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Nuclear Fusion the Power of the Future

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Nuclear Fusion the Power of the Future PHYSICS Nuclear Fusion The Power of the Future Gareth roberg-ClArk ‘14 ow will human civilization topes of elemental hydrogen, which power itself as time goes on? typically has no neutrons. The reaction HThis question has pervaded products are Helium-4 (also called an scientific debate and research for years alpha particle) and a fast-moving neu- as humanity has continued to consume tron (4). Fig. 2 depicts this reaction. massive quantities of fossil fuels. One The reaction’s output energy is alternative to fossil fuels, nuclear fu- granted to the product neutron, which sion, was viewed in the 1950’s as a in a fusion reactor collides with a blan- means of completely replacing fos- ket material covering its walls. The sil fuel usage without generating any atoms in the blanket material vibrate, greenhouse gas emissions. Though heating up and boiling water that sur- Image retrieved from: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_7rUC6j6LDl8/TNQFC8ywc6I/ research into fusion reactors began in AAAAAAAAAI0/c-xbFXnmbak/s1600/curve+of+binding+energy+raster+big.png rounds the chamber. When converted earnest in the following decades, sci- Fig. 1: Binding energy and number of nucleons to steam, the water vapor will turn entists began to realize the enormous (3). a turbine and generate electricity. obstacles they faced in getting fusion The D-T reaction, however, has a light elements (smaller mass number reactions, which normally occur in the downside. It requires tritium, a radio- than iron, Fe) fuse or when heavy ele- intense heat and pressure of stars, to active isotope that has a half-life of 12.6 ments (higher mass number than iron) successfully occur in confined spaces years. This means that in 12.6 years, split apart. Mass number refers to the on earth (1). A fusion reactor capable half of a tritium sample’s atoms will sum of an element’s protons and neu- of powering humanity to this day has send out potentially damaging particles trons, which make up atomic nuclei. not been developed despite numerous and photons. The process continues Another quantity called binding energy and expensive attempts at creating until the radiation tapers off. Though refers to the potential energy used to controlled fusion. David Montgomery, 12.6 years is a relatively small half life, keep an atom’s mass compacted into the Eleanor and A. Kelvin Smith Pro- tritium is still radiotoxic, meaning its a nucleus (3). Fig. 1, which compares fessor of Physics at Dartmouth College, radiation could damage exposed living average binding energy (BE) and num- believes that fusion research could tissues over time (5). Tritium is also ex- ber of nucleons (A), shows the divide have had much greater success by now ceedingly rare in nature and has to be at iron between fusion and fission. had the underlying nature of matter at bred in a reaction with lithium metal. One promising fusion reaction is extremely high temperatures and pres- This lithium will most likely reside in the D-T reaction between deuterium sures been more thoroughly investigat- the blanket material of the reactor, al- (a hydrogen atom with a neutron in ed before delving into these projects (2). lowing neutron collisions to constantly its nucleus, A=2) and tritium (a hy- However, he also believes that, if create fuel for fusion reactions to occur. drogen atom with two neutrons in its properly executed, fusion would be an Fig. 3 describes the breeding process. nucleus, A=3). Both are nuclear iso- amazing asset to humanity. Fusion has Breeding complicates the process fantastic long-term benefits. Its fuel is abundant, it generates very little waste, and the chance and potency of its disas- ters are minimal. Fusion has plentiful fuel, it is sustainable, and it is very safe. For these reasons, nuclear fusion could be the answer to humanity’s energy prob- lems thousands of years into the future. Nuclear reactions are reactions between atomic nuclei. Fusion is one type of nuclear reaction in which two nuclei collide with each other, fusing into a larger mass. The other type, fis- sion, is the splitting apart of a nucleus into smaller nuclei. If a nuclear reaction is to be used as a power source, it has to release more energy than was put into Image by Chen Huang ‘12, DUJS Staff. its reactants. Energy is released when Fig. 2: Tritium reacting with Deuterium. 