Organ Building in Germany During

This dissertation has been microfilmed exactly as received 67-6327 JACKISCH, Frederick Frank, 1922- ORGAN BUILDING IN GERMANY DURING THE BAROQUE ERA ACCORDING TO THE TREATISES DATING FROM PRAETORIUS’ SYNTAGMA MUSICUM (1619) TO ADLUNG’S MUSICA MECHANICA ORGANOEDI (1768). The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1966 Music

University Microfilms, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan ORGAN BUILDING IN GERMANY DURING THE BAROQUE ERA ACCORDING TO THE TREATISES

DATING FROM

PRAETORIUS' SYNTAGMA MUSICUM (I619)

TO ADLUNG'S MUSICA MECHANICA ORGANOEDI (1?68)

DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Frederick Frank Jackisch, B.S. Ed., M. Mus

******

The Ohio State University 1966

Approved by

Advise] Department of Music ORGAN BUILDING IN GERMANY DURING THE BAROQUE ERA

ACCORDING TO THE TREATISES

DATING FROM

PRAETORIUS' SYNTAGMA MUSICUM (l6l9) TO

ADLUNG'S MUSICA MECHANICA ORGANOEDI (1768)

By Frederick Frank Jackisch, Ph.D.

The Ohio State University, I966

Dr. Herbert Livingston, Adviser

In recent years a number of important studies of extant Baroque organs have been made in an effort to gain a fuller understanding of those instruments. Although most of these organs have long since undergone numerous alterations, they nevertheless disclose much of the world of the organ builders of that past age. Such disclosures, however, form only a part of what may be learned of Baroque organ build­ ing. The processes, the concepts, the ideas, and ideals which led ultimately to the finished product may be known more fully by an examination of the contemporaneous treatises on organ building.

1 Two definitive treatises, Praetorius' Syntagma

Musicum (1619) and Adlung’s Musiea Mechanics, Organoedi

(1768), have long occupied important positions among the historic writings on Baroque organs. In the century and a half between these two definitive treatises, however, a sizeable body of literature on organ building was published. Included among these writings are: Johann

Philipp Bendeler, Organopoeia (I690); Andreas Werckmeister,

Orgel-Probe (1698); Werner Fabricius, Unterricht (1756);

Johann Caspar Trost, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung des neuen

Orgelwerks auf der Augustus-Burg zu Weisenfels (1677);

Christian Ludwig Boxberg, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung der

Orgel zu St. Petri und Paul zu Gôrlitz (1704); Friedrich

Niedt, Musikalischer Handleitung, Dritter Theil, "Anhang"

(1717); Johann Biermann, Organographia Hildesiensis

specialis (1738); and Jacob Adlung, Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit (1758).

This intervenient body of literature forms an im­ portant bridge between the treatises of Praetorius and

Adlung because it provides a great deal of information

about the craft of organ building of its own time, and

clarifies the stages of development in organ building which

occurred during that period.

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine the

treatises which lie between Praetorius and Adlung, to dis­

close and collate the data provided by the various writings. to analyze the theories and practices contained therein, and to structure this information into a systematic deline­ ation of the craft of organ building as it relates to the musical milieu of that particular time in history. In this study, consideration is given to such aspects of organ con­ struction as the wind distribution system, the wind chest, the pipes (with particular attention to Bendeler's system o f ’scaling), the organ case, tonal design (with an analysis of the eighty-three organ specifications of Niedt and

Biermann), tuning, and temperament. In addition, some attention is devoted to certain aspects of performance practices as they relate to the organs of this period.

Not only do the treatises disclose a wealth of important information regarding the methods employed by builders in the construction of the various portions of the organ, but they also reveal that organ building and organ playing underwent a number of significant changes throughout

the Baroque era. In the latter part of this era organists

tended to forsake older registrational practices, such as

the combination of stops of broad and narrow scale, while

organ builders designed their instruments to be consider­

ably different both in concept and construction from

earlier Praetorian models. PREFACE

In recent years a numlDer of important studies have been undertaken in an effort to gain a fuller understanding of the organs of the Baroque era. Included among such

studies are those which have grown out of the now forty- year-old Orgelbewegung in Germany, a movement that has

fostered continuing research in the tonal and construc­

tional aspects of Baroque organs, as well as in the music

written for those instruments.

Many of the Orgelbewegung studies are based on

direct and detailed examinations of the extant organs

dating from the Baroque era. Although most of these organs

have long since undergone numerous alterations, they never­

theless disclose much of the world of the organ builders of

that past age. These disclosures, however, form only a

part of what may be learned of Baroque organ building. The

processes, the concepts, the ideas, and ideals which led

ultimately to the finished product may be known more fully

by an examination of the contemporaneous treatises on organ

building. A number of these treatises were published con­

currently with the vigorous renewal of interest in the building and renovation of organs following the devasta­

tions of the Thirty-Years War. ii Christhard Mahrenholzj viewing the writings of this period; observes:

What the second volume of Praetorius' Syntagma Musicum [1619] is to the knowledge of organs of the early seventeenth century, Adlung's Musica Mechanica Organoedi [1768] is to the under­ standing of organs of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.1

In the century and a half between these two defini­

tive treatises a sizeable body of literature on organ building was written. This intervenient body of literature

forms an important bridge between the treatises of

Praetorius and Adlung because it provides a great deal of

information about the craft of organ building of its own

time, and clarifies the stages of development in organ

building which occurred during that period. No study has yet been made of the German treatises

which form this intervenient body of literature. The

purpose of this dissertation, therefore, is to examine these

treatises, to disclose and collate the data provided by the various writings, to analyze the theories and practices con­

tained therein, and to structure this information into a

systematic delineation of the craft of organ building as it

relates to the musical milieu of that particular time in

history. In this study, consideration is given to such

aspects of organ construction as the wind distribution

^Ghristhard Mahrenholz, "Nachwort" to the facsimile edition of Jakob Adlung's Musica Mechanica Organoedi (Berlin, 1768), Kassel: Bârerireiter, I961, p. H

111 system, the wind chest, the pipes, the case, as well as tonal design, tuning, and temperament. In addition, some attention is devoted to certain aspects of performance practices as they relate to the organs of this period.

The present study could not have been completed without the direct aid of certain individuals and agencies.

The writer therefore proffers his deep gratitude to the

Lutheran World Federation for a study grant awarded him in the spring and summer of 1964, and to the Lutheran Brother­ hood Insurance Company of Minneapolis. Both agencies provided assistance which made possible the acquisition of microfilms needed for this study.

In spite of countless removals and relocations of

library resources occasioned by the deprivations of World

War II, several needed documents were obtained through the

special efforts of Ruth E. Froriep, librarian of the

Kirchenmusikschule in Hannover, and Dr. Hedwig Mittringer,

librarian of the Archiv der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in

Vienna. To them is extended a deep debt of gratitude. Acknowledgment is also accorded Dr. Herbert S.

Livingston of the graduate music faculty of The Ohio State

University, whose direction of this study has proven at all

times to be of great value.

Finally, the writer proffers a profound debt of

gratitude to his wife not only for her aid in typing the

finished document, but for her uncommon patience as well as

iv her countless and timely expressions of encouragement throughout the course of this study.

V VITA November l6, 1922 Born - Chicago, Illinois

1944 ...... B.S. Ed., Concordia Teachers College, River Forest, Illinois

1944 - 1948 . . . Teacher and Director of Music, St. John Lutheran Church, New Orleans, Louisiana

1948 - 1957 . . . Teacher and Director of Music, Eiranaus Lutheran Church, Port Wayne, Indiana

1950 ...... M. Mus., Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois

1957 - 1966 . . . Professor of Organ and Church Music, Wittenberg School of Music, Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio

1966 ...... Director of Graduate Study, Wittenberg School of Music, Wittenberg University, Springfield, Ohio

PUBLICATIONS

Articles in The Journal of Church Music:

"Music to Sleep By?," Vol. 2, No. 3j pp. 2-4, March I96O "On Preludes," Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 9-13, May I96I "Service Music for Organ," Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 1-3, January I962 "Those Short Responses," Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 5-8, April 1965 Book Reviews in The Lutheran Quarterly;

E. S. Brown, "Living the Liturgy," Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 95-98, February I983 H. Grady Davis, "Why We Worship," Vol. 15, No. 2, p. 192, May 1983

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field; Music

Vi Studies in Elementary and Secondary Education

Studies in Organ. Marcel Dupre, Frederick Marriott, and Dr. Thomas Matthews

Studies in Music Theory, History, and Literature. Dr. Frank Cookson, Dr. Karl Eschmann, Dr. Richard Hoppin, Dr. Herbert Livingston, Dr. Keith Mixter, and Dr. Norman Phelps

Studies in Training Procedures for Church Musicians in Germany - Lutheran World Federation Grant

Vll CONTENTS Page

PREFACE ...... ii

VITA ...... vi ILLUSTRATIONS ...... ix

TABLES ...... xi

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Chapter I. THE WIND DISTRIBUTION S Y S T E M ...... 8

II. THE PLAYING MECHANISM...... 58

III. THE P I P E S ...... 92

IV. THE ORGAN CASE ...... I38

V. TONAL DESIGN ...... l49

VI. TEMPERAMENT AND PI T C H ...... 201

VII. REGISTRATION AND PERFORMANCE PRACTICES . . . 212

VIII. SUMMARY...... 238 APPENDIX I. ON THE ACQUISITION OF AN ORGAN .... 243

APPENDIX II. ORGAN SPECIFICATIONS FROM NIEDT'S MUSIKALISCHER HANDLEITUNG ...... 24?

APPENDIX III. ORGAN SPECIFICATIONS FROM BIERMANN'S ORGANOGRAPHIA HILDESIENSIS SPECIALIS 284

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 294

V l l l ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page

1. Organ Bellows ...... l4

2. Slider Chest, Cross-Section ...... 23

3. Wind Chest Construction...... 29 4. Transposition of Squares, According to Bendeler 30

5. Trunk and Ventil Movement Diagram, According to Bendeler...... 38

6. Trunk Measurement Diagram, According to Bendeler...... 39

7 . Ventil Guide, Type I ...... 4l

8. Ventil Guide, Type I I ...... 4l

9 . Ventil Guide, Type I I I ...... 42

10. Flap V e n t i l ...... 43

11. Wind Guage, According to Werckmeister...... 47

12. Channel-less Chest by Casparini ...... 54

1 3 . Spring Chest, Cross-Section ...... 56

14. Tracker Guides ...... 59

1 5 . Tracker E n d s ...... 60

1 6 . Roller Board Mechanism ...... 62

17. Transfer of Motion Via S q uares ...... 66

18. Blind Keyboard ...... 67

19. Organ, Cross-Section ...... 68

20. Zugwerk Key A c t i o n ...... 75

ix 21. Druekwerk Key A c t i o n ...... 76

22. Druckwerk Key Action using S q u a r e ...... 'j6 23. Stop Action ...... 85 24. Stop Layout of Weisenfels O r g a n ...... 90

25. Regulum Petri, According to Bendeler ..... 110

2 6. Steps in Pipe Makings using Regulum Petri . . . Ill

2 7 . Pipe Mensuration Scale, According to Bendeler . II6

2 8. Pipe Mouth Scale, According to Bendeler .... 119

29. Pipe Mouth Mensuration S c a l e ...... 120

30. Divisional Distribution of Werkorgel ...... 139

31. Tonal Pyramid of Werkorgel ...... l4l 3 2 . Temperament Scale, According to Trost ...... 204

3 3 . Temperament Scale, According to Fabricius . . . 206

X TABLES

Table 1. Divisional Distribution of Individual Stops ( N i e d t ) ...... 167

2. Comparative Totals of Stops and Frequency of Stop Families by Division (Niedt) ...... 178

3. Divisional Distribution of Stops (Niedt) . . . 179

4. Distribution of Stop Families (Niedt)...... 179

5 . Frequency of Divisions (Niedt) ...... 180

6. Profiles of Pitch Distribution--Hauptwerk ( N i e d t ) ...... 181

7 . Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Rückpositiv ( N i e d t ) ...... 182

8. Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Oberwerk ( N i e d t ) ...... 183

9. Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Brustwerk ( N i e d t ) ...... 184

10. Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Pedal (Niedt) . I85

11. Divisional Distribution of Individual Stops (Biermann) ...... 186

12. Comparative Totals of Stops and Frequency of Stop Families by Division (Biermann) . . 193 13. Divisional Distribution of Stops (Biermann) 194

14. Distribution of Stop Families (Biermann) 194

15. Frequency of Divisions (Biermann) ...... 195 1 6 . Profiles of Pitch Distribution--Hauptwerk (Biermann)...... I96

XI 17. Profiles of Pitch Distribution--S.ückpositiv (Biermann)...... 197

1 8 . Profiles of Pitch Pistribution--Oberwerk (Biermann)...... 198

1 9 . Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Brustwerk (Biermann)...... 199

20. Profiles of Pitch Distribution— Pedal (Biermann)...... 200

Xll INTRODUCTION

In Germany during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the Installation of a new organ was an occasion of uncommon Importance, climaxed hy elaborate dedication

ceremonies Involving representatives of both church and

civic life. Prior to such an Illustrious occasion there was normally an extended testing period often lasting up to

a week, during which time every detail of the organ was

scrupulously examined. Organ examiners were often called

from great distances to give Impartial opinions, and In

time certain Individuals, among whom must be named Johann

Kuhnau and Johann Sebastian Bach, came to be especially

well respected for their forthright judgments.^ The planning, construction. Installation, decora­

tion, and tuning of an organ drew together the efforts of a

wide array of artisans. These Included cabinet makers whose

skills In joinery made possible the frame and casework of

the Instrument; metal workers whose knowledge of casting,

finishing, cutting, and soldering was called for In virtu­

ally every stage of pipe making; the woodcarvers whose

^Documents pertaining to Bach's activities as an organ examiner are found In Hans T. David and Arthur Mendel, The Bach Reader (New York, N. Y . : W. ¥. Norton and Co., 1945), pp. 23: 72, 74, 173, 174, and 223. 2 efforts were apparent In the often sumptuously carved deco­ rations on the outer case of the organ; and artists whose skills with brush and paint found expression in the final decorative touches. In addition, the finished instrument stood in many respects as the embodiment of numerous theo­ retical affirmations, not only with respect to the verities of construction but, above all, of acoustical considerations.

Thus did the German Baroque organ, designed and built by enlightened craftsmen come to hold, as Bukofzer observes, "the highest rank in the hierarchy of.instru­ ments . "2

Such hierarchical preeminence, however, was war­

ranted not only by the conjoining of art and science in the

constructional aspects of the organ, but also by the long

and varied history of its use primarily as a liturgical

instrument. Before the Reformation the organ wa.s used

somewhat restrictively in liturgical worship, principally

in the playing of alternate portions of liturgical chant as

well as in artistic preluding. In post-Reformation Catholic

liturgical settings these two basic practices remained es­

sentially unchanged. In Italy, for example, there was little

^Manfred F. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York, N. Y.: W. W. Norton and Co., 19^77; pl 2b2. 3 difference between post and pre-Reformation o r g a n s , 3 since their functions within the Catholic liturgy were .essentially the same. Such organs were generally of modest size, some with only one manual and few pedals. Mildly voiced, with an overall uniformity of tonal quality, and consisting primarily of flue stops, these organs provided a yielding yet rich pallette of sound especially suited to the demands laid upon them by the Catholic liturgy. On these instru­ ments composers such as Merulo, Gabrieli and Frescobaldi displayed their imaginative powers.

The organs built in France during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries showed only modest refinements over earlier models, primarily in the increased importance accorded to the reed stops. Like their Italian counter­ parts, the French organs of this period were also used soloistically in the Mass, principally in organ versets alternating with the chant of the celebrant or choir. In addition, preludes and offertories were presented regularly by the organist who often utilized dance form-s, echos, and

richly ornamented solo lines to achieve an effect of ele­

gance. The works of such composers as Lebegue, Gigault,

Raison, and Couperin abound in such techniques.

French organs of the day generally lacked the full

^Results of extensive research in this area by Renato Lunelli are published in his Der Orgelbau in Italien in seiner Meisterwerken vom l4. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart (Mainz: Rheingold Verlag, 195^). 4 complement of pedal stops characteristic of German and Dutch counterparts. Thus the French literature of that time reveals a preeminent concern for lucid and elegant keyboard writing, with pedal parts relegated primarily to the task of sustaining cantus firmi. Pedal divisions were normally equipped with strong 8 ’ and 4' reed stops capable of carrying the cantus with distinction. The manual divisions, on the other hand, possessed complete ensembles of all pitches, with reed stops assuming' a role of importance shared by few other European organs. The organs were often housed in cases of matchless beauty and elegant taste.

In contrast to both Italy and France, the post-

Reformation era in Germany laid completely new demands upon the organ, among them the task of supporting congregational singing. This feature, encouraged principally by the German

Lutheran church through its emphasis on the theological affirmation of the "universal priesthood of all believers" and its concomitant emphasis on full congregational partici­ pation in the music of the service, brought with it a number

of related musical developments directly involving the organ.

Among these are the "bound" forms of solo organ literature,

in which many of the congregational chorale melodies served

as direct sources of musical materials. Included in these

"bound" forms are: chorale harmonizations, typified in

Scheidt’s Gtirlitzer Tabulaturbuch of I65O; chorale partitas,

suites, and variations of such composers as Sweelinck, 5 Scheldt, Buxtehude, Btthm, and others; chorale fantasies exemplified in Scheldt's Tabulatura Nova of 1624, as well as those of Lüheck and Bruhns; chorale fugues epitomized hy

Zachow and Pachelbel; and the various forms of chorale preludes found in their supreme form among the works of

J. S. Bach.

The German organs of the Baroque period were well equipped to meet the demands laid upon them by the Lutheran liturgy. The support of congregational singing required full, bright, incisive ensembles. In addition, perform­ ances of numerous chorale preludes reflecting the changing moods of the liturgical year called for a wide variety of

solo and accompanimental colors. Further, the German pro­

clivity toward pervading counterpoint demanded of the organ

a full complement of stops in the pedal division in order

for it to participate fully in the polyphonic fabric in

both free and bound works. In each of these three major

areas the German Baroque organs excelled.

The construction and use of these organs is de­

scribed in considerable detail in the treatises with which

this study is concerned. These treatises may be classified

in four categories. The first of these includes those

writings specifically designed to convey instruction in

various aspects of organ building. Johann Bendeler's 6

Organopoeia^ is the principal work in this classification.

A second grouping is formed hy the Orgel-Frohen which de­

scribe in detail the procedures followed in testing a

finished organ. Such works often disclose much of what at

that time was considered good or bad organ construction.

Andreas Werckmeister's Orgel-Probe^ and Werner Fabricius'

Unterricht^ belong properly to this category.. A third

classification is comprised of the Beschreibungen3 or de­

scriptions of new organs. Although we are able to determine

that several of these Beschreibungen were published during

the period of time with which this study is concerned, only

two appear to be extant, those of Johann Trost? and

Christian B o x b e r g . 8 The fourth division is made up of

^Johann Philipp Bendeler, Organopoeia (Frankfurt and Leipzig: Calvisii, 1690).

^Andreas Werckmeister, Erweiterte und verbesserte Orgel-Probe (Quedlinburg: Calvisii, Ibgb), facsimile (Kassel: Barenreiter, 1927).

^Werner Fabricius, Unterricht wie man ein neu Orgel- werk O b 8 gut und bestândig sei, nach alien Stücken, in-und auswending examinieren und so viel müglich probieren solJT (Frankfurt and Leipzig: 1756)• ? Johann Caspar Trost, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung des neuen Orgelwerks auf der Augustus-Burg zu Weisenfels, worinnen zugleich was zu der Orgelmacherkunst gehtire," wie nach alien Stücken eine Orgel disponirt, vermittelst des Monochordi gestimmt und temperirt, die Stimmen auf aller- hand Arten verwechselt und ein neu Orgelwerk probirt werden solle (Wiirnberg: Wolfgang Moritz Endter, 1677).

^Christian Ludwig Boxberg, Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung der Orgel zu St. Petri und Paul zu Gtirlitz (Gbrlitz: Johann Gottlob Laurentio, 1704). 7 listings of organ specifications, notably those of Friedrich

Niedt^ and Johann Biermann.Such specification listings are especially useful in gaining an understanding of the conceptualizations of tonal design which obtained at the time. Changing trends in design over a period of years may also be observed from an examination of such specification listings.

In addition to the above-mentioned seven treatises, the literature related to this study includes certain portions of a- few contemporaneous works of a more general nature. With the exception of Jacob Adlung's Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit,^^ however, these works generally afford only incidental support to the study.

^Friedrich Erhardt Niedt, Musikalischer Hand­ leitung, Dritter Theil (Hamburg: Benjamin Schiller, 1717). Johann Hermann Biermann, Organographia Hildesiensis specialis, (Hildesheim: Wilhelm Schlegel, 173#); new edition by Ernest Palandt (Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1930).

ïljacob Adlung, Anleitung zu der musikalischen Gelahrtheit (Erfurt : J. D. Jungnicol, 175#). CHAPTER I

THE WIKI) DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

In the treatises, considerable attention is devoted to the construction and function of those parts of the organ which relate to the supply and distribution of pres­ sured air to the pipes, namely, the bellows, the wind trunks, and the wind chests.

The Bellows Fabricius provides a description of the construc­ tional features of bellows used in organs of the Baroque era: The bellows are the foundation of the entire organ, fons origo totius organi, in which the wind is first gathered and generated. They are made in two ways: first, completely of leather with an inner frame, called Lederbaelge; second, of boards held together with leather strips firmly attached with glue. These are called Spanbaelge. With both kinds the following points are to be observed: 1) Whether the bellows-room, wherein the bellows are located is in a damp or dry place against a wall, and is s^ure against mice or other accidental damage 2) Whether the wood in the bellows is old or new, durable, dry, and free of cracks.

[^Werckmeister corroborates, "The bellows room must be locked to prevent malicious people from entering and damaging the bellows, which unfortunately, happens all too often" (Orgel-Probe, p. 3). 8 3) Whether it is a Lederhalg or a Spanbalg; how many and what size. Whether the leather is well- tanned and finishedJ glued to double thickness, drawn well over the upper and lower board, stretched, nailed on, and well-glued with a warm iron. Whether the leather in the Lederbalg softens or stiffens in moist or dry weather. 4) Whether the Spanbalg consists of one big fold or several smaller folds, and how many. Whether all the folds lift together or some remain lying down. 5) How many bellows, considering the size of the organ. 6) How large in length, breadth, and height. How many inner frame members. Whether they stand equidistant from each other and have the same number of folds. Whether the Lederbalg rises high enough and will, in spite of the inner frame members, return to rest position. One of the shortcomings of such a bellows is that it does not have as full a movement as does a Spanbalg which lies very flat. 7) Whether the inside has been well sealed with leather and parchment, especially in the corners, seams, and joints as well as knot-holes and cracks, so that they hold up under movement and force. Organists have an old custom for testing bellows. One sits down on the bellows and checks whether it will support his weight without breaking. If it does, then it is a good bellows, especially if it is a Spanbalg, which will take less punishment than the Lederbalg. 8) Whether the air intake valve is of good, dry, durable wood, for where there is an objec­ tionable one which does not close properly, then the whole bellows suffers - no small defect I 9) How the bellows are balanced with one another as far as size and pressure are concerned. Whether one works faster or harder than the other. Identical sizes will produce identical movement and identical pressure. Alias falsum erit. 10) Whether they hiss or leak. One must differentiate here between boiling and breathing of the wind. In this point one must listen very carefully. 11) Whether the valve in the bellows head opens and closes properly. Whether the bellows binds and remains motionless momentarily, or whether one bellows restricts the action of the other or forces the other one u p . All should work without hindrance. 10 12) Whether in winter or summer they deliver equal and dependable wind, or whether they tremble. WThether because of inactivity, resulting in sticking folds, there ensues a sudden jolt in the wind causing unsteadiness which is revealed, unhappily, in the tuning of the Regals and other pipes. 13) How the handles or supports are dis­ posed, whether they are high enough and of proper proportion and balance so that the pumper does not need to swing his whole body laboriously on the supports. Whether the iron bars and pins on which they move are strong enough, for there is exerted at these points a considerable amount of pressure.2

Regarding the attachment of the leather members of the bellows to the wood, Adlung states that dried horse sinews were frequently used to attach the leather to the 2 inch thick boards.3 Werckmeister stipulates that the better builders normally drove the sinew ends into drilled holes with glue and wooden nails.^ Adlung also reports that certain builders used wire fasteners wherever leather was attached to wood to ensure against the pulling away of the leather if the glue broke loose. Such reinforcements served a particularly useful function at the hinged end of the bellows where the danger of separation was greatest.

