znači odnos između dužine pada i aktivne dužine užeta (dužina užeta koja “upija” pad - dužina užeta između penjača i osiguravaoca u trenutku pada). Faktor pada se često koristi kako bi se utvrdila ozbiljnost penjačkog pada. f = dužina pada / aktivna dužina užeta Iako na prvi pogled deluje da će duži pad proizvesti veću udarnu silu na telo, to u praksi nije tako. Pad od 1,5m na 1,5m užeta će više opteretiti ceo penjački sistem nego pad od 15m na 30m užeta. Izuzetno je važno da shvatimo da nas ne čuva dužina pada već količina užeta koja će apsorbovati skadištenu energiju. Faktor pada i zaustavni trzaj 6 ISTORIJAT I RAZVOJ PENJAČKE OPREME I STANDARDA Nemanja Čizmić 2. Oprema 2.1. Pojasevi Iako se pronalazak penjačkih pojaseva vezuje za Jeanne Immink, holandsku penjačicu kasnog XIX veka, prvi pravi koncept penjačkih pojaseva osmislio
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