6 DARTMOUTH UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE the D-D reaction (or other reactions sion fuel, causing the samples to blow that utilize different elements) will up rapidly. Inertial confinement seems take time and considerable research. more promising as a means of weap- Fusion occurs constantly in the ons development as opposed to power sun. The sun’s environment has the generation (8). No current project in- ideal conditions that allow nuclei to corporates all of the elements of a suc- fuse and radiate energy. On earth, a cessful fusion reactor, and this is why sustained environment has to be cre- fusion power, if successful at all, can ated to allow nuclei to interact in this only be a viable energy source decades manner. Often the environment is a into the future. Once the power gen- plasma, a fluid composed of negatively eration hurdle is overcome, however, and positively charged ions. The fusion humanity could continue to reap the fuel is heated to temperatures on the benefits of this plentiful energy source. order of millions of degrees Celsius, One reason nuclear fusion could forcing the electrons and nuclei of each remain a viable energy source long atom apart and creating the plasma. into the future is the widespread and The atomic nuclei, now isolated from consistent availability of its fuel, re- negatively charged electrons, have gardless of which reaction is carried enough energy at high temperatures out. Deuterium (in the form of D2O to overcome the electrostatic repulsion molecules) can be extracted from sea- between positively charged protons (7). water on a continual basis. Tritium is Once nuclei are close enough, the at- not present in nature and will be ob- tractive weak nuclear force can attract tained from breeding reactions with the two nuclei and force them to fuse. lithium metal or from reactions in Unfortunately, plasmas are exceeding- nuclear fission plants. Lithium metal, ly difficult to contain. The constituent though present in small concentrations ions of the plasma tend to spread out- in seawater, will likely be extracted ward rapidly, dissipating heat by knock- from the earth’s crust (7). Without tak- ing into nearby neutral particles and ing into account the lithium present eventually recombining into atoms (8). in seawater, a report by four research- A few methods of confining plas- ers of the European Fusion Develop- mas have been devised. One is magnetic ment Agreement (EFDA) asserts that confinement, in which applied magnet- there is enough lithium to last a fusion ic fields corral the ionized plasma, mak- power economy for 1000 years (10). ing sure that it does not knock into the This leaves ample time for research- reactor walls. Magnetic confinement is ers to develop reactors that utilize the Image by Chen Huang ‘12, DUJS Staff. used in tokamak devices, an example of D-D reaction. Once that technology is Fig. 3: Generating lithium via breeding of which is ITER, an international proj- mastered, seawater could be harvested reactions. ect based in the south of France and run to provide fusion power indefinitely. of sustaining fusion fuel supplies con- by Russia, the U.S., India, China, Ja- An issue present in any energy siderably because the blanket mate- pan, and the European Union. ITER’s source is the production of harm- rial has to constantly flush out newly goal is to reach ignition – a state in ful waste, be it radioactive, polluting, made tritium. Since tritium’s radioac- which the fusion fuel burns without ad- or greenhouse-gas-effect-enhancing. tive and rare nature is problematic, it ditional supplied energy – by the year Since the D-T reaction produces non- would be better to eliminate it from the 2026. ITER’s ignition will last at most radioactive Helium-4 and a neutron, reaction altogether. In fact, two deu- for 400 seconds (7). Stellarators, which fusion will produce no direct radioac- terium nuclei can fuse in a D-D reac- also use magnetic confinement, may be tive waste and will not create green- tion. There are three sets of products able to harness the power of fusion re- house gas emissions. The same goes this reaction can create depending on actions over sustained periods of time. for the D-D reaction, which will not how the deuterium fuses: tritium and This is the goal of Wendelstein 7-X, a produce radioactive waste regardless a proton, Helium-3 and a neutron, or project at the Max Planck Institute for of which specific reaction takes place, Helium-4 and a high-energy gamma Plasma Physics in Germany that is to be provided any tritium produced is ab- ray (6). The only radioactive product finished by 2015 (7). Wendelstein 7-X’s sorbed as fuel and rapidly consumed is tritium, which could immediately reactor will use a complicated “twisted to make Helium-4 (6). Tokamaks such fuse with deuterium to produce more torus” shape to confine its plasmas (9). as ITER, however, will produce two energy. At the moment, however, fu- Inertial confinement, another indirect sources of radioactive waste: sion reactors are incapable of sustain- method, is under development at the tritiated dust and activated materials. ing the temperatures required for the National Ignition Facility in the united Tritiated dust results from interac- D-D reaction to occur (7).
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