Since each organ was essentially a custom-built

instrument, the bellows required for optimum performance

^Unterricht, pp. 1A-I8 .

3Anleitung, p. 361. For a discussion of the proper preparation of these sinews, see Johann Mattheson, Per Vollkommene Capellmeister (Hamburg: Christian Herold, 1739), p. 462. ^Orgel-Probe, p . 3. 11 differed from one organ to another. In certain instances the treatises provide actual dimensions. Boxherg^ for examplea reports that the bellows of the new organ in Sts.

Peter and Paul in Gttrlitz were seven in number^ each 6 ell long and 3 ell wide.5 Trost states that Christian PGrner, builder of the Augustus-Burg organ at Weisenfels, supplied the instrument with three Spanbaelge each 9 feet long and

4 1/2 feet wide.^ Additional information regarding both

numbers and sizes of bellows of certain organs is provided

in the specifications of Niedt and Biermann, analyzed in Chapter Y, below. A question arises, however, concerning the method

used to determine which sizes and numbers of bellows were

"adequate” for a particular organ. One answer is found in

Bendeler's treatise. He suggests: Generally on an organ of approximately twenty to thirty stops, more likely thirty stops disregarding the strong basses but including couplers, and having upwards of forty or more degrees of wind pressure, there ought to be three bellows, 9 feet long and 5 feet wide. If this is not sufficient (and one often meets a con­ dition of unsteady wind), the builder must use his experience, and it is then not necessary to

^Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p . [l8] . More than one hundred different standards for the "ell" existed in Germany during the Baroque era. The closest approximation to present day standards appears to be an evaluation of 1 ell = 2 feet. Thus, the measurements given by Boxberg are consistent with the statement offered by Adlung, "'^he most common size of bellows today is 12 feet by 6 feet” (Anleitung, p. 36I).

^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 16 . 12

deal with rationality. This, certainly, can easily be done. A l6' division of from thirty to forty stops ought to have five bellows each of which are 12 feet long and from 6 to 7 feet wide. Two of these are for the Pedal, because the basses easily give rise to unsteadiness. The other three are for the manuals. Or (since bellows of such size are difficult to regulate), one can make them 9 or 10 feet long, two for the Pedal, and the other three for the manuals. If the organ had more or less stops, the size of the bellows may be more or less accordingly. It is easy, however, in this matter to make them too small and also too large, thus re­ sulting in a great weakness. This also reveals the lack of understanding of the organ builder, if it appears that he has made too many or too large bellows. I say that a Positiv of six stops needs two bellows, each 6 feet long and 3 feet wide.'

Bendeler here admits that as a practicing builder he finds it relatively easy to set aside "rationality" in

favor of "experience" in certain problem cases, though not

implying that one necessarily negates the other. Presuma­ bly in the majority of instances "rationality" and "experi­

ence" were mutually supportive. Trost, on the other hand,

suggests a much more scientific stance. He states, "A

single bellows [of the Augustus-Burg organ] is enough to

supply the full organ because each bellows was measured by

Juxta iliud pneumatico-mathematicum instrumentum, or wind

guage, until it supplied the correct amount."® The same

writer identifies Christian Pttrner as the inventor of the

^Organopoeia, pp. 35-36. o Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 17. A detailed de­ scription of this instrument is included under the dis­ cussion of wind chests (below, p. 47). 13 wind, guage which was credited with establishing a more scientific procedure of pressure measurement than any other system available up to that time. The claim is substanti­ ated by Adlung.9 Like Trostj Werckmeister also favors the use of the wind guage as more precise than "another system" which he describes ;

Some builders believe that they can give an organ its correct wind merely by listening while tilesj bricks, or slabs of stone are added or removed from the bellows. Alas for the poor organist blessed with such an instrument.1^

In light of the attention accorded the wind guage by the above-named writers, it would seem that Bendeler, too, might conceivably have revealed some knowledge of this device and perhaps even made use of it. No reference, how­ ever, is found anywhere in his treatise.

Ordinarily the bellows were operated by a linkage which permitted the pumper to depress a lever which, in turn, caused the bellows arm to be lifted. A weight placed

^Anleitung, p. 542.

lOorgel-Probe, p . 43. 1 4 on the upper hoard of the hallows caused It to depress hy gravitational pull, thus:

Figure 1

Organ builders generally huilt the hellows linkage to

operate with a minimum of effort, although occasionally

this was not entirely possible as noted by Boxberg, "Since

the handles could not be made long enough, due to the

narrowness of the vaulting of the church celling, they [the

seven bellows] are hard to operate, but a strong man can

pump them."^l

Two methods of returning inflated bellows to rest

position were usually employed. The first consisted of the

placement of a weight of proper size on the top board of

the bellows. Either metal or stone material was used for

this purpose. Adlung reports, for example, that the Ulm

^^Beschreibung GÜrlitz, pp. [18-I9I. 15

Cathedral organ had sixteen bellows, each carrying a 125 pound lead counterweight.^^ The same writer describes a variation of this system: The counterweights of the splendid organ in Jena consist of arms which are attached di­ rectly to the upper board of the bellows. At the ends of the projecting arms are fastened small boxes which contain about two measures of sand. Into these boxes one may place as much sand as is needed to balance the action of the bellows. This is much more convenient than using bricks as is commonly done h e r e .

In the second system steel springs or elastic

wooden rods were used in place of gravitational weights.

Adlung reports that such a system was applied in the organ

in the church of St, George in Eisenach where Johann Ernst

Bach served as organist.According to Adlung's witness, Bach considered the system a great improvement over others.

This same writer also observes that some disagreement

existed regarding the matter of counter-weighting. He re­

ports that Mattheson, for example, considered the use of gravitational counterweights as "bungling." Adlung himself

tends to agree with Mattheson but adds, "What shall be done

if the bellows operate inefficiently? In such a case I

must give credit to counter-weights, as Werckmeister has done."^5

^^Anleitung, p. 362.

^^Anlei.tung, p . 366.

Anleitung, p. 366.

Anleitung, p . 365 • 16 A vexing pi^pblem In the operation of a cluster of bellows was the achievement of synchronized alternation of the individual units, a problem already alluded to by

Fabricius (item 9, p. 9, above). One solution to the problem is described by Trost:

They [the bellows] are mounted with nine iron chains on three large wooden rollers which roll up [the chains] one after the other, pulled by three wheels . . . All three [bellows] do not operate simultaneously, as had to be done with the old-fashioned smaller bellows, but they follow one another so gently that the motion is barely noticeable.lb

Trost's rather sketchy description seems to suggest that as

one bellows was pulled to an inflated position by the

winding up of the chain, another was in a midway position

while the third was completely deflated. Thus, a continu­

ous cycle was established in which no two bellows were

found to be in identical positions at any one time.

In addition to securing a smooth flow of pressured

air, there remained the problem of achieving this in as noiseless a manner as possible. Fabricius' views on this

problem (item 10, p. 9, above) are supported by Trost who

states, "The action of the bellows must be examined to see

if they work properly, not producing such a terrible rumble

that they sound over the full organ— a bad thing, indeed.

Maintenance of proper pressure within the bellows

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 16-17. ^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 62. 17 was facilitated by sealing the wooden members with glue

sizing. This procedure is verified by Adlung, Fabricius, and Werckmeister, as well as by Boxberg, who notes, "The bellows . . . are painted [sealed] so that the porosity of

the wood will be counteracted and leakage will not occur.

Furthermore, the sealant used prevents rot and worm dam­

age. Boxberg describes this sealant which was used on

all wooden parts of the Casparini organ at Gttrlitz:

I do not wish to by-pass the afore­ mentioned Invetriatur. It is a kind of material containing a cement or varnish which not only closes the smallest pores of the wood, but also prevents damage by worms.[19] Herr Casparini will not reveal the exact contents of this material, but I can say that it contains some polo armenio, camphor, and many other such substances which are dissolved in brandy [spirits] and then applied.^0

Placement of the bellows involved a number of fac­

tors including the presence of dampness or dryness, as well

as extremes of cold and heat. To ensure against the de­

structive effects of drastic climatic changes upon wood.

^^Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p. [8].

l^Adlung reports on a personal experience relative to this matter, "in my organ these little animals [worms] once wrought their masterpiece, devouring the lower portions of the Trumpet and Schalmei stops to such an extent that new parts were needed. In GÔrlitz this evil has been apparently overcome through the use of a certain Invetriatur, as re­ ported by Boxberg. Would it also not be a good thing if, when sizing is applied to the wood parts, that it first be mixed with sulphur water?" (Anleitung, p. 353).

^^Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p. [11]. 18 leather, and metal, the careful builder avoided placing the bellows either immediately adjacent to a masonry wall where a high index of moisture would be encountered, or under a roof where high levels of drying heat would occur, espe­ cially during summer. Where such locations could not be avoided either because of limited space or other factors, the bellows were protectively enclosed within a Bâlgehaus

(bellows "house," or room). .Requisite features of such a room included: ample space to permit free movement of both bellows and pumper, ample supply and free flow of air to the bellows, and ready accessibility in the event repairs became necessary. In addition, bellows were normally lo­ cated as close to the pipes as possible to avoid con­ struction of unnecessarily long, pressure-robbing wind trunks.

In certain instances the builder was called upon to muster all his resourcefulness to overcome seemingly insuperable problems of bellows location. Two such ex­ amples include Boxberg’s above-mentioned reference to the shortening of bellows handles necessitated by cramped conditions under the vaulting, and Trost's description of an exceedingly compact bellows room accessible to the pumper only via a removable ladder through a small cabinet-like enclosure.21

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. l4. 19 The Wind Trunks Constructional details of the wind trunks (In the narrow sense, those conduits which transmit pressured air from the bellows to the wind chest) are given by Fabricius:

The wind trunks lie next to the bellows and conduct the wind from the bellows to the chest through all sorts of corners and angles. Note especially whether good boards are used, whether they are carefully joined, whether they were glued In winter or summer, sized with glue throughout, and sealed with leather or parchment In all corners, especially where the trunks bend. These [bends] must be particularly well joined, for here the wind strikes continuously and with great force.23

In order for wind trunks to function properly, they not only had to be carefully constructed, but they also had

to be of proper size. Fabricius observes:

Since the full body of wind must be di­ vided Into several parts, namely Oberwerk, Riick- posltlv. Subbass, Brust, and the side towers, where present, each chest must receive Its full supply of wind so that one does not draw from another. N.B. the narrower the flow of wind, the more forceful It Is.24

Unfortunately, the treatises are largely devoid of

specific details of the formulae used by builders to deter­

mine the precise sizes for the main and tributary wind

trunks. The closest suggestion to a formula Is Implied In

Bendeler's treatise where. In discussing the determination

[^%oxberg specifies cypress (Beschreibung Gbrlltz, p. [9])j while Adlung recommends fir (Anleitung, p. 33TT-

^^Tjnterrlcht, p. l8 .

2^Unterrlcht, p . 19. 20 of sizes of the chest trunks (In contradistinction to the main trunks), he lays down the principle of "gathering all squares into one" (helow, p. 30). It is not inconceivable that the same, or similar principle obtained in determining the sizes of the main wind trunks for he adds, "The main trunk must be equal in size to all the other trunks."^5

At the juncture of the bellows and the wind trunk, valves were placed which prevented wind in the trunk from being drawn back into the bellows on the intake stroke. In addition, at certain points within the divisional tribu­ taries, valves were placed which could be opened or closed by means of a linkage system terminating in a control lever accessible to the organist. These valves were used to silence a complete division of the organ in the event of a

cipher in that division. This, as Fabricius points out, was merely a quick way to silence a troublesome pipe (during a

church service, for example). These valves needed only, as

Fabricius mentions, "to close tightly, allowing no wind to

enter.

Apparently some incompetent craftsmen who, upon

completion of an organ, first discovered and then were un­

able to rectify air leakage, and who were, nevertheless,

eager to have their instrument approved by examining

25organopoeia, p. 33 .

^^Unterricht, p . 20. 2 1 officials, resorted to the deplorable practice of inserting an additional hidden "emergency" valve which could be shut either by the unscrupulous builder or by his assistant during the examination, thus temporarily nullifying any

divisional leakage. Fabricius refers to this practice:

Once in a while one finds, though not very often, another secret valve which a builder uses in case of emergency, when he doesn't want it known that his wind chest sticks. Therefore an organist or examiner can discover, if he has a suspicion, whether or not the master knew his craft well or was an incompetent craftsman. A simple test is to remove the access plate from the front of the chest. If there is no wind present, there is something wrong. That way one can always find out if an improper chest valve is present.27

The malpractice took on even more sinister propor­

tions when by means of such a secret valve an unscrupulous

builder could convince a congregation that the wind chests

of their.organ needed to be completely replaced. The old,

serviceable chests would then be removed and sold to

another church. The resulting profits from such dealings were apparently rather sizeable.2Ô

27unterricht, pp. 20-21 .

^^Werckmeister strongly denounces the practice but adds, "Such dishonorable people should be Jolted by their conscience when it awakens: Sod grant them time to realize and improve their evil ways" (Orgel-Frobe, pp. 58-59;. 2 2

The Wind Chests

Wind chests for organs were ordinarily constructed in one of two basic configurations--the slider chest and the spring chest.

The Slider Chest

A typical slider chest (Figure 2, p. 23) functioned as follows: All pipes standing on a chest and sounded by a

certain key stood on a common wind channel. Pressured air was admitted to this channel by opening a ventil in the

transverse wind trunk. The opening of this ventil was ac­

complished by depressing the appropriate key which was connected to that ventil by a linkage system of trackers,

rollers, and pull-downs. In the event certain pipes stood

in the front case and not directly on the chest, the holes

for such pipes were, nevertheless, provided for on the

chest. Conduits connected these holes with the appropriate

pipes in the case.

To prevent all pipes on a common channel from

sounding simultaneously, unless so desired, a method of

silencing the individual registers obtained. This method

consisted of the interposition of perforated strips of wood

lying between the top of the chest proper and the board on

which the pipes actually stood. These strips, or sliders,

were drilled to correspond with the location of the pipe

foot openings above and the openings into the channels

below. When the slider was in an "on" position (operated at A. Pipe Foot B. Pipe Rack C. Pipe Rack Support D. Toe Board E. Pipe Hole F. Slide Retainers G. Slider H. Channel Cover I. Tone Channel J. Wind Chest Frame K. Ventil L. Ventil Guide M. Ventil Spring N. Spring Board 0. Leather Seal P. Access Panel Q. Wind Trunk R . Pull Down S. Tracker

Figure 2 ro CO 24 the console hy a stop control), the holes in the slider corresponded to the pipe openings above it permitting pressured air to enter, provided that the appropriate key had been depressed, admitting air into the channel itself.

In an "off" position the coincidence of holes did not obtain, and no air was permitted to enter the pipes con­ trolled by that slider even though the key channel had filled with air due to the opening of the ventil.

It is important to note here that the word "chest" as used in the treatises, raises a number of problems in interpretation. In addition to the normal distinction made between the slider chest and the spring chest, the treatises point out that the slider chest itself was

fashioned in two ways depending on the manner in which the

channels were prepared. They were formed either by chisel­

ing the tone channels out of a single heavy oak board or by

assembling the requisite number of individual pieces into a

unit. The former method bears the appelation "bored chest"

(from the fact that the pipe holes were bored directly

through the solid board bearing the chiseled-out channels).

The latter method is referred to by almost all the writers

quite simply as "the chest." Since the literature accords

only slight attention to the "bored chest" as well as to

the spring chest, and since at all other times reference is

made simply to "the chest," it is assumed that the latter

mode of assembly was by far the more commonly accepted one. 25 Further, there is no significant use of the adjective

"slider" in conjunction with "the chest." Presumably this additional descriptive term was deemed unnecessary since it was understood that the term "chest" generally meant "slider chest." This, then, is the type of chest whose function and constructional features are discussed by Fabricius:

The chest is the most important and ingenious part of the entire organ structure, the successful completion of which requires the utmost diligence and skill, both inside and out. It should be able to stand careful examination and testing. And just as the organ builder spares no pains to prepare each and every minute detail correctly, so too the examiner must test with the same diligence all parts of the chest, leaving nothing unnoticed which might later require correction . . . The following points summa con diligencia should be observed, without trying to embarrass the builder: 1) Since the chest is made of many pieces, whether all the parts have been as­ sembled correctly and without haste; properly joined, glued, sized, etc., against deprivations of summer or winter weather. 2) Whether dry and worm-free wood is used. 3) That the tone channels are of proper size, especially in the forward part, so that enough wind may enter and not be robbed by the lower pipes. This must be tested in playing thus: Draw two l6' registers and see whether there is enough wind when holding either one or several keys. This will reveal any shakiness or false sound. Do the same with the 8 'regis­ ters . . . check the reeds with low pitched pipes. 4) N. B., does the chest bind or leak? This means that the wind as a "subtle spirit" flows where it doesn't belong, causing whistling, humming or hissing, no matter how small. Exempli gratia, if the ventil does not draw down or seat properly; if the channels are not care­ fully made, so that wind escapes from one to the 26 other through cracks or small holes ; if the wind leaks anywhere along the length or at the ends of the sliders, without playing the keys or draw­ ing stops. In playing of all keys and the drawing on or off of stops, either singly or several at a time, there should not he the slightest sound of wind. 5) First of all, depress all the keys with both arms or with a measuring stick, with no stops drawn, to see if there iSn&PY leakage --that's the way to test a chest. Go inside [the organ] and check for any hissing in the small holes at the bottom of the chest where the pull-downs enter. Second, play some figured music to check whether anything sounds suspicious. Third, go through all keys, holding each well, and check if there is a full sound or any hissing. These are the most important points which, by hands and feet, should be tested for a long time, painstakingly and in quiet surroundings. 6) Whether the sliders are true and slide smoothly in the openings; whether they are bent or could be bent in the future, es­ pecially if the chest was made in a warm room during the winter and then set in a cold place. 7) That the holes bored in the sliders and the chest board coincide exactly, and are burned out correctly. Some organ builders do not burn these holes out. 8) Whether the top board of the chest is secured against movement. 9) Whether it is secured solidly with good screws, so that in case of necessity or changes in the weather it can be retightened. 10) That the slide retainers are well glued and secured so they do not spring apart or break out. 11) How deep are the tone channels, how long, and how wide? 12) Whether they are well glued, sized, and fastened. 13) Whether they are tightly sealed from the back up to the ventil, also covered with parchment. 14) If some are made with small cross braces in the Pedal as well as in the manual channels.

[29] In addition, Mattheson recommends examining the chest for leaks "with a burning light [candle]" (Capell­ meister, p. 462). 27 15) Whether the ventils are of proper size and width in proportion to the channels and pipes. They should be neither too big nor too wide. 16) Whether they seat properly. 17) Whether they are faced with leather and have been rubbed with pumice stone. 18) Whether they operate freely under strong wind pressure so that playing is not uncomfortable. This will not happen if the underside of the ventil is rounded or pointed so the wind may not hinder the movement as much as if it were flat. 19) Whether they are glued securely at the back, holding the hinge correctly. 20) Whether the hinges on the ventils are located far to the back. The farther for­ ward, the better and easier it is for the ventil to operate. 21) Whether there is sufficient clearance between the ventil and the two guide pins, and that the movement is straight. 22) Whether the guide pins might wiggle loose in time, permitting the ventil to move off to one side or the other, allowing wind to escape. 23) Whether good, rust-proof, unbreakable wire is used for the springs, and how thick are they? Whether they have concealed creases where they were first bent into shape with pliers. 24) Whether the springs are durable and will not weaken in the future. \ 25) How many [springs] under each ventil, depending upon whether it is a manual or a pedal channel. 26) Whether they [the springs] can tip over to one -side^- or whether in one place they are pointed and elsewhere flattened; whether they are fixed firmly in the wood so they cannot jump out. What is even better is that one end is seated deep in a saw kerf in the bottom part of the channel. 27) Whether the spring is far enough to the front and is located in the very center of the ventil so that it [the ventil] maybe seated squarely. 28) Are they too stiff, thus making the keys work hard? 29) Whether the lower frame member is strong enough to resist bending under the pres­ sure of all the springs. 30) That the bottom board, or the one through which the pull-downs pass, also called 28 purse-boardj is made of good wood and will not split or crack. Spruce is usually used for this hoard. In the Rückpositiv this hoard must also support the action mechanism for that division. 31) Whether the little leather sacks or purses hold up well and do not become torn hy the frequent movement of the wire to which they are glued. This can easily happen, especially where the downward motion is not deep enough, in which case the wind causes them to flutter. For safety reasons it is best to glue in, both over and under the little sack, a small drilled board or block so that if a heavy tug occurs, the wire will not tear the sack easily. Such is found in the old organ in the church of St. Paul in Leipzig built in 1537 and completely restored by Josua Bachin. 32) Whether the vertical ribs which join the chest to the bottom, or "purse board" with its springs are secure and cannot become warped. 33) When the chest is filled with wind, and a single key is held for a long time, does the accumulated pressure, which has no other escape, cause the pipe to overblow, especially right at the place where the wind first rushes into the chest, before it disperses and equalizes throughout the channels? This can best be checked with reed pipes. In the Positiv chest the wind is ordinarily brought up from underneath and strikes directly against the ventils with greater force than against those further away from the inlet. Check especially whether these overblow. 34) Whether the pipes stand too crowded on the chest; then the air does not have free egress from the mouth of the pipe but, because of the close proximity of neighboring pipes, it is forced back in. This is a great defect, and may be compared to someone who, in a very small space, wishes to build a big house with many balconies.30

Fabricius' lengthy description covers most of the important points involved in good wind chest construction.

Clarification of some of the more dubious and incomplete passages is available from information supplied by other

3Qunterricht, pp. 34-45. 29 writers of the time, since virtually every part of the wind chest is discussed in some measure in one place or another in the treatises. Concerning materials from which wind chests were normally made, Adlung reports, "Oak is best but it must be dry from lying in a dry place for many years before being used in actual construction. Otherwise after a short while it will undergo change, perhaps crack, and then become unsuitable for use."^^ The same writer criticizes the then-current practice of rushing green lumber through a drying kiln.

Werckmeister concurs with Adlung in his recommen­

dation of oak for wind chest construction, adding that the

chest itself should be "three or four fingers' breadth deep."32

The four outer members of the wind chest formed a

rectangular frame which was subdivided into as many divi­

sions as there were keys on the keyboard, thus:

Figure 3

3^Anleitung, p. 353.

^^Orgel-Probe, p. l8. Mattheson agrees (Capell- meister, p.' 460). 30

The channels were not of equal width throughout the compass5 since the space required for the lower pipes was considerably more than that required for the upper pipes.

