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The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Foreign Fighters Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law Committed in the Territory of the Syrian Arab Republic Since 2011 The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Dahabreh, Peter Cephas. 2019. The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Foreign Fighters Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law Committed in the Territory of the Syrian Arab Republic Since 2011. Master's thesis, Harvard Extension School. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:42004137 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA The International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Foreign Fighters Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and International Human Rights Law Committed in the Territory of the Syrian Arab Republic since 2011 Peter Cephas Dahabreh A Thesis in the Field of International Relations for the Degree of Master of Liberal Arts in International Relations Harvard University May 2019 © 2019 Peter Cephas Dahabreh Abstract The Syrian Civil War is an interesting case in geopolitics if one looks at the evolution of foreign fighters. What began as a demonstration in a southern village of Syria transformed into one of the most devastating conflicts of the twenty-first century. The war brought new challenges to the world as a consequence of this now almost decade-long civil war. Myriad challenges are all too apparent: refugees, terrorism, and reconstruction, among them. The focus of this thesis is on foreign fighters, which I define as those involved in foreign terrorist organizations who continually challenge international law. Prior to the Syrian civil war, foreign fighters did not have extensive support. That came only with the temporary successes of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and other radical extremists during their zenith from 2014 to 2016. Today, the problem that needs to be resolved worldwide is how to handle the return of every foreign fighter as they return to their original homes. No corner of the globe is exempt since recruitment of these foreign fighters reached throughout six continents. Thousands of men and women joined ISIS, and now many will return home following the failure of the self-proclaimed caliphate. ISIS declared its caliphate in 2014, but even before then it used horrendous tactics to recruit new members and seize territory and power; indeed, other Islamic extremist groups pursued similar activities. Many of the crimes committed during the Syrian civil war—rape, massacre, ethnic cleansing, and genocide—were carried out by members recruited into these groups. That begs the questions: Will the world bring justice to the victims of this war? Can anything be done? If there is no court to hold accountable these violators of international law and international human rights, what recourse is there for holding these fighters accountable for actions that have ravaged and prolonged a conflict resulting in millions of displaced people and more than a half a million dead? This thesis aims to answer the following question: What is the most viable option for holding foreign fighters accountable when it is determined that they violated international law during the Syrian civil war? My research suggests that a new international tribunal is required, one that can hold foreign fighters in the Syrian civil war accountable for their actions. Most domestic laws stop short, deciding instead to charge a foreign fighter with membership in a terrorism organization when he/she attempts to return home. Many entities and governments point to international courts as the most viable option for rendering judgment. However, I identify several hurdles in that path, which I discuss. In sum, my research efforts lead me to a more viable approach: establishing an international tribunal through the United National Security Council. To this end, I offer specific suggestions to bring this realistic option to fruition. Dedication To my family and to the values of the United States of America. v Acknowledgments I would like to acknowledge and thank Professor Naz Modirzadeh, the Founding Director of Harvard Law School’s Program on International Law and Armed Conflict, for her guidance, support, and leadership. I would also like to thank Jennifer Allison, Librarian for Foreign, Comparative, and International Law at the Harvard Law School Library. Her assistance with researching American and European court cases was critical to my own research. A special thank you to Dr. Doug Bond, who spent hours with me in his office regarding my thesis. The outcome of that patience and care has given me a new understanding of what inspires me the most. vi Table of Contents Dedication ........................................................................................................................v Acknowledgments.............................................................................................................. vi List of Figures......................................................................................................................x Glossary of Acronyms ....................................................................................................... xi Chapter I Prolegomenon.................................................................................................1 Chapter II Foreign Fighters .............................................................................................7 Who is a Foreign Fighter?..............................................................................7 Debate in International Law About Foreign Fighters ..................................11 Chapter III The Syrian Civil War ...................................................................................17 Buildup to Civil War ....................................................................................18 Foreign Fighters in the Syrian Civil War .....................................................20 Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS)..................................................20 Jabhat al Nusra (JN).............................................................................23 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) .......................................23 Syrian Kurds ........................................................................................24 United States and Its Middle East Allies......................................................25 Jordan...................................................................................................27 Saudi Arabia.........................................................................................28 vii Egypt....................................................................................................28 Israel.....................................................................................................29 Russia and Its Pro-Assad Alliance ...............................................................29 Iran and Hezbollah...............................................................................30 Summary ......................................................................................................31 Chapter IV Violations of International Law Committed During the Syrian Civil War..33 Obstruction of Freedom of Expression ........................................................37 Murder..........................................................................................................38 Illegal Detention Centres..............................................................................39 Torture..........................................................................................................39 Rape and Sexual Violence............................................................................40 War Crimes ..................................................................................................40 Recruiting and Using Children in Hostilities ...............................................41 Attacking Protected Objects.........................................................................41 Genocide.......................................................................................................42 Crimes Against Humanity............................................................................42 Chapter V Decentralized Prosecutions of Foreign Fighters ..........................................44 United States ................................................................................................45 Belgium ........................................................................................................47 France.........................................................................................................500 Denmark.......................................................................................................51 Summary of Decentralized Prosecutions .....................................................52 viii Chapter VI Extraordinary Measures for Extraordinary Curcumstances .........................54 History of Three Courts................................................................................54