The proportions of these subdivisions were critical, for on them depended to a great extent the successful distribu­ tion of air to the pipes. One method used to determine correct sizes is set forth in Bendeler’s treatise:

Do you ask how large the wind channels shall be? Here is the answer: as large as is needed tosupply all the pipes standing on that c h a n n e l . l33J Here is how one proceeds: First, take the lowest C and mark the opening required of each pipe which is to stand on that particu­ lar key . . . such squares [openings] are combined into one. Thus, this one square holds all the rest within it, as follows:

Figure 4 [_Source: Organopoela, p. 28] D-E-F-G are four squares which are to be placed into one. Therefore, take one side of D and carry the same to 1-2 and draw a perpendicular . . . take a side from E to 3 and draw a line from 1-3. Then with a square draw a perpen­ dicular from the corner of point 3 and place

[^33] Elsewhere in his treatise Bendeler recommends that the channels may be enlarged four times for the Pedal chest (Organopoela, p.'32). 31 here a side from P at 4. Draw a line from 1-4 and make another perpendicular from this line and carry over a side from G to 5. Draw a line from 1-5 which then forms one side of the re­ quired square.3^

The importance of proper proportionment of the channels to the successful operation of the entire organ is emphasized

/j hy Adlung:

This mistake [improper proportionment] is impossible to rectify; it is of all points the most important. If serious pitch variations are heard it would be the better part of wisdom for the builder to take out the offending chest and replace it with a new one, since on a de­ fective chest nothing can ever be played satis­ factorily .35

Werckmeister denounces an organ having such a chest with

the term "wind-robbing o r g a n . "3^

The tone channels were closed off on the top and

bottom by boards covering the full length and width of the

chest frame. The bottom board was pierced with an opening

to each channel above, and each of these openings was

covered by a ventil. Since the ventils were usually faced

with leather, the bottom board itself required no such fac­

ing.

The top board of the chest, normally 1/2 inch to

2/3 inch thick according to Werckmeister, was surfaced with

leather to silence and seal as much as possible the back

3^0rganopoeia, pp. 27-2 8 .

35Anleitung, p. 537.

3^0rgel-Probe, p . 2 6 . 32 and forth action of the sliders. This top board was-made in

one of two ways--the Fundamentbrettj or individual channel

covers. The earliest form was the Fundamentbrettj com­ pletely covering the chest and drilled to accommodate all

the pipes which stood on that chest. One of the disad­

vantages of such a unit construction was the difficulty

encountered in its removal when chest repairs became neces­

sary. Because this removal involved a great deal of time and expense, the Fundamentbrett was eventually replaced by

individual channel covers, an improvement noted by such writers as Mattheson,37 Werckmeister,33 and Adlung.39 The

changeover came slowly, however, as suggested by the state­

ments of Werckmeister who reports in I698, "The Fundament­ brett is no longer used;"^^ and Adlung who claims in 1758,

"Some outstanding builders still use it."^^ He specifi­

cally names Gottfried Silbermann who maintained that the

Fundamentbrett, in spite of obvious disadvantages, could be

planed and surfaced with greater ease and precision than

any other type of covering.

The ideal chest, according to Adlung, functioned

successfully without leathering, with all wooden, moving

37çapellmeister, p . 460.

SSprgei-Probe, pp. I8 -I9 .

39Anleitung, p . 3^8.

^Qprgel-Probe, p . 19. ^^Anleitung, p . 348. 33 parts operating within the smallest possible tolerances.

Nevertheless, since this ideal was seldom realized, he adds, "it is still better to use leather in the slider a r e a . "^2 ^ variation of construction was applied by Gottfried Silbermann who, instead of resorting to the normal practice of surfacing the upper board with leather, adopted the practice of leathering the under side of the

sliders.^3

The sliders consisted of long, flat strips of wood, usually of oak, and according to Werckmeister were "at

least 1/2 inch thick.They were drilled to coincide

with the toe-holes of the pipes which stood above them.

The holes were normally burned out after drilling to elimi­

nate burrs which could scrape or tear the adjacent leather.

This condition was especially troublesome when using leather

substitutes as Fabricius notes:

In place of leather, organ builders often use white fustian, which should completely cover the chest as well as the channels. The sliders should slide between pure fustian, through which the holes must be cut. Whether or not fustian is as good or durable as leather may be determined by testing whether the fustian is secured around the holes tightly enough so that no threads break off

^^Anleitung, p . 3^9•

^3one of the most complete studies of Silbermann’s methods of construction is Ulrich D&hnert's Die Orgeln Gottfried Silbermann (Leipzig: Koehler und Arnelung, 1953)

Orgel-Probe, p . l8. 34

through the on and off action of the slider. These hits of thread could lodge in the ventil opening and -cause ciphering, or they might be blown up into the pipes and stop up the smaller pipes. This would not happen with leather.

When well constructed, the sliders fit tightly enough in their passages to prevent air leakage, yet loosely enough to permit unhampered back and forth motion.

That these seemingly conflicting demands posed a challenge to the builder may be inferred from the sizeable amount of attention devoted to such matters in the treatises of the time. Werckmeister, for example, warns that if sliders did not fit tightly, the pressured air would tend to ooze past the slider and move into an adjacent channel. If such leakage were copious enough, it could cause the pipes of the neighboring channel to sound. "Thus," he observes, "if

C and E are played together, the D between may be heard also . . . the fault lying with the sliders, whose loose fit permits the air [from the C and E channels] to leak into the D channel.This "running," as it was commonly known, plagued builders to such an extent that many of them re­ sorted to various methods of bleeding off unwanted air.

These methods bore such nicknames as schwedische Risse

(Swedish cracks), spanische Reiter (Spanish horsemen).

^^According to Fabricius other disadvantages of fustian, or any other leather substitute, was its propen­ sity towards disintegration either by dampness or destruc­ tion by moths (Unterricht, p. 8).

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 29. 35 Filegenschnâpper (fly catchers), or other "butchery" as

Adlung calls them. As a rule, this "butchery" took the form either of holes drilled through the side of the chest small enough to prevent any significant loss of pressured air when the channels were filled, but large enough to permit a quick decay of very slight pressure occasioned by

"running" from one channel to another; or by thin, shallow saw cuts either on the face of the slider or on the under­ surface of the toe board. All of these methods permitted air leakage to pass harmlessly Into the atmosphere.

Werckmeister points out yet another problem Involv­ ing the slider action, namely, the complete arresting of the slider through sharp changes of temperature or humidity.

To minimize this condition, he recommends that the sliders and their retainers be made of the same wood:

It Is bad to put oak slides between fir retainers, for in dry weather the fir shrinks faster than the oak, thus leaving the weight of the top board [and the pipes] resting directly, on the sliders, making them difficult to move. '

The toe boards extended the length of the chest, one for each rank of pipes, and were separated from the

chest Itself by the slide retainers. Occasionally one toe board was assigned to two registers, especially In the case

of very small pipes. These wooden toe boards^^ were usually

Orgel-Probe, pp. 10-11. no ^^Occasionally of metal, according to Mattheson (Capellmelster, p. 401). 3 6 1 1/2 inches thick and were screwed to the chest to facili­ tate removal in the event repairs to the sliders were needed. Adlung recommends the use of wooden screws rather than iron since the latter tended to rust, making removal difficult.^5

The holes which were bored through the toe boards were flared at their upper edges and burned smooth. This provided a smooth seat for the toes of the pipes standing

therein. Incompetent builders attempted at times to ease a

ciphering condition by making these holes slightly star­

shaped, rather than perfectly circular. Thus, when the

smooth, circular toe of the pipe rested in the hole, the

small points of the star-shaped opening permitted a very

slight leakage of air past the pipe toe. The use of such

devices by unscrupulous or incompetent builders is attacked

by Adlung who adds laconically, "The children of this world

are wiser than the children of light [Luke l6 : 8]."50

Under the wind chest proper and extending its full

length, lay the trunk which supplied pressured air to the

channels of the chest above it. Located within this trunk

were the ventils which covered the openings to each of the

channels of the chest itself. It would seem reasonable to

suppose that the wood from which this trunk was normally

^^Anleitung, p . 3^9• ^^Anleitung, p. 538. 37 made might well have been the same as that from which the chest itself was made, namely, oak. Yet Adlung reports that fir was more commonly used even though he strongly recommends the use of oak as more substantial.51 Probably,

Adlung here criticizes a current building practice.

Not unlike the problem of determining the proper proportionment of the chest channels was the question of accurately scaling the size of the.trunk. Inadequacies in this area almost invariably caused an unsteady wind supply, a condition deplored by virtually every writer of the time. Of these writers, only Bendeler proffers anything resembling specific measurement procedures in the determi­ nation of trunk sizes, suggesting that in addition to possessing a capacity sufficient to supply all channels above it, the trunk size was also dependent upon the space

required for free movement of the ventils contained within

it.

Bendeler observes;

Here rests the question of how long the downward motion of the ventils within the chest

5lAnleitung, p. 354. 38 [trunk] should be. Answer: Compare the breadth of the trunk a-b-e and, similarly, c-d-f.

Figure 5 [Source : Organopoeia, p . 29 ]

Extend the line a-c as long as you wish. Lay a ruler from e-d, draw a line which connects at g with the extended line a-c; make a parallel from g-h; from h, a perpendicular to e, similarly from d to i, thus d-f-i-h gives the desired length. The ventil must move within the bounda­ ries of this square, which is perhaps unlikely, since the motion of the ventil describes a triangle. If the parallelogram is split in half [g-e], then one must double the length as in d-f-k-1. If one wishes to extend the rear of the ventil a little so that it is not fastened exactly in line with the [rear] edge of the opening, then you have to add a little [ to the breadth of the trunk]. . . . If one wishes to know the exact height of the wind trunk, he compares the openings of all the channels with the width of the wind trunk, which may be made according to desire, provided that the ventil can be properly glued or fastened at the rear; that it moves freely at the front, and that it closes properly. Then one proceeds as if 39

changing one square into another, See figure ni—n—o—p—q~r “S—t“U :

•m

Figure 6 [Source : Organopoeia, p . 32]

M-n-o-p represent the collective open­ ings of the channels, n-q or p-t the width, and p-s or t-u the height of the wind trunk, not counting the thickness of wood; to which height may be added approximately the thickness of a ventil which is proper to such a trunk. The wind channels . . . must agree with the propor­ tions of the wind trunk, although it is not unserviceable if they are a little bit bigger, just so it isn't too m u c h . 52

In spite of some ambiguity, the fact is established that the size of the trunk was dependent to a great extent on the size and operating space allotted to the ventils.

Thus the breadth of the trunk had to be at least as great as the length of a ventil together with its hinge, while

the height was determined primarily by the space required for the downward motion of the ventil.

The ventils within the trunk were made in several

^^Organopoeia, pp. 30-3 3. 40 ways, both in shape as well as in operation. Adlung reports that they were ordinarily constructed of clear fir,53 chosen because of its light weight. The grain of the wood usually ran vertically (quarter-sawed) rather than hori­ zontally since the latter offered poor resistance to warping.

The shape of the ventil was rectangular, having its underside either rounded or pointed (item l8, p. 27, above).

This shape facilitated its downward movement through pres­ sured air as the sharp prow of a boat cuts through water.

Ventils were fastened to the underside of the chest either by a leather hinge, or by a screw device at the rear.

Adlung preferred the latter as it permitted removal of the ventil with greater ease. The ventils were almost invari­ ably faced with leather which when extended past the ventil's rear edge also served as the hinge. Fabricius suggests that the leather used for ventil facings was to be rubbed with pumice stone (item 17, p. 27^ above). Addi­ tional information concerning ventil leather comes from

Werckmeister who notes that in the tanning process salt­ peter was to be used only in very limited amounts as it

tended to remain in the leather, subsequently attracting moisture--the archenemy of organ construction.5^

^^Anleitung, p. 354.

54pygei-Probe, p. 12. 4l Two methods of guiding the descent and return of the ventil obtained. One provided for the ventil to ride between two guide pins, thus:

Figure 7 The principal disadvantage of such a system lay in the fact that the ventil could be left stranded on one of the pins in the event a key were depressed too suddenly or too vigorously.

A second system provided for a horizontally fixed pin in the front edge of the ventil which rode between two

guide pins, thus:

Figure 8

This system seems to have superseded the other, for

Adlung points out, "It is the common practice today."55 The

55Anleitung, p. 355. 42 same writer refers to a variation of this system in which a wire eye, inserted into the front edge of the ventil, rode on a single pin, thus:

Figure 9 Ventils which dropped too deeply caused an uncom­

fortably deep playing action at the keyboard. Too shallow

an action prevented free flow of air to the channels. The

careful builder, therefore, guarded against either extreme

striving always to achieve optimum performance.

The systems described thus far presuppose that the

ventil opened at its front end, while the back remained

attached at the hinge. Boxberg however, describes a dif­

ferent system of opening the ventils:

The ventils are neither glued nor screwed. They are held in place by two pegs and one spring. . . . They open not in length as is commonly done, but crosswise. To make repairs one needs only to remoyg the spring and the ventil may be lifted out.

56Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p. [9]• 43 According to this description, the ventil may have appeared thus :

Figure 10 Adlung states that he once played on an old organ whose Pedal chest ventils "opened sideways."57 Since hoth

Boxberg and Adlung take special note of this type of con­ struction, It seems reasonable to assume that this kind of ventil was not normally used.58 indeed, lacking other evidence to the contrary. It may be stated that the type of ventil operation described earlier (above, p. 4l) was by

far the most common.

With respect to the use of brass for the ventil

springs the writers are unanimous. They point out appropri­

ately that Iron rusted and lost Its elasticity. Such

elasticity was indeed vitally needed since the spring had

not only to return the ventil Itself, but had to return the

attached playing mechanism as well.

In those Instances where a single ventil spring may

57Anleltung, p. 355.

5^A fuller description of a specific application of this type of ventil Is provided on p. 54, below. 44 have been inadequate, many organ builders resorted to the practice of multiple springing. This practice was most frequently employed where certain tracker linkages were made to pass over a roller-board (below, p. 62). In order to counterbalance the weight and inertia represented by the numerous and rather lengthy sections of such a linkage, a substantial springing was required. Too strong a spring, however, caused uncomfortable stiffness of the key action, while too weak a spring could leave the ventil partially open. Further, too strong a spring could prevent the ventil from opening its full distance with a resulting restriction of air flow into the channel; too weak a spring could allow the ventil to drop down too far, with a corresponding and undesirably deep drop in the keys. The solution to the problem lay in the use of a single spring of correct elas­ ticity which could adequately meet the particular need of the individual ventil. The use of additional springs,

according to Werckmeister, was evidence of shoddy workman­

ship and resulted in unequal key pressure.

The spring board, that member of the trunk which

accepted the bottom ends of the ventil springs, had to be

made rigid enough to resist the continuous pressure of these

springs. In normal construction, the spring board extended

the full length of the trunk below the ventils, with appro­

priately spaced saw kerfs holding the springs in proper

alignment. 45 The front of the trunks and occasionally the bottom, was fitted with removable access panels. Through the re­ moval of these panels, repairs and adjustments could easily be made to the ventil mechanism. The panels were leathered to form a tight seal against the pressured air inside the trunk. An alternate method of leathering provided for the face edges of the trunk members to be covered, rather than the panel Itself. Access panels were usually attached either by wooden screws or by a wedging device which main­ tained pressure against the panel. Of the two methods, the latter permitted quicker access to the springs, ventils, and pull-downs inside the trunk.

The pull-down was fastened to the front of the ventil by a wire hook device which could easily be released in case it became necessary to remove a ventil. The other end terminated either directly or through the tracker link­ age to a connection at the key. At the point where the wire passed through a hole in the bottom board (Beutelbrett, or purse board) of the trunk, a leather seal in the shape

of a small inverted sack or "purse" was attached which pre­ vented pressured air from leaking out around the wire.

This sack was fastened to the board, but was pierced to

permit the pull-down wire to pass through. At this point

the leather was fastened to the wire so that during opera­

tion, the sack flexed with the wire pull-down. Present in

this arrangement, however, was the constant danger of tearing 46 the leather should a key he struck too rapidly or too deeply. To prevent this from happening, the huilder pro­ vided small limit blocks attached to the wire hy a set­ screw In such a way that the pull-down could not he drawn past a certain point.59

Thus far, the discussion of the' wind chest has heen concerned primarily with Its mechanical aspects. The dis­ cussion would he Incomplete, however, without some Investi­ gation Into the matter of wind pressure associated with the chest. In this area two problems arise: first, the Infor­ mation In the treatises Is tenuous with only a few specific examples offered; second, there was marked disparity In

Germany during the Baroque era with respect to the sizes of

such mathematical measurements as feet and Inches.

One of the few examples of wlnd-pressure measure­ ments offered In the treatises Is that of Werckmeister who

notes that organs of his day were built to carry pressures

ranging from 15 to 45 degrees, adding that 15 to 20 degrees

represented "miserable wind," while 30 to 40 degrees was

considered to be the most satisfactory. These measure­

ments were derived by using a wind guage. From the

59p&hnert reports that Sllbermann used a small ring of wood which pressed the leather tightly against the wire of the pull-down (p. 22). This served the dual purpose of sealing the leather to the wire as well as acting as a limiting device for the downward motion of the wire.

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 63. 47 description of this instrument provided by Werckmeister, some equivalents between "degrees" and "inches" may be es­ tablished:

A small metal box is built, 2 or 3 inches long, and half as wide and deep. Two holes about 1/2 inch in diameter are provided in the top to receive tubes, one of which is glass. A ruler 6 inches, or 1/4 ell long is divided into 6o degrees, and set next to the glass tube. [When the box has been filled with water] the instrument is connected to the wind supply, and one may then observe the pressure and steadiness of the wind. The division [_of the 6 inch ruler] into sixty parts is the custom of many excellent builders, and it would be a fine thing if this scale would be adopted by all builders. Then one could check any organ to see if the pressure is high or low, steady or unsteady.

Pictorial evidence on the title page of the 1698 edition of Werckmeister's Orgel-Probe, depicts the wind guage thus :

iS

to /o

Figure 11

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 63. 48 Adlung offers additional Information of the wind guage in use at his time :

In our part of the country we use a round metal box^ into the top of which three holes are bored. The box is usually 4 or 5 inches in diameter^ and about 1 1/2 inches high. Near the rim at one point is set a short tube 1/2 inch or 1 inch high. Into this tube is set the glass tube. To prevent any air or water from oozing between the two tubes the joint is sealed with wax^ linen or soft paper. Water is poured into the second opening through a small funnel, then stopj-.ed with a plug to prevent spilling. Into the third opening is set a short tube which is bent at a right angle, called the spigot. In my wind guage the vertical portion extends 1 inch, and is 3/4 inch in diameter; the hori­ zontal member has the same dimensions, although the extreme end ought to be a little narrower, so that it can be inserted into the channel easier and fit tighter, so no wind can escape past it. I color the water with red berry juice or wood shavings, since the water is hard to see if it is the same color as the glass . . . It is important that the first tube reaches almost down to the bottom of the box or, better, if it is soldered directly to the bottom, leaving an opening, however, that the water may enter.

Elsewhere in his treatise Adlung notes, as Werck­

meister before him had stated, that the ruler which was

placed against the glass tube was 6 inches long, although he

specifically mentions six rheinlândische Zolle (Rhineland

inches). Each of these was divided into 10 sections, making a total of 60 degrees.

In light of what has been stated thus far, the pres­

sure measurements provided earlier by Werckmeister may now

^^Anleitung, pp. 542-543. 49 be converted from degrees to inches in the following way:

15 degrees to 45 degrees = 1 1/2 inches to 4 1/2 inches 15 degrees to 20 degrees = 1 1/2 inches to 2 inches

30 degrees to 4o degrees = 3 inches to 4 inches From these measurement conversions arises the second of the two problems related to wind pressure, namely, the determination of the precise value of the "inch."

Adlung states quite frankly that in the field of mathe­ matics the measures used in different lands and cities were often so disparate as to cause great confusion.^3 Whether or not these differences could be considered drastic is probably less important than the fact that they made uni­ form measurement impossible with any degree of precision at all. It is known that each of the principal German

cities such as Berlin, Bremen, and Hamburg had its own

"foot." The relationships between the three "feet," how­

ever, has not yet been fully established. Adlung's obser­

vation that the "Rheinland foot," or "work foot," stood in a ratio of 29 to 30 with the French "foot" merely compounds

^Anleitung, pp. 374-375. A strong appeal for uniformity of measurement with the resultant end to the then prevailing confusion is voiced by Georg Preuss (Grundregeln von der Structur und den Requisitis einer untade Ihaften Orge^l T Hamburg : Christian Wilhelm Brandt, 1729]), p. b9. 50 the problem, since the exact value of the French "foot" in use at that time is still unknown.

Low wind pressures per se were not necessarily the mark of the good craftsman, though from the standpoint of pipe voicing they would appear to have been desirable.

Werckmeister criticizes those builders who used low pres­ sures for "another reason," by observing:

If they [incompetent builders] gave their organs a rather high wind pressure, the noise of escaping wind, hissing, and howling here and there, would immediately betray defective workmanship in other parts of the instrument.°5

In spite of the many problems associated with the wind chest and its function, the basic features of service­ ability and durability were highly prized, and the better builders exerted every effort to achieve both. Trost remarks that the chests made-by Christian Ftirner for the

Augustus-Burg organ were so designed that even in damp weather any part could easily be removed for servicing,

since all parts were readily accessible. The same writer

in a burst of praise for the builder predicts, "This

instrument, because of its good material and careful

^^Anleitung, p. 375. Special research in this area is currently being carried on by Dr. Helmut Winter of Hamburg, Germany. Although to date no results have been made public, there is reason to believe that his conclu­ sions will become available in the very near future.

65Orgel-Probe, p . 27. 51 craftsmanship, will need no repairs for the next one hundred years. Fahricius declares:

An organ should . . . upon completion perform without failure not only for one year but, if possible, imperpetuam. . . . Even though we mortals know of nothing which lasts forever without some failure, nevertheless, it is un­ deniable that when proper care is exercized in the building of an organ, such an instrument might stand without correction for forty, fifty, or more years

Werckmeister reports on what may have constituted some sort of endurance record for a wind chest: Experience shows that a slider chest will stand for more than a century, if it is well made. An excellent and famous builder reports that in l6$4, at St. Martin’s, Grôningen, he had to remove a slider chest made in l442 by Martin Agricola. This chest was still in such good condition that it could have stood for another century, but it was set aside because it had too few keys to play today's music

While not related directly to the operation of the wind chest itself there were, nevertheless, other features present which contributed significantly to its total func­

tion. Among these were the pipe racks, consisting of

pierced wooden members mounted directly to the toe boards

with screws and standing at a slight distance above them.

Their immediate function was to space and support the pipes

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 19.

^'^Unterricht, p. 8 .

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 42. 52 standing on the chest. For taller pipes a special kind of diagonally placed rack was provided^ which held the "bodies of the pipes either by clips attached to the back of the pipe or by stout string which was used to tie the pipe to the rack.

Because of alternate contraction and expansion occasioned by climatic changes, as well as by vibrations produced by the sounding of the large pipes, such a rack could break loose if not securely fastened, permitting the pipes to fall. Damage would extend not only to the pipes on that rack, but to other pipes standing on neighboring chests as well. Unusually secure attachment was necessary to hold larger pipes whose metal was alloyed with a high percentage of lead. In time, such pipes tended to settle, becoming crooked of their own weight. Where such an eventuality was anticipated, the careful builder normally increased the percentage of tin in the alloy used for the pipes in question, thus making the metal harder and more

resistant to collapse.

Ordinarily the pipe-foot holes in the chest racks were first drilled, and then burned out. The burning

tended to harden the inner surface of the opening, causing

it to be more resistant to "crushing." This crushing action

caused by the vibration of the pipes, though seemingly

minute, would in time allow the pipes to fit loosely in

their openings. Since such pipes were no longer held 53 firmly erect^ they tended to lean, eventually becoming noticeably crooked. This condition often caused serious changes in the tone quality of such pipes. Fabricius comments ;

To be sure, such crookedness will not show up in the first year, but could develop over ten, twenty, or thirty years. Therefore, it would be good if all pipes, wherever, pos­ sible, were fastened at the top as well."9

A final reference by the same writer alludes to a style of rack construction which at his time apparently was becoming obsolete: Some organ builders . . . no longer use a full piece for the top board [of the chest] and hence do not use a full piece for the racks, but divide them up into smaller pipe groupings, so that a single unit may easily be unscrewed, if necessary, to get at the sliders

One notable variation of the slider chest was the

channel-less chest built by Casparini for the organ at

Gttrlitz. Boxberg reports that the uniqueness of this chest

lay primarily in the replacement of the usual tone channels

by individual tone conduits. At the ventil end these con­

duits were clustered closely enough to be covered with a

single ventil which opened sideways (above, p. 43). From

^^Unterricht, p. 5 1 .

'^^Unterricht 3 p . 50. 54 this point the conduits dispersed, terminating at the toes of the appropriate pipes, thus:

Figure 12

An advantage of this system is pointed out hy

Boxherg:

Since no pipe is permitted to rob another of its proper wind, all pipes of the organ may easily be played simultaneously, whether of equal or unequal mensuration. Principals, Flutes, or Reeds without one affecting the pitch of the other. Therefore the old rule no longer applies, namely, that one must not draw together two equal stops, for example two 8 ’ or two 4 ’ [stops] when standing on the same chest.71

The particular merit of the "flap" ventil in this type of chest lay in the fact that its action exposed full

air pressure to all conduit openings at once, whereas a

^^Beschreibung Gftrlitz, p. [8], 55 normal ventil, opening at its front edge, may have favored that conduit which lay farthest forward by giving it the initial surge of pressured air before the others. There seems to be little doubt that this type of construction required inordinately large amounts of time and labor, incommensurate with the results. Even with its presumed superiority of wind distribution, this type of chest did not replace, nor even threaten the pre-eminence of the standard slider chest which produced similar results with fewer constructional complications. Boxberg notes that in the construction of the main channel-less chest in the G-ttrlitz organ, "four men were employed for a full year"7^--an altogether credible statement in light of the

complicated structure of such a chest.

The Spring Chest

The spring chest antedates the slider chest by a

great many years, but during the latter part of the Baroque

era its use declined r a p i d l y 3 Praetorius states that by

his time the spring chest had already been in use for two

hundred years .7'^

^^Beschreibung Ctirlitz, p. [8].

^3preuss states flatly that spring chests were no longer built at his time (1729) (Grundregeln, p. 44).

^^Michael Praetorius, Be Organographia, volume II of Syntagma Musicum (¥olfenbüttel: Elias Holwein, 1619); facsimile (Kassel; Bârenreiter, 1958), p. I08 . A. Pipe Foot n B. Pipe Rack C. Pipe Rack Support D. Toe Board E. Pipe Role P. Stop Bar ■ G. Ventil Pin H. Pipe Ventil I. Ventil Spring J. Spring Support K. Tone Channel L. Tone Channel (re­ movable for servicing) M. Wind Chest Frame N. Tone Channel Ventil 0 . Ventil Guide P. Ventil Spring Q* Spring Board R. Leather Seal S. Access Panel T. Wind Trunk U. Pull Down V. Tracker

Figure I3 Ch 57 The spring chest differed from the slider chest primarily in the absence of sliders. Their selective

function was replaced by individual ventils under each pipe

(Figure 13j p . 56). When a stop control was drawn, the stop bar stretching the full length of the chest pressed

down on all projecting ventil pins, opening all the ventils

of that stop. No pipe could sound, however, until a key

was depressed opening the tone channel ventil.

Experience seems to have demonstrated that proper

maintenance of a spring chest was generally far more diffi­ cult than a slider chest."^5 The many individual ventils

required frequent regulation, particularly during times of

marked climatic change. Werckmeister devotes a full chapter

of his Orgel-Probe to the problems related to the spring

chest, concluding, "I consider a good slider chest . . . to

be more reliable."?^

^5in 1964 the writer had the privilege of examining closely one of the few remaining spring chest organs in Germany, located in the village church in Borgentreich, Westphalia. The original mechanism of the instrument, dating from about I7OO, is in an excellent state of preser­ vation.

76 Orgel-Probe, p. 4l. CHAPTER II

THE PLAYING MECHANISM

All parts of the organ which transmit the physical actions of the player to the chest may be conveniently classified as the "playing mechanism." Included under this general term are such individual items as the tracker- linkage system, keyboards or manuals, pedals, couplers, and stop action.

The Tracker Linkage System

The treatise of Fabricius reveals a number of characteristics of good tracker-linkage construction:

Trackers are small, smooth sticks which transmit the motion of the keyboards to the chest. Note well: 1) That they are free of knots, not too thick or heavy, unbroken, and free of cracks. 2) That they are bound on both ends with linen thread. 3) That the end wires are resistant to breakage through flexing, and tightly secured so that they will not become undone by weather changes. 4) That the wire is thick enough so it will not wear through in thirty, forty, or more years as iron rubbing against iron, which is some­ times used, will do.1

^Unterricht, p. 33. Elsewhere Fabricius recommends brass for any tracker linkage parts using wire, because of its rust-free qualities (Unterricht, p. 7).

58 59 None of the treatises stipulate the kind, of wood considered most desirable in tracker construction, although light weight would seem to be among the foremost considera­ tions. ^ The need for light weight wood was especially pronounced in the case of long trackers, whose weight often created functional problems. Boxberg's description of the long trackers in the Gtirlitz organ includes a reference to these weight problems and offers a solution, "Because of the weight of these long trackers a brass spring is em­ ployed to help hold the tracker up and prevent leakage at the ventil."3

Another problem of long trackers was created by their propensity towards warping. Such warping, however, was considerably alleviated through the use of guides, thus : N

Figure l4

^Dâhnert notes that the trackers in Silbermann's instruments were constructed of either pine or fir, both being suited to the task by their light weight.

^Beschreibung GÔrlitz, p. [lO]. 6o Boxberg notes that such guides were also used by

Casparini "to avoid shaking or chattering [of trackers]."^

Adlung names these guides Füssgen (little feet) and observes that, "Here leather is used as a rule, although some make them of wood."5

Unfortunately, the treatises provide few details of the manner in which tracker end-wires were shaped and at­ tached. Clearly, the attachment to the tracker itself had to be sufficiently secure to prevent tearing out, since a considerable amount of pressure was exerted at these points in transmitting the playing action. To prevent the end- wires from splitting the tracker lengthwise, the ends of the tracker were normally wound with thread.

At those points where tracker end-wires were at­ tached to other parts of the linkage system, there had to be enough freedom to permit unhampered movement. Two of the more commonly used configurations (still seen in extant organs) were: { Type A

Type B Figure 15

^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p. [10].

^Anleitung, p . 356. 61

Type recommended By Adlung, features the use of leather nuts to aid in silencing rattling at points of connection.^

Since keyboards and ventils were seldom in direct

vertical alignment, the connection between key and distant

ventil was effected through the use of the roller board.

This device permitted the transmission of an action at one

point to a similar action at another point through rotating rollers of varying lengths (Figure l6, p . 62).

Constructional features of the roller board and

rollers are discussed by Fabricius who states:

One should note carefully: 1) Whether the roller board is made of dry wood so that changes in the weather will not cause the rollers to be forced or stuck by reason of expansion and contraction; therefore the rollers ought not to be too close to one another. 2) What kind of wood for the rollers, whether dry, thick or thin, so there is no chattering. 3) Whether the Rückpositiv roller board which lies below the pedals has air circulation; that if mice, dust or dirt collect over the years; that the rollers.do not stick, which often happens, especially where the rollers lie too close to the board due to the short mounting brackets. 4) Whether the arms in the rollers and the mounting brackets are of iron or wood, whether they are securely fastened and bound with suffi­ cient brass wire. Occasionally, due to their length, they [the arms] can become wobbly. 5) Whether the roller board has been built to fully accommodate the widely-separated ventils as well as the narrow keyboards, and that the ends of all trackers hang evenly. 6) Whether the entire roller mechanism and trackers rattle and rustle too much.

^Anleitung, p. 35^. 62

Figure l6 6 3 7) Whether the roller arms are of proper length so that when a key is depressed it will open the ventil all the w a y ; 7

In this discussion Fabricius speaks primarily of wooden rollers. Elsewhere in his treatise, however, he refers to the use of "brass or iron . . . for springs, rollers, and pins."^ To be sure, iron had a number of ad­ vantages in roller construction, not the least of which was strength. The use of iron rollers could also result, as

Boxberg points out, in a substantial saving of space; for in his description of the main roller board in the Gttrlitz organ, he notes that "the board [with iron rollers] is only

1/8 as large as an all-wood b o a r d ."9 This particular organ actually had seventeen roller boards with iron rollers.

"If wooden ones had been used," observes Boxberg, "there would have been no room to work."!®

Offsetting the advantages of iron rollers were two principal disadvantages, namely, that iron tended to rust and that it was also a "noisier" material than wood, re­ quiring special handling to silence it. Presumably, the

advantages ought to have outweighed the disadvantages, and

that in time iron should have supplanted wood for the con­

struction of rollers. Such a development did not

?Unterricht, pp. 31-32. ^Unterricht, p . 7. ^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p . [9]. ^^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p. [9]. 64 materializej however, as a collation of the evidence in the treatises, together with an examination of a number of extant instruments, indicate.

The roller mounting brackets, like the rollers themselves, were usually made of either wood or iron. Pins were fixed into the ends of each roller and were made to ride in holes in the mounting brackets. Boxberg points out that these were "best if made of brass wire which . . . will neither rust nor squeal.The brackets themselves, according to Werckmeister, were best made of wood since iron tended to rattle. The same writer adds, "Holes for the roller pins must not be too large, otherwise they [the pins ] too will rattle, unless a wire nail is used to retain them. The roller arms which held the tracker ends were made of either wood or iron. "To avoid rattling," Werck- meister nôtes, "they are best made of wood."^3 Since the

trackers were attached directly to the roller arms, and

since excess "play" throughout the linkage system was an

ever present problem, the arms were normally drilled with

two or three holes for purposes of adjustment. If such

adjustment were not available, the eventual inequalities in

^^Beschreibung GÜrlitz, p . [ 9 ].

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 15.

^^Orgel-Probe, p . l6. 65 the various members of the tracker linkage and roller board systems would lead to unevenness in the level of the keys.

Some builders preferred to solve the key-leveling problem by means of adjustment screws on the key-bed rather than with adjustments at the roller arms (below, p. ?8).

Whether or not builders used both systems in any single organ is not determined, though the possibility existed.

The number of roller boards employed in an organ depended upon the disposition of the various divisions of that instrument. Ordinarily one roller board served one chest. Thus, in an organ containing separate chests for each of three manuals and Pedal (or two chests if the Pedal were divided into two side towers), the number of roller boards would total four to five. In general, the most com­ mon type of organ, as Fabricius points out, consisted of two manuals and Pedal having a total of three to four roller boards. Werckmeister observes that some builders did not use a roller board, but preferred to mount the rollers in

"strong oak f r a m e s . "^5 Adlung notes further that, "Now

[1758] they [frames] are used in place of the board. The direct connection between key and ventil over a

^^Unterricht, p . 21.

^^Orgel-Probe, p . 15.

^^Anleitung, p. 357. 66 roller TDoard presupposed that the horizontal axes of key­ boards and ventils were parallel. If the tracker-linkage

/ followed a non-parallel course, however, other methods of transmitting motion were employed. These methods included the use of individual or composite "squares" or "angles," as they were variously known, which permitted a wide variety of movements.

Figure 1? 67 Fabricius points up the need for special strength in these members by emphasizing, "These [squares] should be forged and not merely cut from sheets."^7 Not only was it necessary for these parts to function without sticking, but they had to retain their shape under prolonged tension as well. Any appreciable alteration in their shapes would un­ questionably alter the relationship between the connecting units, resulting in general uneveness throughout the tracker-linkage system. Another means of transmitting motion, involving neither roller board nor squares, was a device called a

"blind keyboard." Fabricius clarifies:

The trackers are attached to the Brust chest . . . by a blind keyboard. For where there is no blind keyboard the Brust forms a bad projection forward, so that an organist has difficulty in placing a book [ on the music rack]; but has to place it deep inside the overhang, then has to bend low, which is not only an inconvenience, but is very hindering and uncomfortable for the organist.

Fabricius' description may be depicted thus:

Figure l8

^^Unterricht, p . 7.

^^Unterrlcht, p . 27. 68

Special connecting mechanism was required for trans­ mission of the key action to the ventils of the Rückpositiv.

The tracker linkage proceeded from the key downward inside

the organ case into the floor, then under the floor to the

gallery rail where it rose to meet the chest of the Rück­

positiv, thus:

Figure 19 Fabricius provides a brief check-list of potential

trouble spots in such an arrangement:

Since the action to the Rückpositiv, which passes under the pedals, contains many squares, [examine ] in what manner they are attached. Do they [the trackers] run in slots or channels of the correct size; do they bind, or do they tilt over to one side or another and thus remain stuck? Could this develop over a period of time?^y

^^Unterricht, p.,23. 6 9

Since the normal distance from the main organ case to the Rückpositiv ranged anywhere from 5 to 15 feet, the

"guides" mentioned by Fabricius were absolutely essential in maintaining true alignment of the long trackers. Prob­ lems of alignment and accessibility of action parts for repairs undoubtedly contributed to the gradual decline of the Rückpositiv in the latter part of the Baroque era. The trend is first reported by Werckmeister in 1698^® and sub­ stantiated by Adlung who notes, "The Rückpositiv is seldom built anymore [1758]."^^

The Keyboards

Keyboard construction and function are considered in some detail in several of the treatises. Concerning materials used in the building of keyboards, Adlung states that keys were best made of fir whose grain ran vertically

rather than horizontally.^^ The latter tended to warp

easily resulting in an uneven keyboard. Boxberg notes

that the keys of the Gttrlitz organ were made of boxwood

and ebony and rested on a bed of y e w - w o o d . ^3 He does not

specify, however, which wood was used for the diatonics

and which for the chromatics. Trost, in one of his

^Oprgel-Probe, p . 51. ^^Anleitung, p . 346.

^^Anleitung, p. 358.

^^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p. [lO], 70 characteristic "asides" reveals what may be evidence of an incipient change in the use of certain materials for key­ board construction: The white keys (although I still speak highly of the older way, also about the chromatics, although today they are of different kinds) are made of clear boxwood and the chromatics are of black oak.24

Adlung recommends that "the forepart [of the keys]

are best covered by ivory or ebony,"25 while Fabricius uses the terms semitonia and black keys interchangeably.26 Thus

it would seem, in light of these observations, that the

changeover to the system most commonly used today was at

that time well underway. Two basic problems relating to the placement of the

keyboards, or manuals, were faced by the organ builder.

These were the positioning of one keyboard against another,

and the positioning of all keyboards with relation to the

pedals. Fabricius underscores these problems by noting:

The keyboards ought to be far enough above one another so that in playing the upper manual, the lower manual is not disturbed; further, that the keyboards be placed neither too far into the organ, nor too far out, neither too high nor too deep, that they cannot be reached easily with the arms. If this is not taken into consideration, the organist, whether tall or short, may experience much weariness

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 29.

^^Anleitung, p. 358.

^^Unterricht, p . 21. 71

and discomfort when, in order to play the pedals, he needs to lean backward, his arms meanwhile being stretched far forward to reach the upper keyboard.27

Trost notes also that "the keyboards are directly under one another and are slightly rounded, since that is what happens when one p l a y s . "^8 Left unanswered is the question of whether the key-bed itself was slightly concave or "rounded," or whether the fronts of the keys described a slightly arced line, instead of the normal straight line.

The positioning of the keyboards with respect to the pedals is discussed in some detail in four of the treatises. Werckmeister specifies:

If the manuals and pedals are not placed . . . so that the Pedal D lies under the manual of, or Pedal C under manual C^, there is dif­ ficulty for the organist. . . . It would be a good thing if builders could agree in the matter of establishing the alignment of the manual and pedal centers, for the sake of comfort in play- lng.29

Adlung adds that "Pedal c must lie directly under manual c'."3® He leaves unanswered, however, what align­ ment points would obtain at the opposite end of the pedal keyboard. Depending on the spacing of the pedal keys it is possible that Werckmeister's and Adlung's suggestions are

2?Unterricht, p . 23. ç)Q ^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 29.

29orgel-Probe, p . 21.

S^Anleitung, p. 361. 72 reconcilable. Preuss states that the D of the clavier had to be over d of the p e d a l . Fabricius' observation that

"the pedal stands in the center, considering the position of the keyboards and the player's b o d y , "32 ig too vague to be useful. Differing views of keyboard ranges are also found in the treatises. Trost, for example, writing in 1677 states, "Both manuals are arranged thus: C D E F F^ G

G^ A B c c^ d d^ e f f^ g up to c' ' ' ."33

Adlung writing in 1758 states :

The manuals on most organs run from C D Df, etc. up to c '''; but now builders are start­ ing (because it is the right thing to do) to include the 0^ even in the village organs. And since most of the works of the foremost composers would be unplayable without c^''' and d''', it would be most desirable to include these as w e l l . 34

The omission of the in the lowest octave proba­ bly reflected an older rationale which viewed that particular note as unnecessary. Furthermore, the savings in material and labor realized in the construction of such large "unnecessary" pipes was not inconsiderable. Neverthe­

less, Adlung insists that to include the was "the right

thing to do" in order to satisfy the requirements of a

3^Grundregeln, p. 42. 3^Unterrlcht, p . 25.

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 29-30.

3^Anleitung, p . 3^0. .73 complete keyboard (above, p. 72). In addition, the problems occasioned by the changes in thinking relative to various aspects of temperament, so characteristic of this particular era, undoubtedly bore directly on the matter of the inclusion of C^. From the player's standpoint the omission of certain keys was particularly troublesome as

Werckmeister notes in his criticism of the so-called "short octave" prevalent in his day:

Quite often the low notes and F^ are omitted. This is a great defect for present-day organs. Furthermore, I can say nothing good about short octaves, even if they did contain the and the G=^, for they demand a special playing technique which is different from other octaves. . . . Ascending and descending as in other octaves produces in this octave unnatural movements, for example, E F^ D G E G=« A. In this case E-F^ go unnaturally against Pf-D; likewise D-G against G-E, etc. It is against the keyboard's nature and makes extra work in performance. It might be amusing, but it seems ridiculous to insist on awkwardness and long- windedness when there are shorter and more convenient ways. However, I have yet to see anyone perform in the lower octaves as well as in the upper octaves. I have yet to hear a good reason produced why one needs to span an octave and a third. This is a bad habit. Shall I spoil the gravity of the keyboard for the sake of and E-e-gi^, just because someone can reach them? This would not be proper. However, thirds do not really have their place in the bass; one always has a right hand with which much can be done. Finally, the whole matter is a prejudice and a bad habit which^exists simply because nothing better is k n o w n . 35

Whereas certain keys were omitted in some keyboards,

in others known as "broken keyboards" some were split into

35orgel-Probe, p . 56. 74 two parts, each controlling a separate ventil and pipe.

These were employed specifically to compensate for the in­

ability of certain notes to perform enharmonic functions.

Thus, for example, in older tuning systems prior to equal

temperament cf and could not be represented by the same

key. To make both notes available, the key was split

lengthwise, resulting in separate keys with separate pipes

for each. This type of construction, which at one time

enjoyed rather wide-spread favor, was well on its way

toward obsolescence already by Trost's time, for in his

treatise he announces, "The use of split chromatics for en­

harmonic usage is an absolutely unnecessary complica­

tion. "3^ Adlung warns that the builder who still built

split keys invited personal d i s d a i n . 37

The upper limit of the keyboard compass was, at

Adlung’s time, still a rather flexible matter, for he

notes ;

Many heads, many ideas I Some composers have clavichords which extend up to e and f. Because of this they often write pieces which

3^Eeschreibung Weisenfels, p. 4o. See also specifi­ cation 55 in Appendix II, below, p. 2 78.

37Anleitung, p. 358. Of interest is a plan proposed by Michaelis Buliowski de Dulicz to introduce an added di­ mension of flexibility to the keyboards of his day. He retains the older practice of using split keys, but recom­ mends that they be of different colors (p. 95). He also recommends the addition of two new black keys, one between B and C, and the other between E and P (Brevis de Eman- datione Organi Musici Tractatio - Kurze Vorstellung von Verbesserung des Orgelwerks fArgentorati: J. E. Zetzner, 1580]). 75 extend up that far, making them largely useless for most instruments, especially the organ. It is hardly possible to make pipes smaller than these, so that in practice anything smaller would merely repeat the lower octave anyway, something which these composers ought to keep in their cup­ boards [keep in mind].3°

Without stipulating the exact number of keys,

Fabricius states that "a proper keyboard should be 1 Ell and 2 1/2 Zoll from lowest to highest e d g e s . "39 if the average keyboard of that day had forty-nine notes (above, p. 72), and if the Ell was for all practical purposes 24 inches long (above, p. 1 1 ), then it would appear that

Fabricius’ keyboard measured 26 1/2 inches overall, a mere

3/8 inch shorter than the standard keyboard of today’s instruments.

Two distinct methods of connecting the keys to the tracker-linkage were normally employed. These methods in­ cluded the Zugwerk which involved a pulling action, and the

Druckwerk which involved a pushing action. The keys in a

Zugwerk were hinged at the rear while the connection to the

tracker-linkage was located between the player and the key ends thus : j I 1 ^ Figure 20

3^Anleitung, p . 360.

39unterricht, p. 21. 76 In the Druckwerk system the fulcrum lay between the player and. the end of the key. The downward action of the key resulted in an upward or pushing action at the other end, thus :

X;

Figure 21

A variation of the Druckwerk, according to Adlung, provided for the placement of squares below the key.^^ in this arrangement, the motion of the key caused the square with the attached linkage members to move by means of a pressing action, thus :

Figure 22 In many organs the Zugwerk and Druckwerk systems could be,

and were, employed simultaneously depending on the layout

of the several divisions of the instrument. Apparently

40Anleitung, p. 357. 77 there was an advantage in the first of the two systems given above^ for Adlung notes that the "Druckwerk operates much harder than the Zugwerk.

The careful builder required a variety of responses and conditions from a well-built keyboard. Some of these requirements included even pressure throughout the compass, freedom from sticking and rattling, identical depth of key- fall, equal promptness in return, and secure mounting on a key-frame which was resistant to expansion and contraction occasioned by alterations of the weather. The several treatises of this period agree regarding these require­ ments, differing only slightly in the details of their observations. Fabricius for example, states that there had to be sufficient air circulation around the keyboards to minimize sticking. He also insists that there be no back­

lash in the key action. Of the black keys, or semitonia as he designates them, he notes they should be "neither too

high nor too wide, having rounded rather than sharp edges

to make playing more comfortable.”^^ The matter of pressure

is noted by Adlung in his observation, "The keys on my organ

drop at the weight of 1/4 pound of lead. Certainly no

instrument should have keys which operate at greater pres­

sure than m i n e . "^3

^^Anleitung, p . 357.

^^unterricht, p. 22-23. ^^Anleitung, p. 536. 78 TrostJ in his description of the Weisenfels organ, sets up some comparisons with other keyboard instruments:

The keys [ of this organ ] . . . do not make such a terrible rattling and clattering as one usually hears, often so much that one cannot hear the softest stop. . . . Everything is as responsive both in the Oberwerk as well as in the Brust keyboards as if one plays on a well- regulated spinet; and one can play all sorts of quick music with complete c l a r i t y . 4 4

Elsewhere in his treatise, Trost underscores the

need for highly responsive keyboards in noting that:

One should be able to play rapidly and make mordents or, as some call them, Tremulanten and Tremuletten. . . . It is not good if a key­ board is so hard to play or if the keys fall so deeply, that one actually has to work at it— like kneading Pumpernickel in Westphalia145

Both Fabricius and Trost call for adjustment screws

to be affixed to each key that in the event unevenness oc­

curred a faulty key could readily be corrected. Trost

notes that the chief cause of uneveness was the weather

whose changeableness set up sporadic contraction and expan­

sion of the various members of the key action.Fabricius

tends to agree, but adds that perhaps "flexing of the wire"

(springs or pulldowns) was the principal o f f e n d e r .

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 29.

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 6 3 .

^^Beschre.lbung Weisenfels, p . 64.

^^Unterricht, p. 24. 79 The Pedals

Virtually everything involved in good construction of the keyboards or manuals applied with equal importance to the construction and operation of the pedals. As

Fabricius states, "They will be stepped on vigorously in coloratura passages and mordents; they [the pedal keys] should be constructed of strong wood [oak?]."^® The shape of the pedals is alluded to in Adlung's discussion :

The pedals ought not be too short other­ wise the feet cannot cross behind one another with comfort, The spacing and width of the keys ought to be standardized, for it is most annoying to have to accustom yourself anew on. each organ. When seated in the center of the bench the organist should be able comfortably to reach the extreme keys with room to spare.^9 Desirable features of pedal construction, according to Fabricius included the absence of noise both in downward

and return motions, moderate depth of fall, adequate spring­

ing, and accurate alignment with no evidence of tipping or w a r p i n g . 50 This last feature applied with particular em­ phasis to the semitones since they tended, by reason of

^^Unterricht, p . 24, ^^Anleitung, p. 359- Of interest is a report by J. S, Bach, "a certain organist who wore very wide shoes had had the pedals of his organ, on which he could not play much anyway, spread so far apart that anyone else, wishing to play anything more on these pedals than the bass tone al­ ready represented by the little finger of the left hand, could easily have ruptured himself. (Translation from Bach Reader, p. 258). ^^Unterricht, p . 25. 80 their extended height, to warp more readily than the dia­ tonic keys. Adlung notes also that the key sockets required

(felt) bushings because "es allzelt besser, das die Orgel kllnge als klapperel''^!

Since the pedal keys were of considerable weight due to their thickness (Adlung states 1 1/2 Inches) and length.

It was not feasible for the ventil spring alone to return and hold the key In rest position. To assist the return action, additional springs were normally Installed under each pedal key. Boxberg notes this In his description of the Casparini organ In GÜrlltz, "Seven springs are placed under each [pedal] key which, unfortunately, makes them work too h a r d . "52 Ease of operation was a prime desider­ atum as Adlung observes, "Times change; nowadays organists want to play two or three pedal notes simultaneously, and want to be able to slide easily across the p e d a l s . "53 The statement seems to suggest that before Adlung's day organ­ ists generally tended to favor the playing of slower moving,

successive single pedal notes. This falls to account, however, for evidences of double pedalling found as early

as l448 In the tablature of Adam Ileborgh. Indeed, double pedalling had become a firmly established practice through­

out the Baroque era as evidenced In works ranging from the

5^Anleitung, p. 359. 5^Beschrelbung Gtirlltz, p. [lO].

53Anleltung, p . 3 6 0 . 81

Tabulatura Nova of Scheldt through such works of Bach as the

"Prelude in D" (B.W.V. 532) as well as in such chorale prel­ udes as "Au s tiefer Not" (B.W.V. 686), "An Wasserfliissen

Babylon" (B.W.V. 653b), "Wir Glauben All" (B.W.V. 7^0) et al. Differing practices regarding the range of the pedals are reported in the treatises. Boxberg, for ex­ ample, reports that there were twenty-six pedals on the

Gttrlitz organ, the four lowest being C D D"^ and E.5^

Since the is missing, the twenty-six pedals would extend from the lowest C upward to d ', that is, two octaves and two notes. A much more extensive range than this is indi­ cated by Trost in his description of the pedals of the Weisenfels organ. He specifies: C D E F G G^ A B^ B c of d up to f'''.55

The pedal layout of an organ in Stockholm, listed by Niedt in his Musikalischer Handleitung (below, p. 278)

reveals a somewhat different pattern, notably in the inclu­

sion of separate keys for enharmonic notes:

. A* , d* ^ a> ^ . G’l** B*’ c f df" f ^ g^^ b*' c^ ' CDEF G A Be d ef g a be ’ d'e'

^^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p. [17I.

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 30-31. 8 2 Adlung claims that the lowest was much more necessary for the Pedals than for the manuals. He adds also that "the pedals should extend at least to d' so that the literature can be played more adequately."5^ Such a view, however, is rather conservative for this time (1758)5 and does not seem to take into account the fact that a number of Bach’s w o r k s ^ T would have been unplayable with their high pedal e's and f's. On the other hand, Adlung's

suggested pedal compass was probably adequate for the vast majority of organists, composers, and organ builders for

whom the highest pedal notes held no particular charm.

The Couplers

The linking of manuals to pedals as well as manuals

to manuals was accomplished through the use of couplers.

Unfortunately, the treatises do not supply details of con­

struction and operation, other than some rather general

comments on their function. Fabricius, for example, states

only that a manual to manual coupler should operate on and

off easily without sticking, that it should depress the

keys to their proper depth, that it should not make the

keys play harder when coupled, and that it should not inter­

fere with the quick return of the keys to their rest

5^Anleitung, p . 360.

57lncluding, among others, the "Toccata and Fugue in F" (B.W.V. 540), and the "Fugue in A" (B.W.V. 536). 83 position. The same points undoubtedly applied to the

manual to pedal c o u p l e r . 5^

At one point in his treatise, Fabricius refers to

couplers which "one pushes in and out, and one that

tilts.In spite of some ambiguity in this statement,

there can be little doubt that the first type probably

refers to the stop lever itself which controlled the

coupler, one which could either be pushed in or pulled out.

The second probably refers to a lever which tilted to one

side and back again for an on-off action, a type fre­

quently found on small Positiv organs. On the other hand,

it is possible that in the case of the "push-pull" example,

Fabricius refers to that method of coupling in which the

player took hold of two knobs, one at each end of the key­

board, and pulled the keyboard slightly forward so that

projecting pegs attached to the underside of the upper

keys pressed down on the lower keys causing them to play

simultaneously. This system of coupling was used exten­

sively in Germany and may still be seen on extant Baroque

organs, notably those built by Gottfried Silbermann.

In small instruments having no separate pedal

chest, the lowest manual keys were permanently coupled to

the lowest pedal keys by pull-downs. This practice.

5&Unterricht, p. 26-2 8 .

59unterricht, p. 2 7 . 84 acceptable in very small instruments, was at times incorpo­ rated in larger instruments having a single pedal Subbass stop. Further, in order to effect a "savings," this stop was occasionally terminated at c, with the lowest octave merely duplicating the manuals automatically. Werckmeister denounces this parsimonious practice with the observation,

"The expert will hear for himself how absurd this is."^0

One feature of coupler construction reputed to be an improvement over older design is noted by Boxberg, "The couplers are fastened with two screws so that they will not change position during playing.Unfortunately

Boxberg does not provide further details.

The Stop Action

The stop action linkage led from the console to the chests, terminating at the ends of the sliders. The link­ age members were usually constructed of wood. While Adlung calls for "brown or other good wood,"^^ Trost specifies oak.^3 In contradistinction to these views, Fabricius

states, "The stop controls are made of hard iron."^^

^^Orgel-Probe, p. 53. ^^Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p . [10]. 62 Anleitung, p. 351.

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 27.

^^Unterricht, p . 28. 85 Presumably^ there was no fixed design for such

linkage since each and every stop on any given organ re­

quired its own particular arrangement of connective parts.

Furthermore, there were often marked differences in tonal

design and structural layout among the organs of the Baroque

era. This virtually precluded any extensive uniformity in

stop control design. Common to all designs, however, were

certain principles of motion transfer which resembled, to a

certain extent, the action of a rollerboard:

Figure 23 8 6 In this kind of linkage, one of the most vulnerable areas from the standpoint of durability lay where the link­

age met the slider end. Fabricius takes special note of

this by stating, "The ends of the sliders to which the stop

controls are attached should be fitted with sheet metal so that in time they will not tear out."^^

The same writer, commenting on methods of operating

stop controls at the console, notes that the levers were

moved "either up or down, which often occurs in the Ober-

werk, or with a sideways motion as one finds in Positives;

and . . . by pushing in or pulling out. The first

method required nothing more than a simple lever. In the

second method a stop lever was pulled out to engage a stop

and pushed in to disengage it. "This," says Adlung, "is

the most common practice in our area and perhaps in most other places as well."^7 in some instances the procedure

was reversed as in the organ of the Katherinenkirche in

Hamburg (the organ praised by Bach after his visit in 1722

to the incumbent organist,•Johann Adam Reinken).

Another type of stop control was the hook-down, an

arrangement by which the control lever could be engaged and

held fast in a notch. This control was normally provided

^^Unterricht, p . 29.

^^Unterricht, p . 29.

^^Anleitung, p. 351. 87 on organs having spring chests since the resistance of the many individual ventil springs set up a force which was hast controlled by hooking down the control arm. Adlung observes that this control was also used for the so-called

Nebenzüge^ that is^ the stop controls which governed such non-pipe devices as the Tremulant, Sperrventil (a valve which could seal off a chest in the event of a cipher), manual and pedal coupler controls, cymbelstern, drum stops, bird-song stops, and the Calcantenwecker (bellows pumper

"awakener") Good stop control construction, according to

Fabricius, required that the controls be drawn out and pushed in with only a slight amount of effort ("ein Puff");

that they retain their proper shape and do not become

warped; that they do not stick against the frame; and that

they cannot be drawn out too far and break off "which can

easily happen if an organist is in a h u r r y . Boxberg

88_/^ccording to Adlung, the Nebenzüge also included the Fuchsschwanz and the Noli me tangere. Of the former, he note's] " The "Fuchsschwanz [foxtail] is used solely for amusement, although at times such a stop is provided for the sake of Eurhythmie [ an equal number of stops on each side of the console]. It is also used to jolt the curious person . . . for in the drawing of it there appears a long fox-tail, which can only be replaced with much difficulty (Anleitung, p. 420). Of the.Noli me tangere, Adlung states. It is a stop which has absolutely nothing attached to it, and means merely "Do not touch me (Anleitung, p. 436).

^^Unterricht, p. 29. 8 8 reports that the stops of the G-ttrlitz organ pulled out

"less than two i n c h e s , a n altogether laudable feature in light of the fact that most of the organs of that time had stops which pulled out two, three, and four times that distance.

Trost adds finally:

Test the stop controls [to determine] whether they can be drawn without a lot of rattling, for it is a sorry and vexing condition for a stop to work so hard that to draw it re­ quires all the power of the body and then, in addition, makes such a terrible grinding and rattling that people can hear it far away, outside the church and say, "Listen! the organist is getting ready to playi"'^

At the console the ends of the stop controls were normally fitted with knobs. Trost states that on the

Weisenfels organ the knobs were "comfortably and artisti­ cally turned."72 Adlung adds that at his time the stop knobs were made "at times of black, brown or yellow wood."73 He further notes that for identification purposes the names of the various stops were first etched in pieces of metal or bone and then attached to the ends of the knobs

Another method included the writing of the stop names on

small pieces of paper which were attached to the ends of

7*^Beschreibung Gflrlitz, p. [10].

7^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 6k.

7^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 27.

73Anleitung, p. 351. 8 9 the knobs, and then covered with glass. Further identifi­ cation procedures included color-coding of the knobs to aid the organist in locating those stops belonging to any given division. Both Adlung and Boxberg refer to this practice.

As an afterthought, Adlung adds (to the unquestionable delight of the organist), "Brass or iron knobs are too cold in winter."?^

Stop knobs were generally arranged in the console in such a way that they were readily accessible to the organist either alongside, or above the console, or both. Fabricius suggests that if for some mechanical reason the stop controls could not be evenly distributed, most of them were to be located to the player's right side.?^

The only schematic layout of stop control location in the treatises is that offered by Trost. It will be noted that this diagram (below, p. 9 0 ) is laid out as a player might have viewed it, with the two manuals located

at the center. The ten Pedal stops, in two groups of five,

lay horizontally at, or slightly below, the level of the

Brust-Positiv manual, while the ten Brust stops were placed

at the sides of the manuals in two groups of five. The

eleven Oberwerk stops were horizontally deployed.

?^Anleitung, p. 351. 75pnterricht, p . 29. 90

Oberwerck

VO oo VO > OJ CO 00 H H H CÜ p 0 i> N O C nS CJ O s P d d P a •H Tl •H ZQ W) o XPP •H •H Ti

/ Quintadehn 8' Gedackt 8'n

Quinta 3' Principal 4' Brust < Gedackt 4' Octav 2' \ Brust Mixtur III Sesquialtera

Schalmey 4’ Krumhorn 8' y

Oberwegs Clavier

Brust-Positivs Clavier VO OJ 00 VO OO cn OJ H W w cd P 1 G G CD d CD P CD â pH d G p CD (d ■H d g > G CD ft rO O S p d d G 1 o S CD X P CQ fn p a •H •H -p P Ü OO P G U o EH o ft O Eh w o. & o V. -H V --- Pedal Pedal

Figure 24 [Source : Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 281 91 approximately at the level of the organist's head.?^ Criticism against awkward location of certain stop controls is recorded by Adlung who observes that the

Riickpositiv stops were occasionally located at the player's b a c k . Although such an arrangement was obviously incon­ venient for the organist, it seemed to be reasonable from the builder's standpoint, since it greatly simplified the stop-control linkage system.

Ordinarily the Riickpositiv stop controls were placed in the console, but in such an arrangement the stop linkage had to pass under the gallery floor to the Riick­ positiv chest, not unlike the key-action linkage of that division. There can be little doubt that such construc­ tional complications played a considerably important role in the gradual decline of Riickpositiv construction during the latter years of the Baroque era.

7^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 28.

77Anleitung, p . 346. CHAPTER III

THE PIPES

The basic materials used in making organ pipes during the Baroque era were metal and wood.^ The kinds of wood mentioned most frequently in the treatises are fir, oak, ebony, pear, maple, cypress, and boxwood. Fir was most commonly used for larger pipes, not only because of its light weight but also because of the ease with which it could be worked. Bendeler points out another feature of this material which further qualified it for use in pipe making : Fir, when free of sap and fully dried, is especially good for the deeper sounds and covered pipes; for it is well supplied with air- filled pores which, when struck by the wind from the outside, are compressed, and in con­ junction with the flexibility of the fibres,

In addition to metal and wood, certain novel materials were used for pipes, including alabaster, glass, paper, ivory, porcelain, and clay. Adlung reports that examples of the first two materials had existed in Mantua, while in Vienna there was an organ whose pipes were made of paper. Ivory was used for some of the pipes in the organ at Biickeburg as well as in the organ of the court chapel at Hessen. A single rank of porcelain pipes was in use at Adlung's time in Dresden; and in Mayenberg there was an organ of three stops whose pipes were made entirely of fired clay which "sounded as well as if the pipes were made of tin" (Anleitung, p. 368).

92 93 spring back, thus increasing the sound and deepening it somewhat.-

Oak was selected for pipe-making primarily because of its strength; however, this factor was offset by certain disadvantages, as noted by Bendeler:

Regarding wood for pipes, the harder, flatter, and drier the better, if one wishes to have a clear, sharp sound. The fact before us is that oak, which is very hard, is not in all ways suited to these conditions, especially in terms of its coarseness (a limitation similar to other materials). Because of this the wind cannot readily strike sharply and reflect properly.3 According to Adlung, oak was more frequently used

for the construction of certain pipe components, such as

pipe-mouth facing pieces, than for complete pipes. He

notes, too, that the better builders were careful not to

select oak which had small hair-line splits or "white

grain," both of which revealed incipient deterioration.^

Ebony was used only in exceptional cases, not only

because of its high initial cost but also because its natu­

ral hardness made shaping difficult. Pear wood, commonly

used for harpsichord jacks during the Baroque era, was also

used to a limited extent for making organ pipes. Adlung

records three such instances : In Gera there is an 8 ' Gedackt of pear

^Organopoeia, p . 3.

3prganopoeia, p . 2 .

^Anleitung, p. 3^9. 9 4 wood, although the lips and languid are covered with tin. Half of the Fltttedouce is also of pear wood, . . . In the contract for the organ at Dachwich there was to be a Querfl6te of pear w o o d . 5

Like ebony and pear wood, maple, too, was used only occasionally in pipe making. The only reference to this particular wood is that of Adlung who reports, "in the castle organ at Merseburg, maple was used for a Fl6tedouce and a 2 ’ Flachflfttej the latter, however, is no longer present."^ Cypress was especially suited for pipes because of its exceptional durability and resistance to rot, but its high cost precluded extensive use. Boxberg reports that two stops made of this wood had been installed in the organ at cBrlitz.? Boxwood and cherry were used primarily for pipe components, the latter being especially useful for the shallotts of large reed pipes.

Since wood pipes were susceptible to various kinds

of damage they were, as Fabricius points out, "seldom used,

or sometimes not at all."® Three of the more common forms

of damage were splitting, rotting, and separation of glue

joints. The latter was caused not only by adverse weather

conditions but also by the vibrations of the low-pitched

5Anleitung, p. 369.

®Anleitung, p . 369.

^Beschreibung GÜrlitz, p . [ 2 ]. O Unterricht, p. 52 95 pipes. The treatises offer no true solution to the problem other than what might be called "normal precautions." Thus, for example, Fabricius states, "If the Subbass is of wood, check to see if it is made of good, strong, dry wood; well- glued and treated, especially if it stands against the wall."9 The "treatment" referred to is not clarified. It may have consisted either of something similar to

Casparini's Invetriatur (above, p. 17), or it may have been some kind of glue size. The use of the latter material is noted by Bendeler, "Although oak as well as fir may be covered equally well with glue size in order to give it some flatness, it is not as good as if the wood is made clear, flat, and solid by nature itself.

Problems of cost occasionally necessitated the use of wood pipes as part of a stop which under normal circum­ stances would have been constructed entirely of metal. An example of this kind of cooperative use of different materials is noted by Boxberg:

The large pedal towers of nine stops contain the large Principal-Bass of English tin, whose 24' F is displayed in the case. . . . The lowest four keys C, D, D«, and E |~ sic. ], how­ ever, are made of wood. The Posaunen-Bass has wooden resonators . . . but the reed block and tuning wires are made of metal.

^Unterricht, p. 73. lOprganopoeia, p . 2 .

^^Beschreibung Gftrlitz, p . [17]. 9 6

Wood pipes were generally far outnumToered by metal pipes in the organs of the Baroque era. The most commonly used metal was an alloy composed of tin and lead in varying p r o p o r t i o n s . Several factors were involved in determin­ ing the exact proportions of each used in the alloying process. Some of these are noted by Bendeler: It is much better to use a greater amount of tin, not only because of its enduring qualities, but also because of the sound; for lead by itself frequently produces a consuming efflorescence usually called saltpeter, which shows up in only a few years in lead pipes, particularly if located in an area where saltpeter is present. The efflo­ rescence may also be deposited via the warm air blown into the instrument, as in a fermentation process, as experience has demonstrated. On the contrary, tin is not generally subject to this damage and because of its hardness has good resist­ ance to the effloresence of lead. Therefore churches will do much better, when funds are limited, if they have organs with a few stops of good metal rather than organs with many stops of bad metal. I do not think much of organ pipes, the metal of whose upper parts is not at least 1/4 tin, while the feet are at least 1/2 tin, especially in the case of the larger pipes. In the smaller pipes it is less important. The reason why lead is tonally not as good as tin is because it is not as hard, hence the wind cannot strike sharply enough against the lips and body, and cannot reflect well.

Underscoring the problem of saltpeter efflorescence.

^2geldom used metals, according to Adlung, included gold, copper, and silver, the last being used for certain pipes in the l6l6 Compenius organ (extant) at Frederiksborg, Substantial use of brass is noted by Adlung who reports that in the organ at Grüningen, "the amount of brass used in the making of several stops totaled 600 pounds" (Anleitung, pp. 368-369).

^^Organopoeia, p . 2. 97 Adlung observes, "in places where high concentrations of saltpeter are found, lead tends to accumulate a coating of this substance, whose sweetness attracts mice who, in turn, gnaw at it and do a great deal of damage to the feet of the pipes.Werckmeister adds that any alloy subject to this damage, that is, any alloy consisting of high percentages of lead, must be termed "bad metal."^5 Unfortunately, the

same writer does not specify the break-off point between

"good" and "bad" metal. Fabricius specifies, "An alloy of 1/2 tin and 1/2

lead is most commonly used since it is easier to work

with."^^ Adlung on the other hand lists three alloys of

pipe metal, presumably all "good": half and half; 2/3 tin

and 1/3 lead; and 1/3 tin and 2/3 lead.^^ Additional data

on alloys is supplied by Werckmeister in this rather wide-

ranging opinion: The composition of the metal is not always constant, being made as one pleases or as ordered. . . . A good alloy contains a third of tin, that is, two pounds of lead to one pound of tin. This results in a good, useable metal which can be used for making small Prin­ cipal pipes, especially for village churches. If a better metal is,required for the Princi­ pals, then take half lead and half tin. It is

l^Anleitung, p. 370.

^^Orgel-Probe, p . 6/.

^^Unterricht, p. 52,

l^Anleitung, p . 370. 98

even better if one takes two parts of tin to one part of lead. Pure tin is rarely used. If a lesser quality metal is required, one may take three pounds of lead to one pound of tin, that is 1/4 tin. Or one may take 1/6 , 1/7, 1/8 , 1/9 or 1/10 tin, but these are not recom­ mended. Such inferior metal may be made to look as white and hard as tin by the addition of certain substances; but it is dangerous to use antimony because of its poisonous charac­ ter. Some use marcasite, but it is worthless.18

Among the views expressed there seems to be basic agreement that the quality of pipe metal increased in direct proportion to the amount of tin employed in the alloying process. Presumably the increased degrees of hardness acquired through larger proportions of tin in the alloy yielded certain qualities of durability valued by the better builders. Apparently these builders had come to recognize what acousticians have more recently demonstrated, namely, that the harder alloy provided greater tonal bril­ liance in the pipe sound because its tighter molecular

structure tended to prolong and enhance the development of

the higher harmonics present in the standing wave patterns

of pipes made of such metal. Conversely, pipe metal with a

high lead content tended to,suppress the development of

higher harmonics. Adlung summarizes, "The harder the material, the more beautifully the pipes sound."^9

l^Orgel Probe, p . 6 7 .

^^Anleitung, p. 370. 9 9 As Bendeler implied in his earlier statement, financial considerations often determined the percentages of tin and lead used in an alloy— the greater the percent­ age of tin, the greater the cost of the pipe.^O Adlung states forthrightly, "Where much has to be built for little money, then one simply has to use poorer material.

Here, too, as in the case of windchests (above, p. 2 1 ), the unscrupulous builder often took advantage of this situation as Werckmeister observes:

Some builders are greedy and dishonest, for they agree with the representatives of the church that the pipe metal will contain 1/2 tin, but when examined it is found to contain barely 1/8. Principals. must be made of good metal— this they have planned and promised, though they scarcely keep to a third of their promises. It is well known, of course, that tin is often so hard that it cannot be worked easily. Now I doubt whether any builder will thank me for what I now will reveal, but I know this from experi­ ence and not from hearsay. I know only too well the habits of unscrupulous builders, and I call upon the testimony of the conscientious and honorable to bear witness for me. Such a bad metal, consisting largely of lead, cannot long resist saltpeter, and the large pipes are apt to sink into their feet and sag. . . . I once saw a specification where the builder had figured the weights of pipes excessively. Among them was a Bauerfl6te-Bass, figured at 50 pounds, instead of the actual 10 pounds. The unfairness of such dealings is easily seen, all of which causes injustice to the honest builder who would not do such a thing. In this way all the stops were priced exhorbitantly.22

^Oprganopoeia, p. 106.

^^Anleitung, p. 371.

^^Orgel-Probe, pp. 66-6 7. 100 Adlung proposes a plan designed to forestall pay­ ment to any builder whose metal did not comply with the specifications stipulated in the contract. He recommends that the examiner of the finished organ extract one or more pipes at random from any register whose metal might be suspect; and have them melted down and weighed, "if it is heavier than specified," he adds, "then you know it has more lead in it than it should have."^^

In the large pedal pipes, it was common practice to increase the percentage of tin in the alloy used for pipe feet even though the body of the pipe may have had a lower proportion. Both Bendeler and Werckmeister explain that the use of the different alloys in any single large pipe was determined primarily by a durability factor. If such a pipe were not equipped with a foot of considerably harder material, that pipe would eventually settle of its own weight, causing not only an alteration in the tone, but presenting the possibility of collapse as well.

Of all the pipes in the organ, those incorporated

^Anleitung, p. 526. Some typical weights of ranks of metal pipes are given by Werckmeister, "8’ Principal C, D, E, F, F^, G, Gf', to c ’’, 165 pounds (some others 200- 220 pounds); 4' Principal, 60 pounds (others, 85 pounds); 8' Gedeckt of fairly good metal, 127 pounds, (others 120- l40 pounds); 1 6 ’ Quintathon, 260-271 pounds; 8' Quintathon 116-125 pounds; 4 ’ Oktava 49-54 pounds; 3' Quinta 22-25 pounds; 2 ’ Super Octava, 15-18 pounds; 4' Gedeckt, 72-78 pounds; V Mixtur, largest pipes 1', 60 pounds; IV Mixtur, largest pipe 2' 90 pounds; 1' Superoctav, 10 pounds; III Mixtur, 1', 32 pounds" (Orgel-Probe, p. 65). 101 in the exposed case-work normally were made with the high­ est percentages of tin. This, Adlung states is "die

SchSnheit der Orgeln."^^ Accentuated hy burnishing, the natural lustre of such pipes was preserved over a long period of time. The initial step in the construction of metal pipes involved the casting and finishing of metal sheets of the desired alloy. These procedures are described in some detail by Bendeler:

I know full well that the organ makers can pour, and that many thousand sheets are poured and poured again, without my instruction. Meanwhile it is to be hoped that no one will be offended if I show a superior method. Ordinarily when one allows the metal to pour from its ladle directly upon the table, bubbles always appear on the first sheet (because the metal is hot and the table is cold), resulting in untold loss of time, work, coal or wood, and metal. Whoever wishes to avoid such loss will do as follows: Make a double, fairly-wide ladle (according to the size of the pouring table), which does not quite touch the surface of the table by about the thickness of the back of a knife, or slightly higher, and whose ends ride on the outer edges of the table, permitting the ladle to be drawn over the table smoothly, thus allowing the metal to flow out from it without gathering in piles. When the builder places the metal on the fire for melting, he also places a pot or kettle of fine sand thereon, which is then heated. When it is time to pour, he places some of this hot sand directly under the pouring slot [of the ladle J so that the metal cannot run out immediately. Then he pours the remaining sand into [the forward com­ partment of ]the double ladle. As the ladle is drawn forward, the metal [in the rear compart­ ment ] pours out on the hot sand and does not

24Anleitung, p . 369. 102

spread about, and very seldom does one get bubbles in the sheet. It is not only necessary, as previously mentioned, that the sand be fine and even but, above all, the ladle and table must be correctly aligned so that the metal may have an even flow. I certainly do not mean to imply that the table should not be slightly sloping, rather I mean that the sides or troughs on which the ladle rides should be level, one side not higher than the other. Concerning the table there is little to be said as long as it serves its purpose well, even if it is not per­ fectly exact. In drawing the ladle one must not back-track or jerk, for then the metal will run unevenly and the sheet will have humps.^5

Another procedure for pouring metal sheets, which in some respects disagrees with Bendeler's report, is pointed out by Boxberg in his description of Casparini’s method: All sheets are poured on pure linen which is covered by a special material discovered by Herr Casparini. Pouring in this manner, on linen, does not proceed as rapidly as that involving sand, nevertheless I observed that in one day 38 hundred-weight of tin were poured for use in the large pipes without damaging the linen. This system has two merits: first, there are no small, almost unnoticeable holes as are often found in sheets which are poured on sand, which holes often cause problems in the later voicing and tuning of the pipes made from such sheets; second, finishing a sheet which was poured on linen is not half as troublesome as the other kind in which small grains of sand remain im­ bedded in the metal, causing damage to the planes.2b

Apparently Casparini’s method left both sides of the sheet

quite flat, revealing no more scars or marks than those

25prganopoeia, pp. 3-5.

^^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p . [ 7 ]. 103 left by the imprint of the linen weave. "These," Boxberg says, "are easily r e m o v e d . "^7 Casparini's "special material" appears to have been some sort of sizing which not only covered the raw weave of the linen cloth, but also acted as a protective coating against the intense heat of the molten metal. The ingredients of this "material" remain a trade secret.

Adlung observes that of three materials employed in pouring metal, namely sand, linen, and ashes, he preferred pR the last. Curiously, his reference to ashes constitutes the only mention of that material in the treatises.

Adlung also takes special note of the size of the pouring table, stating that it ought to be considerably longer than the longest pipe and at least as broad as the circumference of the largest pipe. "It is not good," he adds, "to assemble large pipes from several smaller pieces."^9

After the metal sheets were poured and cooled, they

were hand-planed to uniform thickness, appropriate to the pipes which were made from them. Bendeler provides some

details :

When the metal has been poured and processed, then one must give it its proper

^^Beschreibung C6rlitz, p . [ 7 ].

^^Anleitung, pp. 370-371.

^^Anleitung, p. 370. 104

thickness or thinness; not only for purposes of endurance hut also for the sound, for if the hody is too thin it will he too readily moved hy the wind, producing a huzzing and rattling, instead of a pleasing sound. Here one cannot give a precise judgment, because the alloy and thickness of the metal vary a great deal. However, to offer my opinion, I say: a l6 ' hody should have 13-15 scruples, [3^] an 8 ' with 10-1 2 , a 4' with 8 , a 2 ’ with 5 or 6 , and a 1 ' with 4 scruples thickness will work w e l l . 31

Occasionally, notes Adlung, certain sheets were hammered to harden them.32 in such cases, however, the alloy had to he malleable enough to prevent splitting.

Additional preparation of the metal sheets included coating them with a reddish sizing which, as Adlung points out prevented later soldering operations from damaging the bodies of the pipes. "After the pipes have been finished," he adds, "the reddish coating is washed off."33

Each builder possessed his own set of patterns and mandrils according to which the components of the various

[30]ijihe precise equation of the "scruple" with today's measurements is virtually impossible. The scruple of Bendeler's day may have fit the scale of values offered by Johann Adam Ludwig: 1 foot = 10 inches; 1 inch = 10 gran; 1 gran = 10 scruples (Gedanken über die Grossen Orgeln [Leipzig: Breitkopf and Haertel, 1782, p. 8 J). Thus a scruple in this system of measurement amounted to 1/100 of an inch. This, however, is predicated on a 10" foot. Further complications are met with the realization that in Germany at the time of Bendeler, and before the adoption of the metric system early in the 19th century, each major city had its own "foot (above, p. 49).

3^0rganopoeia, p . 5. 32Anleitung, p. 371.

33Anleitung, p. 371. 105 pipes were cut, shaped, and assembled from previously pre­ pared sheets of metal. These patterns represented, in many instances, the combined experience of an entire family of builders passed down through several generations. For the builder these patterns comprised the embodiment of a

Klangldeal; and the fact that there often existed marked

differences in measurements of similar stops among dif­

ferent builders is testimony to the fact that each builder

strove to achieve his own particular Klangideal. The making and using of patterns for the construc­

tion of pipes involved not only a mastery of sheet metal

layout and assembly, but an understanding of various

aspects of acoustical phenomena as well. Several determi­

nants had to be established, among them the length and

circumference of the pipe body, the thickness of the metal,

the ratio of the opening of the mouth to the circumference,

the ratio of the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the

mouth et al. The relationship of these and other factors

involved in the construction of a rank of pipes were known as "scaling."

The only passage in the treatises which provides

details of scaling is found in Bendeler's Organopoeia. It

is important to an understanding of pipe scaling in the

Baroque era because it provides comprehensive descriptions

of three distinct systems of mensuration. The first of

these is the older proportional system in which the 106 relationship between pipe length and diameter remained constant throughout a rank; while the second and third systems propose adjustable scales utilizing the principle of the Additionskonstant. This term, as used by Bendeler, refers to the progressive increase of diameters of pipes in the upper ranges together with a corresponding decrease of pipe diameters in the lower ranges, and the effect on pipe lengths occasioned by such alterations. Both the second and third systems represent refinements over certain tonal inequities resulting from the exclusive use of the older proportional system. Basing his mensurations on the

Regulum Petri (Figure 2$, p. 110), Bendeler describes how a builder cuts pipe blanks from metal sheets, later to be

shaped and soldered into pipe bodies (Figure 26, p. HI).

Since the kind of information contained in the fol­

lowing passage was normally considered a "trade secret,"

and therefore not apt to find its way into print, Bendeler's passage takes on even more value^^ A perusal of this ex­

tensive passage puts the reader in the position of "looking

over Bendeler's shoulder" as he works out a set of pipe mensurations :

This matter [scaling] up to the present has produced among musicians as well as organ builders very curious and numerous fads like those of the alchemists of Mercurius Philoso- phorum. Whereas it has been generally under­ stood that one could not and ought not measure the pipes according to their musical propor­ tions, so each builder sought to use his own basis. Meanwhile, some have come to think that the basis of measurements is to be found in 107 stereometry and not in musical proportions, attacking musical proportions as old and deceiving creations of Pythagorus. Here it is necessary to consider how this disparity may be resolved; 1) whether stereometry has anything to do with organ pipes, 2) whether stereometry gives the basis of measurements, and 3) whether there is anyone to consult, that one may not be­ come entangled with stereometry in this matter. Regarding the first question, it is known that organ pipes are bodies, hence whoever wishes to discover the contents of these bodies will cer­ tainly have to use stereometry. Regarding question number two, whether it should be the basis of measurement, it follows that nothing be said, for, first of all, stereometry is concerned with nothing more than volume, and has nothing to do with sound in any way. Much less do they teach and consider that high and low sounds are dependent more on the length of the pipe than on the inner volume, which of course is the main consideration in measurement. For others, different pipes may be of one volume regardless of whether or not they are greatly different in length and sound, as in fact such pipes unquestionably are. In such cases the stereometric basis is fundamentally false and fraudulent. To be sure, if pipes are measured according to musical proportions in both their length and width, then the volumes are for the most part rational; as octaves 8-1, fifths 3-1, etc., and there is little left to be desired. But if one takes a little bit away from the width of the pipes and adds to the length a suitable amount, the proportion of the volume (after it is re-calculated) is not completely in agreement with the sound, and is at variance sometimes as much as a 2nd or 3rd, or even more. Granted, even if the stereometric basis would otherwise remain correct in itself, which it seldom is throughout, it may be dangerous and false, because if one takes only one or two scruples from the diameter, which can happen very easily, although seemingly not enough to be concerned with, then the operation is a hundred, even a thousand times false. For the sake of experiment I have taken only 1/2 scruple from the inside diameter of a small pipe 112 scruples long, and as much from the length of the body, and found the result to be I83 scruples false. Herein lies the answer to the third question. 108

If anyone is interested in seeking the truth and is not skilled in the stereometric operation, I give him a bit of friendly advice: multiply 1/2 of the circumference of the pipe (thickness of the metal excluded) by 1/2 of the diameter, and the result by the length of the pipe; and what results therefrom is the volume. If one then wishes to calculate two pipes, one divides the larger volume into the smaller, and what results is the proportion. Let me emphasize, the one tiue basis of measures and equality is found in musical pro­ portions, for if the pipe bodies are to sound equally well according to musical proportions, and if one wishes to hear octaves, fifths, and the like, then they all must be finished both in length and width according to musical propor­ tions. This is what nature itself teaches, and no one who understands the basis of natural musical proportions can deny it. Practice confirms this. If, however, it does not work out in practice, and the sound loses its acute quality, the fault lies not in the proportions but, rather, in the fact that pipes have been permitted to digress too far from the proper width and nature of the sound, perhaps by being made too narrow (even though equality remains), or else the builder, espe­ cially in preparing the small pipes, did not proceed carefully enough but cut thoughtlessly, being unaware of the fact that the thickness of the metal can be disadvantageous to the volume of the pipe. In other respects musical proportions alone remain the correct basis of measurements and equality in all pipes, reeds as well as flues; whether the flues are open or closed, of conical or cylindrical shape; the reeds small or large, of' which something will be said later on. The process of measurement consists in figuring the proportions of the known pipes, after which the length and then the proportions of the unmade pipes are determined according to the Regulum Petri. For example, if I wish to determine the 109 lower octave of the pipe 1 to 2 to 3 [3^] of figure A (the Regulum Detri) [Figure 25; p. 1 1 0 ], whose length according to my standard is 206 scruples, I proceed as follows: if 1 represents the given length of 206 scruples, how much then is 2? answer, 412. In the same way the width is determined. Thus, if 1 is 70 scruples in width, how much then is 2? answer l40. [35] However, since all organ makers do not fully understand musical proportions (as they certainly ought to), I will give another manner of measurement which I will apply to a monochord, and I shall make my instruction as simple as one is able to make it. If we want to work out the basic temperament let us now take our first example. The entire process is as follows: I divide the afore-mentioned pipe (or the complete length of the monochord) into two equal parts, 'd:hus giving me the upper octave. I take the length of the octave three times thus giving me the lower fifth. I divide the length of this pipe into two equal parts and I get its octave. If I take the same three times I get the lower fifth again, and so on. ' In such manner all keys of the keyboard are derived, and one does not even have to take time to master the proportional system. If, according to this, I want to lay out a stop by means of the numbers 1 to 2 to 3 of figure A (and if the key is C), then I extend the line 1 to 2 as long as I want. Meanwhile, I draw a line from 1 through 3 and extend this as long as I wish. Afterwards I divide the length 2 to 1 into two other equal parts, that is 4; thus, 4 to 1 is the length of the upper octave. The parallel, or the line running from 4 to a is the width of the same. I take the length 4 to 1 three times bringing me to point 5 which gives the length of the fifth, P. The

[3^]Bendeler's expression "the pipe 1 to 2 to 3 of figure a" refers to a pipe whose body was formed from a flat metal sheet having a length extending from point 1 to point 2 on the Regulum Detri and a width extending from point 2 to point 3. The process is illustrated in Figure 26 (below, p. 111).

[35]The intent of this passage is to establish ratios, thus : 1 is to 2 as 206 is to 4l2; 1 is to 70 as 2 is to l40. The 1 and 2 are not to be confused with points on the Regulum Detri. 110

Figure 25 [Source : Organopoeia, p . 9] A. Pipe blank cut according to . Regulum Petri; Length 1 to 2 Width 2 to 3. B. Pipe blank partially rolled. C. Edges joined and soldered. D. Foot soldered to pipe body, H mouth cut out. H Figure 26 112 width is again figured by the parallel. This key, F, I again divide into two equal parts at 6; then 6 to 1 gives the octave of F. Three times the length 6 to 1 carried to 7 gives the lower fifth of F, namely, . With the Bt' I proceed as before, giving me D^. With Df I do the same as with b I’ , thus giving me G*', and so on. When I come to Ff I proceed in the same manner as all the other keys, namely, deriving the pure lower fifth B. However, since the B against the is about 1/3 of a comma too high against the temperament, I divide the length of B into nine equal parts. Each of these nine parts I divide again into nine equal parts, one of which is the comma, one-third of which I remove from the afore-mentioned B. By means of the Regulum Petri the comma, and one-third of the same, is discovered thus: first of all the large proportion number of the comma, namely 8l, is set down in the middle of the length of the pipe; at the end is placed the small proportion number of the comma, namely 80; the difference between 80 and 8l being the comma. This, then, is easily divided by three as I now demonstrate: if the length of B is 1050 scruples, I proceed as follows: 8l has I050, how many has 80? answer, 1037 3/18 [1037 3/8 1 ]. This 1037 (no need to attend to the fraction, since it has not yet been made a hair’s breadth broader) subtracted from the above-mentioned 1050 gives 13 scruples, which makes the comma. This 13 divided by 3 gives 4 1/1 [4 1/3 ] which must be taken off the length of B. If I wish to go further with the measure- ■, ments then I proceed with B exactly as before with the other keys. Thus I get the key of E, and so on until the end; except with the key of G, for which I do the same as I did with B, because it is also 1/3 comma too high against D. In such a manner I finally derive all the keys on the keyboard. One may then proceed to get all the octaves, as I already have said, by dividing the length in half, thus giving the upper octave. Dividing again gives the next higher octave. Here it may be said, when deal­ ing with large pipes which are to be measured, or when one no longer needs to determine more descending fifths, one needs only to divide the upper octave into two parts and then multiply each of these by three, thus giving the lower fifths, which are the fourths of those keys • 113 whose fifths one did not wish to determine. For example, if I do not want to derive the fifth on key B*' from figure A, designated by 7, but rather to get the upper sound of IX, then I first of all get the octave at 8. This octave I divide into two parts at 9 (thus giving another octave). The length 9 to 1 I then take three times (as before) and carry it to 10; thus 10 to 1 gives the key from which, at leisure, one may de­ termine its octaves. Or I divide only the octave 7 to 8 into two equal parts at 10, thus giving me the fourth. If one wishes to achieve the second or third temperament one proceeds as in the afore­ mentioned manner, except taking special care with those keys which must be adjusted to suit their overtones, noting that the comma, in the third temperament, should be divided not by three but by four. Furthermore, it is not enough merely to see-to it that the pipes which are to be measured (whether the key of0 or any other) have clear or sharp fifths, and then not to give full attention to the instructions here supplied. Here I have shown wherein the correct foundation of measurement consists, and how the same may be put into practice very simply. Therefore, if one takes everything into careful consideration, this advantage will result that one will have little trouble afterwards in voicing. Even in the deeper sounds of the large pipes one will experience no difference. Let no one think that I cannot and may not measure off in the smallest way by means of musical proportions. I will show you how one must proceed if he wishes to deviate slightly from the musical proportions and, to be sure, not to affect the equality adversely, but still truly securing the height and depth of sound. This is done in this manner; first begin with the previously-tuned pipes of all keys which have been prepared both in length and width according to musical proportions. When this is established one may remove 1 1/5 to 1 1/10 scruples from the width of the lower octave (which was origi­ nally measured on the basis of the first pipe) which amounts to the same as if the upper octave were increased by 1/2 as much. One then lays out a new diagonal line which shows the new widths of all the pipes. One can take more off the de­ scending octave, especially if the pipe to be measured is big and produces a deep sound. Il4 Nevertheless, one must use his judgement, which can easily he done, because the correct foundation of measurements is known. -Afterwards one may finish off the upper octaves according to the new widths. However, one must take special care with the lengths, for if a pipe has had something of its width removed, an adjustment must be made in the length. One must take care to voice it accurately with the first pipe, also making sure that it is in tune. When this happens, one may really notice how much in­ crease there now is on the length than before, comparing the new width with the upper octave. If one then wishes to discover the new lengths of the other pipes (which are less in length), then one first determines on the Regulum Petri the reduction of the widths of these pipes, placing in the middle of them the increase of the length, and on the end the decrease of the width, resulting in the new lengths. For example: if an octave shown by 11 on figure A has an allowed decrease of the width of 8 scruples, then one also adds 8 scruples to the length (I use this merely as an example). Now I really want to know how much longer to make the upper fourth. If this has been decreased 4 scruples in its width, then the example stands : 8, namely the reduction in the afore-mentioned width, gained 8 over the length; how much gain on 4? answer 4, which is then added to the former length. In such a simple manner all new lengths may be determined accurately for each key from whose width some­ thing has been removed. If one wishes to determine new lengths of pipes to whose widths something has been added, how much shall be removed from the lengths? Keeping in mind both the reduction of the widths and the increase in the lengths, the lower octaves are compared to the pipes mentioned at first. Since both parts were 8, I therefore take twice 4 and say: 4 added to the width loses 4 on the length (for whatever is removed from the lower octave, half of that would be added to the upper octave). How much then is lost? Of the pipes whose decrease in length I am attempting to dis­ cover, it would be as much as was added to the width. Thus, if it were 5 scruples, then 5 scruples would be taken away (according to the similarity of the numbers). Thus one can derive all lengths exactly and without trouble. 115 If one does not find it necessary to figure the lengths by numbers, desiring to measure in a simple manner (as explained before in the other process), one may merely add to the length what was taken away from the middle.[3°] I cannot refrain from saying, however, that according to this the lower keys are too deficient in width and conversely the upper receive too much; therefore, if one takes off a great deal from the lower octave, he will experience a marked inequality. Therefore, I will present a third process, the absolute and irrefutable basis of measurement before your eyes. I refer to figure H [Figure 27, p. Il6]. 1 to 2 is the length and 2 to 3 the width of a properly tuned pipe. At 1 and 3 I lay my ruler and draw a diagonal line as long as the measure should be. I also extend the line 1 to 2.as long as needed. With these two lines I reckon all the other pipes, according to those already known and certainly according to musical proportions, as mentioned above. Then I make a note of the reduction of the lower octave and mark it at 5» Thereupon 1 draw a new diagonal line from 1 through 4 and 5 as long as the measurement is. The width 4 to 3 I carry out to 1 to 7. From 7 I draw a line to 3 and from there to 5.[37] The space

[3^]This Additionskonstant for Bendeler's second mode of scaling is invariable and applies to the complete gamut in contradistinction to the third mode which seeks to establish a variable addition factor. Both of these pro­ cedures are clear departures from the first mode which is based on the musical proportion of 2 to 1 octave relation­ ships. Corroboration of this "adjustable" feature is provided by Werckmeister, "if one cannot realize fully the musical proportions of widths and lengths these are, never­ theless, the correct points of measurements; for as much as is removed from the width, so much must be added to the length, but this must not be held to too strictly. This appears to be a paradox but is nevertheless the truth" (Orgel-Probe, pp. 34-35). ^37]A comparison of the text with the illustration given in the original edition of Bendeler’s treatise reveals a discrepancy. The illustration shows a straight line proceeding from 7 to 3, passing between 4 to 3a whereas the text states explicitly that the line shall proceed first from 7 to 3 and then on to point 5- Accordingly, a straight line from 7 to 5 is inaccurate. Il6

Figure 27 [Source : Organopoeia^ p . l6 ] 117 between lines 1 to 3 to 7 shows how much is added to the width of ascending keys, but the space between the two lines 3 to 5, which reaches to the end of the measure, shows what is to be subtracted from the width of descend­ ing keys. As much as is removed from the width of a pipe, so much must be added to its length. For example: if you lose 10 scruples in width you add 10 in length and vice versa, as much as is added to the width of a pipe, so much must be taken away from the length. This is also the only true, correct, and honest foundation of measurement and is the first way in which one may deviate from musical proportions. In order that I may be still better understood and that everyone may grasp the truth with his own hands, I will clarify the figure further. The two lines 1 to 4 to 5 as well as 1 to 3 to 6 always run proportionately, that is, as the sounds are arranged proportionately so also these two lines remain proportional. Hence, since the width 5 to 6 is taken from the octave 8 to 6 so the upper octave should then have 1/2 as much, namely the width 4 to 3 taken away. If, however, I do not want to take anything away from the upper octave, then it retains 1/2 as much of the addition to the width as the lower octave has removed from its width. Now, in finishing these pipes one should proceed (from the key 8 to 5 up to 2 to 3), to terminate the width by means of the line that runs from 4 to 5. But in this way the pipes 2 to 3 will be almost a major third too wide, which gives a marked inequality to the sound. Therefore the width of the afore­ mentioned key must be terminated on the line 5 to 3 in order for the sound to progress orderly as well as gradually in widths. Since the descending octave loses the triangle 3 to 6 to 5 in its width, so the upper octave must be increased by the triangle 1 to 7 to 3^ which is 1/2 of the foregoing triangle. For what is removed from all the widths of the descending octaves, half of this is added to all the ascending octaves, which is the same as if one compared the procedure to a single key. And this is all based on natural and incontro­ vertible necessity. The lovers of art will note especially that the first descending octave has a completely different process concerning widths as the ll8 remaining descending octaves. For this is without a doubt the "knot" which has vexed and made fools of different well-intentioned people, that they did not know what they were about. They have been seriously troubled by this matter and have operated on a procedure which after­ wards proved unable to stand up. It is certainly impossible to understand this as an identical process [to strict musical proportions ] even if all the laws of geometry, stereometry, and music are called upon for help.[3°] All things con­ sidered, the first way remains the easiest, most correct, and as demonstrated above, certainly suitable for all pipe-work.[39] Next, I want to take the opportunity of mentioning, as I said above, how the thickness of metal might be disadvantageous to-the volume, something which is indeed important to keep in mind, and which is the reason why the foot and upper part of a pipe, or the frame upon which a pipe is set, often do not jibe with the volume or the width; or even why two pipes of unlike thickness of metal will dissonate, sounding as if there were a flaw in all the parts. When, therefore, a faulty width is to be remedied one must add twice the thickness of the metal from which the new pipe body is to be made. For

L38]Presumably, in the practice of mensuration of pipes there were many instances where no scientific measure­ ment could satisfy. The "ear" then became the final judge. Werckmeister alludes to this in his criticism of "those who would always and in every case insist on complete and per­ fect mathematical measurements of all pipes" (Orgel-Probe, p. 20). C39]in spite of Bendeler's proposals of two alternate and more sophisticated modes of scaling, his final appeal for the preeminence of the first mode marks his stance as essentially conservative. Mahrenholz underscores this fact by pointing out that Bendeler was "the last of the apolo­ gists 'for the older proportional system of mensuration" (Christhard Mahrenholz, "Johann Philipp Bendeler," M.G.G. Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1949-1951 j I, pp. l629-lo3iyi Presumably, changes of taste throughout this period were causing a gradual movement away from pure proportional systems of pipe design. The refined tonal qualities of pipes built on adjustable scale patterns appear to have grown in favor among builders and players alike throughout the latter part of the Baroque era. 119 example : if the faulty pipe which I want to replace is 100 scruples wide (without the thick­ ness of the metal, which must not be figured in the case of this finished pipe) then the new pipe will be assigned a width of 100 scruples. However, if the sheet from which the new pipe is made is k scruples thick, then I double this figure and add it to the 100 scruples width, altogether making 108 scruples. Thus the pipes will agree even though they are not of the same thickness. When such measurements have been com­ pleted it becomes necessary to consider what the wind supply of these pipes should be. Some say it is enough if the pipes are merely strengthened, [blown harder] as though there were not enough wind. But what a mistake I No pipe will sound properly unless it has its correct supply of wind; and there is a vast difference between copious and forceful wind. The supply of wind must be at least large enough to compensate for the pressure drop. One must determine the wind pressure in terms of the lip and the pipe thick­ ness, since it is the space between the languid and lower lip which must be regulated. When the languid is correctly placed, then the space between the languid and the lower lip must be as high as the metal is thick. The way this works may be seen from the following example:

Figure 28 [Source : Organopoeia, p . 22]

Take the width of the lip, which here is A to b, add the thickness of the metal, which here is b to c. Now divide the line A to c Into two equal parts at d, and draw a curve from A to c. 120

Now place a precise wooden, or better yet, a brass square on the line, and draw a perpendicular line from b to e. One side of this square then is for the wind opening, and if it is increased by 1/5 or 1/6 one has as much additional as neces­ sary. Such a derived square is then transferred by extending the same line to the pipe. Later one takes 1/2 of the line of the opening and uses this for the upper octave (N.B. if the pipes were measured according to the first mode). At the extreme points of both lines one lays a ruler and draws a diagonal line. Thus one has in a moment the openings for each pipe. Someone may interrupt here and say, yes, but if you determine the openings of all pipes in this fashion, you must determine the thickness of all pipes, which is very difficult if not im­ possible. Since the lower lip is supposed to be neither higher nor lower than the thickness of the metal of the upper lip (which thickness in this case is readily understood), this makes the need for different openings all the more neces­ sary. To this, an answer; to be sure, this is not such a great obstacle, for by means of the addition to the opening of the first, openings for all the rest are added, but not enough to affect them adversely as if one or another pipe had stronger or thicker metal than it normally should have. If the metal is thinner than it should be, the problem is still less. Whoever wants to take the trouble and wants to measure the opening of each individual pipe, he is free to do so, probably with good results.

[40] Thus :

Figure 29 121

If, however, the pipes are to be measured according to the other mode, namely, where some­ thing is taken away from the widths of the descend­ ing keys and to the ascending keys something is added, then one must proceed to take even greater care with the openings. I make a note of the openings of those pipes from which something is to be taken away on the width of the body of the pipe; then I double it and indicate that for the lower octave. Afterwards I check to see how much has been lost on the width of the upper octave. This loss I divide into four parts, which after­ wards I subtract from the line indicating the openings. Then from the outer points I lay a ruler as I did before, and draw a new line through the entire measurement, thus I get the accurate openings for each pipe. In order that I may be more clearly under­ stood, I will give an example: here is a pipe (assumed to be the note g) whose opening, if placed on a line is 100 scruples. This line I indicate on the body of the g pipe (I merely write 100 on the surface). Thereupon I notate on the lower octave 200 scruples as the opening of the same. But because this key has lost 12 scruples in width, I subtract from the 200 scruples 3 scruples (which is 1/4 of 12 scruples), leaving 197 scruples reduction for the lower octave. From this point to the other I lay a ruler across and draw a line. If one wants to proceed higher, he must check how much has been added to the width of the upper octave and then add 1/4 of this addition to the opening which would ordinarily be assigned to it. Now we have set down a true basis for the measurement and openings of pipes. Concerning the width of the lips, each organ maker must know how much to make the cut-up, and that he does this only according to the wind pressure. About this no specific rules can be made. Who­ ever does not believe this last statement, and cuts according to his own rules finds later on, especially in broad-scaled pipes, that it is too short, thus affecting the width adversely. Do not forget first to compare the thickness of the upper lip with the width of the same, in wooden pipes as well as metal, and in this way find the size of the opening.41

^^Organopoeia, pp. 6-19. 122

The foregoing extensive passage from Bendeler’s treatise describes the design and manufacture of metal flue pipes. While it is true that such pipes usually consti­

tuted the greater percentage of stops in virtually every

German organ of the time^ there was also present a smaller

complement of reed pipes. The treatises of this period

provide substantial information regarding the construction,

variety, refinements, tuning, and maintenance of reed

pipes.

In his treatise, Fabricius lists some of the impor­

tant considerations in the construction of reed pipes.

[Regal8 and Reeds] are different kinds of pipes in material and shape than those [ flue pipes ] previously described.1^^] Their individual characteristics are the brass or wood mouthpieces and the reeds which belong to them. One finds as many varieties of reed stops as there are Principals and Gedeckts, and it seems more are thought of each day. All together they bear examination on the following points: 1) What is the material of the body and the mouthpiece? One finds wooden and metal reso­ nators as well as wooden and metal mouthpieces. The tongues, however, are always of brass. Take special note whether the reed block is solid brass or merely hollow and filled with lead, which wears out and becomes pitted, perhaps not right away, but eventually.

In the treatises the term "regal" is used to designate a large and diversified family of reed stops possessing fractional length resonators (pictorial repre­ sentation of the main regal types in use during the earlier part of the Baroque era is found in Syntagma, Plate XXXVIII). The term "reed," on the other hand, refers to the family of assertive stops such as Trommete, Posaune et al., whose resonators were normally full length and only in exceptional cases half length. 123

2) What kind, of scaling^ narrow or broad, is used for the mouth piece; long and narrow mouthpieces sound considerably different than If short and broad ones are used. 3) Whether all pipes speak with the same degree of power. 4) Whether the mouthpiece Is firmly fastened to the resonator so It cannot bend, and that both will stay In alignment. Check also to see that the shallott Is not stuck so far Into the hole that the wedge which holds the reed and the mouthpiece together cannot be removed. 5) Whether the pipe stands firmly In the rack, so the wind does not escape, or that In tapping of the tuning wire the pipe will not jump out and release the wind. 6) Whether the shallott Is Inserted Into Its round or square block (today the square form Is used more than the older round form) far enough that It could be removed with a couple of raps of a knife to bring the pipe to Its right pitch. 7) Whether the tuning wires operate up and down easily, whether they hold the tongue, and whether they are made of brass, not Iron. 8) Whether the tongues flutter and seat properly and start promptly. If they are too narrow they stutter and perform Incorrectly. 9) Whether the tongues stop vibrating "Immediately upon release of the key. 10) Whether there Is any change In the reeds when playing one key or several, or any variation of sound resulting from the motion of the bellows. 11) Since the big Posaunen and Trommeten resonators merely stand on the reed block for easier removal from the rack, check to see that they do not wobble but stand firmly, otherwise they will not last long. It Is good If the ends of the resonators are fitted with brass tubes so that brass will be Inserted Into brass. 12) Whether per sympathlam one hears a double tone In the large regal pipes, or If a third Is heard as from G to b, or A to c^, which ought not to be. 13) Whether all regal pipes can be tuned a second up or down without causing chattering, wavering, and jerking, which Is necessary In bad weather, at which times they are thrown out of tune. All the faults and adjustments of regal pipes are best understood through experience of 124

those who have worked with such sticking, jerking, fluttering, and the like. Hearing alone will not suffice, but with experience the organist will learn how to handle them. Finally, one might wonder how it is that a small regal of 3 or 4 inches, not counting the resonator, sounds as deep as a large pipe of 8 Ell [l6 feet ] . . . . This may be seen in the size of the tongue which has no bearing on the size of the resonator at all. In small bodies the wind and its motion is small, in large bodies it is broadly distrib­ uted. For this reason an 8 ' or a l6 ' Regal needs a chest hole and wind as large as an 8 ’ or l6 ' Principal.^3

In contradistinction to these observations of

Fabricius, Bendeler's references to reeds are few. He re­ ports that principles similar to those employed in the scaling of flue pipes, as articulated in his first mode

(above, p. 109), usually applied to reeds as well. He also provides an insight into the relationship of wind pressure to reed pipes by noting that reeds received "as much wind as flue stops of the same size. Thus the reed stops as a family were used primarily for harmonic enrichment of the overall tonal palette of the organ rather than for dynamic and climactic functions. In the playing of a cantus firmus against an accompanimental background, the use of a single reed stop was based on contrast of tonal color rather than contrast of power. In this respect, German organ builders of the Baroque era generally stood apart from French and

^^xjnterricht, pp. 76-8I.

^^Organopoeia, p . 19. 125

Spanish builders who provided their instruments with more assertive reed stops.

Reed stops were generally susceptible to a number of vexing problems^ one of which was maintenance of true pitch.

Trost observes:

Special note must be taken where, over the years, piles of dead flies and droppings accumulate up under the ceiling. These could fall into the pipes and get down into the reeds, thus blocking their operation. Reeds ought to be tuned every six or eight weeks, especially in summer. If they require tuning every eight, or at least every fourteen days, then they are Narrwerke [the work of fools].45 Because of the difficulties involved in maintaining true pitch, the reeds were accorded a relatively minor role in tonal design at certain times in the history of the German

organ. Praetorius observes in I6 19:

Wherever there is not a diligent organist present, there is no need for many regals and reed stops, especially of 4' pitch, these re­ quiring the attention of an unusually diligent organist. Such an organist must not fail to tune all the reed stops completely once every eight days, and to keep them in good r e p a i r . 4o

In the century and a half following Praetorius, however,

there appears to have been a change of attitude toward the

inclusion of reeds in the tonal design of organs. Contempo­

raneous specifications, notably those recorded by Biermann^?

^^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 25. ^^Syntagma, p . 1$4.

^'^Organographia, pp. 1-26.

r j 126 and Niedtj^^ substantiate the fact that an ever-increasing number of reed stops were included in organs during the

course of the Baroque era. In his 1768 edition of Adlung’s

Musica Mechanica Organoedij Albrecht adds this appropriate

comment : In many old German organs, for example the St. Catherine organ in Hamburg, as well as many others, and also in many newer, magnificent organs in France, the reed stops form a rather large proportion of the pipes of the organ. The greatest authority on organs, and the best organ player in Germany, perhaps of all Europe, the departed Capellmeister Bach, was a great friend of the reed stops. He knew full well what could be played best on them, and in which way they were to be used to best advantage. Is then the mere accommodation of some organists and builders reason enough to disparage these lovely stops and even to remove them?^9 In the treatises there are several references which

indicate that in spite of the problems associated with reed

stops, certain builders did accomplish exceptionally good

results with them. Among such references are Boxberg's

comments on certain reeds in the Gtirlitz organ, "Bombart

1 6 ' is a very strong reed which remains in tune a very long

time. . . . The Krumbhorn holds its pitch very long and is a very reliable reed stop."50 Trost reports: The reeds [in the Weisenfels organ ] have

^^Handleitung, pp. 157-204. ^9jacob Adlung, Musica Mechanica Organoedi, edited by Johann Albrecht (Berlinl Birnstiel, 1768); facsimile edited by Christhard Mahrenholz (Kassel: Bârenreiter, I961), p. 66, 50Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p. [I8 ]. 127

resonators made of white lead f sic .~| j except the very small ones which are made of "brass, and are expertly crafted with a special scaling of the mouthpieces, tuning wires, tongues, boots, etc. The tones are sweet, and they [the pipes] will hold up for a long t i m e . 51

Considerable space is devoted in the treatises to procedures followed by the organ builder in ascertaining the desirable or undesirable tonal and constructional features of organ pipes. One of the more detailed descrip­

tions is provided by Fabricius:

All pipes must be examined, whether small or large, according to materia, forma, and finis. Organ builders gather all this together and call it "voicing." With this word is included all vitutes and vitia of pipes. The most important of these is the cutting up of the mouth, whether narrow or broad, which determines whether a pipe sounds loud or weak, clear or hoarse. So, if a pipe cannot be voiced properly it reflects on the materia and forma. Either the materia is not good or the forma is not right (though there is more to consider with forma than with materia). Thus the third part, finis, is not possible. If it can be voiced correctly then the opposite is true. The following points are to be considered: 1) If the material in the metal pipes is strong enough, especially in the feet, so that in spite of the weight they will not settle in twenty, thirty, or more years, which is not impossible since pipes vibrate from the sound even though one does not see it; whereby over a long period of time they can become crooked. That this is true can easily be observed in regal pipes which derive their sound from vibrating reeds. If the reed is large the sound is low, as in the large Quart-Posaune, the flutter-rate being clearly discernible. Similarly in large metal [flue] pipes much wind is required and the vibrations flutter like a rapid tremulant. One can feel this on a large pipe while it is speaking.

5^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 24. 128 In the reeds there must he the proper relationship between the thickness of the tongue and the amount of wind pressure, and not the slightest maladjustment, which some experience in trying to fit two, three, or more reeds into a regal pipe bringing none to .perfection, because the relationship of reed to wind is so difficult to find. Similarly, larger [flue] pipes require more wind than pipes of thinner dimensions. The proportional relationship and equality of size to wind must correspond, otherwise it cannot be voiced properly, just like the regal. Hence, it some­ times happens that in spite of all efforts and skill, an organ builder can achieve neither the right tone nor the correct relationship of scale and wind, the aequalitatem corporis. In such obstinate cases small bleeder holes are employed which allow some air to escape as a means of rectification.[52] The same is true if a regal sounds too loudly, or if one of the large metal flue pipes thunders or shakes. It may be noted here why organ makers often seem to be sparing in the use of metal, making pipes of thinner dimensions, the better to voice them, thus avoid­ ing many of the problems of the relationship of the wind to their operation. 2) Whether wooden pipes are made of good wood, strong and well-glued, so they are durable, especially if standing against a damp wall. 3) What is the scaling for each pipe, narrow or broad, for this has a direct bearing on the sound. Narrow and long scales sound pleasant while broad and short scales sound stately. Herein lies the craft of the organ builder, that he knows how to scale each and every pipe from largest to smallest, whether Principal, Flute, Gedackt, and others, whatever they are called, and finish them properly. The same applies to the mouthpieces and resonators of the regals. 41 Check to see if some pipes are silent. 5) Whether the conduits to the Principal [pipes ] displayed in the case are sealed properly and carefully made.

[5 ]iji];iis practice is condemned by Trost, "See that there are no . . . little holes to bleed off air" (Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 65 ). 129

6) Whether the mouth was cut up too high necessitating the pushing in of the upper lip, resulting in a dull sound. Also that the toe is rounded correctly, otherwise if it is dented the wind can escape and cause hissing— a hig vitium for the builder. N.B. whether the toe is waxed to prevent formation of saltpeter and subsequent corrosion. 7) What pitches are available whether 32', 16', 8', 4', 2', 1', and the like. What these designations mean and how the pipes are differentiated. For this see Praetorius Syntagma Musicum II, p. 4, Chapter If sic]. So much for pipes in general. Now for some specifics on how to test them: First the 8' Principal, the most impor­ tant of all pipes. Check: 1) Whether it is voiced correctly in all keys from top to bottom; whether one hears the presence of the tierce pro sympathium. 2) Whether one pipe speaks more loudly than another. 3) Whether they all speak promptly and correctly, tested with mordents in all keys, with running coloraturas in octaves from top to bottom. In Latin one might call this expeditum elocutionem. ■ 4] Whether at the onset of speech the pipe wheezes, barks, or coughs, caused by the striking of the wind on the cut-up of the mouth. 5) Whether with some keys one hears howling, hissing, puffing, and the like. 6) Test with a long toccata or fantasy whether any faults can be found. These points must be carried out for all the pipes, with great diligence (particularly the smaller pipes of the Mixtur, Zimbeln, Süffltit and the like which, since they are not used by themselves, may be tested by drawing them to­ gether with a stop of lower pitch). Concerning the Mixtur more must be considered, namely : 1) Since each key sounds several pipes, whether they are all of the same power, or whether some pipes do not speak properly. 2) How many voices or ranks they contain. 3) How they are designed with respect to large and small pipes, fifths and octaves, and the pitch of the lowest pipe; also how they taper off at the upper end of the keyboard. 4) How often and on which keys they repeat; whether such breaks are smooth throughout 130

all octaves on C c c ’' c*''' and F f f ’' f '' ' ' , and so on through all keys and semitones. If everything checks out, then draw the fundamental stops and play something as a test according to the [previously mentioned ] six points, including for such testing the Mixtur as well as the higher pitched stops.53

Fabricius concludes his observations on testing with a sizeable list of stops, recommending that each stop be examined according to his six-point testing procedure.

Finally he adds :

It is easy to see how much effort and time is required when examining a thousand or twelve-hundred pipes individually and collec­ tively. It is almost more than one man can handle to make sure that everything is correct, and that nothing is left unfinished.5^

To these observations of Fabricius may be added

Trost's description of the pipes of the Weisenfels organ,

in the course of which he alludes to certain desirable

qualities of pipe construction:

The pipework, all together, is very neatly and cleanly put together, and one cannot find a single pipe whose top looks either like a pressed-in priest's cap or bent out as though cats and dogs had been tearing at it. Neither will you find any bleeder holes drilled into the pipe foot to eliminate ciphering. One also looks in vain for inner braces of the pipe walls to prevent collapse or to prevent squashing by the hand (something I noted recently in a new organ), for these pipes are generously made. It is impossible for a pipe which has inner braces to give a good tone. Furthermore, the pipes are not crowded together with their mouths too close to one another, and all are readily accessible.

53unterricht, pp. 53-63.

5^Unterricht, p. 63. 131 All the pipes are voiced with true, characteristic quality, and not one pipe true, the other coughing, and a third not blending. They are also made a special way so that in the event one gets out of tune, either by bad weather or bumping, it can easily be regulated which cannot always be said of other organs. This may sound like an exaggeration, but it's true. In addition, every pipe from the largest to the smallest speaks instantly.55

One of the most difficult and elusive problems associated with pipes is that of "describing” their sounds.

This problem was given considerable attention by the writers of the Orgelbeschreibungen; indeed, one of the principal reasons for the very existence of the Orgelbe-

schreibungen was to provide "word pictures" of the sounds

of certain organs. These descriptions give the modern

reader a hint of the desirable tonal qualities which were

normally expected of good organs at that time. The descrip­

tions also afford insights into such matters as tonal

design and stop function, as well as registrational and per­

formance practices of that time. One of the more extensive of these descriptions is found in Boxberg's Beschreibung

of the then-new (1704) organ at GÔrlitz. Boxberg gives the

reader not only his own thoughts and expectations about the

sounds of this particular organ, but also reveals what may be a small compendium of desiderata for most organs :

The full ensemble is wonderfully unified. One could scarcely wish for it to be better. None of the Principal pipes asserts itself to disturb

55Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 22. 132 this unity^ In matters of tone as well as in power. Collectively the stops sound argentine. The Principal choruses are different on each manual. One is of broader, the other of nar­ rower scale in order that each manual may have a special and different sound. The Hauptwerk sounds majestic, the Oberwerk very spiky and sharp, and the Brustpositiv sharp and delicate. The flutes, covered, tapered, and half open, demonstrate in their fashion as much loveliness as the Principals, and are as a whole extremely well-voiced, representing the great artistic achievement of this instrument (which Herr Casparini himself admits, since he has studied over forty years before he came fully to under­ stand these rare refinements of the craft). How skillfully he has worked with the pipe material. Not only does he know how to voice metal pipes, but he can also make a wooden pipe sound like a metal pipe. Of course, his own Invetriatur [ above, p. 17 1 helps most to accom­ plish this. The proof of this lies with the Viol da Gamba and Onda Maris. Let me begin an exact description of the various stops, beginning with the Hauptmanual chest, starting off with the Principal l6 '. This stop, which is disposed in three towers in the case, sounds very majestic. It speaks clearly down into the lowest keys and lends to the full ensemble a special degree of majesty. One may play as rapidly over the keyboard as possible, yet the sound is always present and full, which is true of all the other stops as well. The primary reason for this is the fact that the well-constructed channels permit full flow of wind to the pipes, with no other loss or escape to any other pipe. Second, each pipe has its own channel [ above, p. 5^]. It makes no difference whether a pipe stands at the front or back of the chest, it still receives its proper wind and, as before stated, it cannot rob another pipe of its wind. Third, nothing has been forgotten regarding the accuracy of the voicing. The 8 ’ Principal has such a pleasing resonance that it stands as a wonderful tribute to the scientific ability and famed craftsman­ ship of Herr Casparini. . . . One may draw this stop alone with the Vox Humana, which by itself is only a Principal, whose lovely quality is the result of special voicing and tuning. This same 133 stop may also be found in Amsterdam, as well as Rochelle in France, but I don't know if it is the same invention.It is pleasing to play the cantus firmus of a chorale on it, but it does not go deeper than small a, since below this it loses its beauty. The Octaves, Fifths, Rausch-Pfeiffen, Zynck, Mixtur, etc., are so well voiced that one can hardly praise them enough. One may also strengthen the ripieno by combining all broad-scale flutes and the reeds without causing any disharmonious sound, in spite of their disparate scaling. Viol da Gamba, which sounds almost like a HohlflBte of wood, is good for the playing of Generalbass, and lends to either the ripieno or full ensemble a particular gravity. It speaks with unusual speed. Gedackt Pommer 4' is a strong Quintadena. The Zynck, however, which in other organs, notably those of the departed FÔrner, is called Sesquialtera, is composed of two ranks of pipes, namely the Quint 3' [2 2/3' ] and the Tertia above the 2' tone. Drawn with stronger stops this can be used artistically with the right hand. Bombart l6 ' is a very strong reed which remains in tune a long time, and which bolsters the full chorus very well. The same is true of the Rohr Fl6te 6 ' [5 1 / 3 ' which by itself is very pleasantly voiced, but in the ripieno becomes very penetrating. Salicet 4', which by its narrow scale resembles a willow pipe from which it derives its name, is one of the most artistic stops. It is especially suited to a running bass with the large Principal l6 ' or Viol da Gamba 8 '. Even when the open 4' Fleut is added to the same registration for stronger concerted music, the Salicet is still clearly heard in the com­ bination, since the 4' Fleut is duller than both Principal and Salicet. Ploch Flôte is a dull 2' stop. The Rauschpfeiffe, however, compensates for this deficiency with its brilliant sound.

[56]iji]^g Vox Humana in France and Germany was generally included as a reed stop among the family of regals. Casparini's use of a Principal stop as Vox Humana is essentially à reflection of Italian building practices. 134 The remaining small stops especially the Mixture, are sharply voiced, hut are distinctly different than the Mixtures of the other manuals. The Oherwerk of twelve stops is very sharp in sound, almost as if there were helow the lowest pipes the brightest and most scintil­ lating Gymhel hells. One might wish that this division, or one like it, could he placed in a small church so that its true effect might better he appreciated. This church is 110 Ell long, 70 Ell wide, and 42 Ell high. This is almost too large for such a delicate little division. It sounds much better during the Wochen-Predigt when the entire congregation is not present. The 8 ' Principal is quite different than the 8 ' Principal in the Hauptmanual. It is sharper in its voicing. It is also suited especially well to the playing of continuo in concerted music not only because it is comfort- ahly located on the lowest manual, hut also because it is not too strong. Onda Maris, which is a wooden Principal, is voiced more quietly and is more pleasing in quiet ensembles than the Principal. It is not used with any other stop than with the Principal against which it is tuned slightly higher, thus resulting in small fluctuations or wavings, like water when blown by a gentle breeze; hence the name. Even though it is tuned higher it is barely noticeable when used against a soft pedal in the playing of a moving Generalbass, since the waving effect is heard more in sustained chords when it is drawn together with the Principal. This stop sounds as if it were made of tin, and demonstrates the rare ability of Herr Casparini to voice a wooden pipe so it sounds like a tin pipe. Quintadena l6 ', of wood, is almost as great a masterpiece as the Onda Maris or Unda Maris, not only because of its completely pleasant sound, but more importantly because of its unusually even voicing. Good organ builders know how hard it is to get a metal Quintadena to be evenly voiced throughout the stop, not to mention one of wood. This stop, as well as the Onda Maris, is made of cypress which is affected neither by warm and dry nor cold and moist weather. The Gornetti 8 ' is relatively unfamiliar and odd. It sounds like an 8 ' reed, though there are no 8 ' pipes present. It is composed 135 of three ranks of broad-scale pipes: Quinta 6' [5 1/3], Octava 4', and Tertia above the 4' pitch. It does not go any lower than the Vox Humana on the Hauptwerk, since it does not sound well with the other pipes at that depth. Combining it with the Bombart l6 ’ of the Hauptwerk for the right hand results in an artistic combination, the likes of which I have not heard in any other organ. It also serves well in a ripieno combination. GlÔckleinton, or tonus faber, 2 ', is a broad scale stop which sounds as if one struck an anvil with a hammer. When combined with the Quintadena l6 ' it is well suited for the play­ ing of running passages against a soft accompa­ niment on another manual. Fleut Doux is nothing else than a small, metal Gedackt 4' and resembles its instrumental counterpart, from which it receives its name. Spitz-Flttt 2' is an extraordinarily lovely voice when used with the Principal 8 ', Fleut Deux 4' and others. The remaining stops, Gymbel, Scharff, and others are so keenly voiced and sound so silvery that they deserve special praise. One may combine one or another of these stops with the remaining stops and make many variations. The Brustpositiv of eight stops has its own sound in contrast to the other manuals. Its sound is sharp and delicate. The large Pedal towers of nine stops contain, among others, the large Principal Bass of English tin . . . which speaks very quickly. The Posaunen Bass . . . speaks immediately and very assertively. Octave Bass l6 ', of metal, makes a good effect. Tubal-Flttt is a 4' Octava and is so called only to distinguish it from other similar stops. The smaller Pedal towers of four stops display the Trombet 8 ' made of tin. The resonators are unusually well made, the reed blocks being removable without lifting the resonators. In the case of the Jungfern-Regal the resonators and reed blocks are soldered together. This stop is strong and pleasant enough to carry a chorale in the bass. Jubal is a 4' Octava and the Gymbel is a very sharp, two-rank stop which does not repeat, but runs as 1 1/2’ and 1 ’ throughout. Of all the small stops it is best suited for carrying a cantus firmus. 136

The upper rear bass chest of four voices stands in the organ against the wall in the space between the Oberwerk and the Hauptwerk. In this division is a lovely l6 ' Offen Bass, together with an Octava 8 ’ which is also called Tuball. Both speak clearly and quickly. The Krumbhorn holds its pitch very long and is a very reliable reed stop. Under the bass chest stands the rear Unterbass of three stops. It has a good, clear, responsive wooden Sub-Bass l6 '. The Quintadfin- Bass strengthens the Pedal slightly, while the Fagott 1 6 ', a lovely, prompt-speaking reed stop, is essential for concerted music.57

Completing the discussion of tonal design is a consideration of the Tremolo. This device was one of the most common auxiliary stops on Baroque organs and was designed to affect the tonal qualities of either a single

division or the entire organ at once. The treatises make

frequent reference to this device and describe in some

detail its structure and use. Fabricius observes:

The Tremolo is by itself no voice, having no pipes, but is only a small ventil fastened in or on the wind trunk, weighted with lead according to the strength of the wind. . . . It is intended to beat either fast or slow and, acted upon by the wind, results in a shaking of the sound coming from the pipes. Such a vibrato is heard in the human voice imitatur naturam. The rapid Tremolo is called the “goat." In testing, these notabilia should be observed: 1) How it is made and disposed, and where it is placed, whether lying or hanging. 2) How it beats, slow or fast; whether it sticks or is inoperative. Check with several different stops for it needs a consistently ample supply of wind. 3) Whether there is excessive air leakage.

STseschreibung Qtirlitz, pp. [IO-I8 ]. 137 4) Whether it depresses the tone of the pipes or makes it weaker. 5) Whether it may also he used with Regals. It is not well suited to all the reed stops. 6 ) Whether it affects all chests or whether there is special "goat" Tremolo for the Rlickpositiv. 7) Whether it is^controlled by a con­ veniently located lever.5°

Specifications of many of the organs of this time reveal that Tremolos were built to affect either a single

Werkj or division, or the entire organ at once. The use of the second type is substantiated both by Werckmeister and

Trost, the latter noting:

The Tremolo affects the entire organ, but splendidly, for one hears no rattling or pounding; it beats gently and exactly in 6/4 time r sic ]. . . . A Tremolo should beat quietly and flexibly and not make such a terrible rattling and pounding that the peasants ask to see the mill in the organ which they have often heard.59

5Qunterricht, p. 82.

59Beschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 26-27. CHAPTER IV

THE ORGAN CASE

The organ builder of the Baroque era designed his instrument on the basis of the Werkprinzip. According to this principle the organ was conceived as an entity formed by the juxtaposition of several discrete divisions, all embraced within the organ case. Each of these divisions, or Werke, possessed certain tonal characteristics which distinguished it from the others. At the same time, how­ ever, each contained common characteristics which, through combination, formed the overall tonal design of the organ itself. Such an instrument with its contrasting divisions, its marked individuality of tonal colors, and its trans­ parent cohesive ensemble represented in principle as well as in practice the ideal organ of the Baroque era.

The most common Werkorgel of the time, according to

Fabricius, consisted of two manuals and Pedals, and usually had three Werke, or divisions: the Hauptwerk, governed by

one of the two keyboards; the Oberwerk, governed by the

other keyboard; and the Pedal. In certain instances divi­

sions such as Brustpositiv, Rilckpositiv, and others were

also included.

138 139 The divisions were differentiated by their location in the case or by pitch, or both. Extant Baroque organs together with contemporaneous pictorial evidence^ evince a basic plan for placement of divisions within an organ case.

According to this plan the organ was built with a central core of two or more divisions flanked on both sides by

Pedal towers. This core normally included the Hauptwerk together with either the Oberwerk or Brustwerk. In a

Hauptwerk-Brustwerk arrangement the former was placed above the latter while in a Hauptwerk-Oberwerk arrangement the former was placed below the latter.

The Riickpositiv was usually mounted at the forward

edge of the gallery, and although it stood apart from the main organ case, its artistic configuration was nevertheless

considered part of the total visual design of the organ.

Figure 30

^Syntagma, Plate II. See also Orgel-Probe, frontispiece. 140

From a musical standpoint the location of discrete divisions in the organ case tended to create an aural parallax with each division having its own aural focal point. An organist utilizing the full potential of such spatial arrangements was able to create a musical expres­ sion characterized by well-defined, colorful contrasts through alternate use of separate Werke or divisions. The solo organ literature of this time abounds in examples of such concertato characteristics.2

A second method of distinguishing one division from another involved giving each division its own predominant pitch. This was determined primarily by the lowest pitched

Principal stop in each division, for it was that stop which gave a divisional ensemble its "level." Thus a Hauptwerk con'slsting of several stops of various pitches, including among them an 8 ' Principal, was known as an "8 ' division."

The Oberwerk with its own complement of stops of various pitches ordinarily had a Principal of 4' pitch, and was therefore called a "4' division." Similarly the

Rückpositiv was based on the 2 ’ Principal while the Pedal was usually structured on the l6 ' Principal. In this way

^Two notable examples are the J. S. Bach transcrip­ tion of a concerto by Herzog Johann Ernst of Sachsen-Weimar (B.W.V. 595) with its rapid exchanges between Hauptwerk and Rückpositiv; and the "Prelude and Fugue in E minor" of Nicolaus Bruhns with its interesting echo effects in con­ trasting divisions. l4l the over-all design of the ensemble of the typical Werkorgel formed a tonal pyramid, thus:

Mix.

2'

4'

8'

/6'

Figure 31 As Preuss points out, the pitch of the main Princi­ pal rank in the Hauptwerk division gave the entire organ a specific nomenclature. Thus an organ whose Hauptwerk was based on the l6 ' Principal, regardless of the presence of other stops of other pitches, was known as a "whole organ."

If the same division was based on an 8 ' Principal, the

organ was called a "Halborgel" or "half organ." When based on the 4' Principal, regardless of the presence of

lower pitched stops of another family, the organ was known

as a "quarter organ," while the "eighth organ"--a term used

most often to describe small Positives, presupposed the presence of the 2‘ Principal.3 Among the more important factors involved in the

placement of the organ were the acoustical properties of

the church building, liturgical function of the instrument.

^Grundregeln, p. 69 . 142 available working space, weather conditions, availability of light, and serviceability. From the standpoint of acoustical and liturgical requirements, the west gallery

of a church building was considered by the majority of

organ builders as the ideal location for placement of the

organ. From such a vantage point the sound of the organ

flowed freely and directly into the nave, enhanced by

multiple reflections from the inside surfaces of the build­

ing. The unicameral construction of most of the churches

of that time together with the use of such highly reflective

materials as stone and plaster, afforded a live acoustical

environment which enhanced the tonal blend of the organ. The west gallery location was also ideally suited for

certain liturgical functions, notably the support of congre­

gational singing. From this location the sound of the

organ projected into the congregation giving incisive

leadership and unity to its singing. Further, the liturgi­

cal procedure of alternatimspraxis which involved minister,

congregation, and organist, and which was practiced exten­

sively in Protestant churches of Germany during the Baroque

era, was facilitated by a west gallery organ placement, as

Adlung observes: It is more convenient for the organist to see the action of the minister at the altar by using a small mirror than if he were seated at an organ above the altar. . . . [In addition] 1.43 responsive singing always works better when the organ is located opposite the altar.^

In the majority of Baroque churches there was ample space in the galleries for the construction of free-standing encased organs, none of whose parts touched the adjacent walls of the church building itself. In such installations, the organs were kept relatively free from the damaging effects of dampness usually associated with masonry walls.

In certain instances, however, the size and structure of an organ was determined to some extent by limitations of space.

One such example is reported by Trost:

The organ stands very high on the top level of the church and speaks along the ceil­ ing. Restriction of space required the mitering of not only the Posaune and Fagott pipes, but the bottom three pipes of the Sub-bass as well.5

Another factor which influenced the location of the organ was the source and availability of light in the church.

This is discussed by Adlung who points out that builders

were usually careful to place the organ where light could

fall directly on the case to reveal the full detailing of

the pipes and carvings. The presence of a window at the

back of the organ was considered especially poor because it

tended to blind the viewer to the beauty of the case.

^Anleitung, p. 512.

^Beschreibung Weisenfels, p. 13. l44 "This situation," adds Adlung, "is known in optics as lumen maius officit minori.

Still another factor which determined the structure and placement of the organ was serviceability. This is illustrated by Trost in his description of the layout of the Weisenfels organ:

The Brustpositiv is placed low in the case and is easily accessible from the rear for tuning and maintenance. Under the Ober­ werk and behind the Brustpositiv is a convenient walkway by which one can get to a special door and then with two easy steps enter the Oberwerk. By a ladder one can then get all the way up to the top for purposes of inspection. This way if new ventils are ever needed, or if a pipe needs adjustment, or if a tracker needs repairing, everything is easily within reach.? Similarly, Fabricius observes:

Here it is well to note that all pipes do not stand Immediately behind one another, but that a walkboard be provided for tuning. It also helps if all tuning wires [ of the reeds] face forward and can be reached easily without disturbing the neighboring pipes.o

This same writer also notes that smaller pipes were

ordinarily placed in front of larger pipes for ease in

tuning. Adlung complains that in one section of his organ

^Anleitung, p. 511• Adlung's views on the impor­ tance of good lighting are substantiated by Johann Ludwig in his Versuch von der Eigenschaften eines Rechtschaffenes Orgelbauers (Hofl 1759), P . 11.

Tseschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 14-15.

^Unterricht, p . 48. 145 where the opposite arrangement obtained, he had experienced constant aggravation in tuning.9

In order to complete an organ case, a builder had to be well-versed in the skills of carpentry, cabinet making, and wood carving. Occasionally, certain builders who were not thoroughly competent in all these areas called upon other craftsmen for assistance. One such instance is

reported by Boxberg in his reference to Casparini's collabo­

ration with a journeyman cabinet maker in the completion of

the organ case at Gtirlitz.^® Fabricius outlines some principles of cooperation among craftsmen:

All details of the case work, carvings, and panellings should be clearly indicated right at the beginning in the contract of the organ builder. It should be in keeping with the room and place, as well as with costs. Cabinet makers and carpenters should also be consulted that such a work may be built to the glory of God. Here organists have no say. They are called only into the first deliberations, dis­ cussions, and contractual meetings to express how they feel about what should or should not go into the organ. This is valuable since more heads are better than one.^^

Artistic considerations also played an important

role in the construction and location of the organ case.

Among such considerations were those related to the design

of the church interior, as well as those related to the

^Anleitung, p. 507. l^Beschreibung Gtirlitz, p. [6].

^^Unterricht, p. 13. 146 decorative detailing of the organ case itself. The former is articulated hy Adlung:

Most congregations huild organs opposite the altar, and this appears to make the most sense. One does not arrange the furniture of a room in such a way that all pieces are at one end, leaving nothing at the other. . . . If the organ is placed over the altar, everything is to he seen at the east end with nothing for the eye to appreciate at the west end.12

The exterior decoration of the organ case appears to have heen such an individualistic matter as to preclude any detailed analysis in the treatises. The references are

concerned more with basic principles rather than with minute detailing. Adlung's observations are typical:

Trimmings shall not be a substitute for competent organ building. Often they are so over-done as to become childish and absurd. Not only is this in poor taste, but it is also far too expensive. Therefore the better organ builders are usually not too interested in carvings and decorations.13

Adlung's views seem to reflect a reaction against

developments in Baroque art which by his time (1758) had

come to border on the decadent. The elaborately decorated

cases of such organs as those in Ochsenhausen and Wein-

garten epitomize that latter phase of Baroque art when

exuberance overbalanced rationality. It was not uncommon during this time for organ cases to be lavishly decorated

with carved cherubs, flower garlands, abstract carvings.

l^Anleitung, p. 512.

^3Anleitung, p. 510. 147 statuary, and heavily painted wooden panels and imposts which from a distance gave the appearance of marble.In addition, certain attachments which functioned by means of wind-actuated mechanisms were often included in the decora­ tion of the organ case. Some of the more common devices were : carved wooden angels with movable arms which struck drums; angels holding trumpet pipes to their mouths sound­ ing the appropriate pitch through the keyboard action;

carved eagles with extended wings traveling from one location on the case to another along a wire, activated by wind pressure; figures which emerged from, and retracted

into, the case by means of a wind-driven mechanism; and

rotating stars or Cymbelstern. This last device was one of

the most common decorative features of the Baroque organ

case. Fabricius notes: The Cymbelstern is made in one of two ways : 1 ) small bells are attached directly to the rotating star shaft, ringing as the shaft rotates; 2) bells are fixed apart from the shaft and are struck by the rotating star itself.15

l^The single reference to case coloration in the treatises is that of Johann Mittag. In describing the newly installed organ at Ülzen, he notes that the case was marbellized in blue and white, with the edges finished in gold. The pipes displayed in the case were of highly polished, natural tin. (Historische Abhandlung der Erfindung, Gebrauch Kunst und Vollkommenheit der Orgeln [Lünebürg, 175b], p. 12).

l^Unterricht, p. 84. Werckmeister notes that the bells were tuned c,e,g,c. "They should ring gently," he adds, "not like cowbells" (Orgel-Probe, p. 38). 148 The use of "blind" or dummy pipes in the design and construction of organ cases was another common practice as

Adlung observes :

The [typical ] organ case is disposed in fields or towers. A field consists of pipes whose feet stand in a straight line. Towers project forward, either rounded or pointed. Blind pipes are often used to maintain a proper sense of proportion, especially where chests lie in back of one another, so that there are not many pipes that would actually be visible.'16

False-length pipes were also used in certain organ cases of the time. In his description of the rosettes of pipes which formed part of the design of the GÔrlitz organ,

Boxberg points out that although all the pipes appeared to be equal in length, a closer inspection revealed that the backs of the pipes had been cut away to produce the re­

quired pitches."This [type of construction]is not un­

natural," observes Johann Ludwig, "for this is similar to

what is done with flutes or bassoons when the holes are

opened or closed. The tone is unaffected even though the

over-all length of the tube remains the same."^^

l^Anleitung, p . 346.

^"^Beschreibung Gttrlitz, p. [1 8 ].

l^Gedanken, p . 15. CHAPTER V

TONAL DESIGN

The term "tonal design" normally refers to the ordering of stops in an organ. It also implies that the stops possess certain individual characteristics which dis­ tinguish them from each other hut which can also be combined in a variety of ensembles. Further implications of the term include the myriad refinements of pipe voicing.

One of the difficult problems associated with tonal design of Baroque organs is that of determining precisely those concepts and procedures of stop selection adopted by organ builders in the planning and construction of their instruments. A partial answer to the problem is provided by the artifacts— organs whose original tonal design princi­ ples remain embodied in instruments preserved to our own day. Unfortunately such organs are extremely scarce.^

Many of the organs dating from that time have not success­ fully withstood the devastations of wars and natural calamities. Others did not escape renovations dictated by

^Perhaps the best example is the organ built by Esaias Compenius in the castle chapel at Frederiksborg, near Copenhagen^ in I616. Its original structure is still in excellent condition.

149 150 changing tastes. Still others were partially or completely rebuilt after long years of wear, and many were enlarged far beyond their original configuration. Some were moved from their original locations to places with different acoustical environments. Many organs were retuned to other pitch levels and temperaments, and in some the wind pressures had been altered, resulting in tonal departures from the original. Thus most of the extant organs can indi­ cate only incompletely the principles of tonal design prevalent in the Baroque era. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that in spite of renovations, such organs as those built by Arp Schnitger in Hamburg, Steinkirchen, and Zwolle, for example, are not too far removed tonally from the original. There are enough ranks of original pipes in these organs to provide a standard, though incomplete, p against which later alterations can be measured. The second important source of information on principles of tonal design comprises the approximately one

hundred twenty-five organ specifications published- during

the Baroque era. These specifications are found in the

^Among the studies of these and similar organs are: D. A. Flentrop, "The Schnitger Organ in the Grote Kerk at Zwolle," Organ Institute Quarterly, VII, No. 2 (Summer, 1957), ppl 25-42; Christhard Mahrenholz, "Die Wieder- herstellung der Schnitger-Orgel in Norden," Musik und Kirche, II (1930), pp. 166-169; H. Wunderlich, Die Arp Schnitger Orgel der Hauptkirche St. Jacobi Hamburg, Festschrift (Hamburg: Kirchenvorstand St. Jacobi, I961). 151 treatises of PraetcriuSjS Niedt,^ and Biermann.5 While the

Praetorius listings have heen accorded extensive analysis^ the listings of Niedt and Biermann have not heen examined from the standpoint of tonal design. Because these two specification listings together represent almost three times the number of organs listed hy Praetorius and because they are newer hy ninety-eight and one hundred-nineteen years respectively, it is important that they he examined in de­ tail in order to gain a fuller understanding of the tonal

design of Baroque organs. Some of the more important factors

of tonal design noted in the lists are: the different kinds

of stops used; the frequency of their use; the divisional

distribution of individual stops; distribution of divi­

sions; pitch distribution of stop families in the various

divisions et al. The data drawn from these lists, (below,

pp. 167-200) form the basis of the analysis presented below.

3Syntagma, pp. 16I-203.

^Handleitung, pp. 156-204. Appendix II (below, pp. 247-2837: ^Organographia, pp. 1-26. Appendix III (below, pp. 284-293T ^Paul G. Bunjes, "The Praetorius Organ," un­ published Ph.D. dissertation, Eastman School of Music, Rochester, N. Y., I966. 152 Niedt's Organ Speciflcatlons-1717 In his preface to the listings, Niedt explains his reasons for compiling the specifications of sixty-three organs :

It is necessary to publish this collec­ tion of specifications of some of the finest organs . . . because such listings . . . are not normally found in books. It is true that Praetorius . . . over one hundred years ago f sic] . . . published in his Syntagma Musicum a list­ ing of some twenty organs, but within those hundred years many have been considerably altered, even replaced with new. As examples, the Jakobikirche in Hamburg, the organ at Liineburg, and others, have been so repaired and improved that they are scarcely recog­ nizable. . . . [Finally] the present list is made up completely of organs different from those given by Praetorius.7

The list is comprised primarily of two and three manual organs, with one manual and four manual designs reported as exceptions. If an even more comprehensive listing were to have been compiled, it would perforce have had to include hundreds of small village church organs, as well as countless Positive and Portative organs. The list also represents a rather extensive geographical distribution

ranging from as far north as Stockholm, Sweden, south into

central Germany--the heartland of organ building at that time. The listing also provides the names of builders and

organists of several of the organs, but the list is far

from complete.

7Randleitung, p . 156. 153 Included among the sixty-three specifications are: one organ of one manual and pedals; twenty-five organs of two manuals and pedals; thirty-three organs of three manuals and pedals; and four organs of four manuals and pedals.

The divisions represented in the order of frequency are

Pedal, Rückpositiv, Werk (Hauptwerk), Brustwerk, Oberwerk,

Oherpositiv, Hinterwerk, Seltenpositiv, and Unterwerk.

In light of statements made in the treatises both before and after the date of Niedt's listing, it is signifi­ cant that of all the manual divisions represented the

Rückpositiv appears most frequently. If in fact, a trend toward elimination of the Rückpositiv existed during the latter part of the seventeenth and early part of the eight­ eenth centuries, a trend noted by both Werckmeister and

Adlung (above, p. 6 9 ), it is certainly not reflected in

Niedt's listing. One explanation might be that many of the

organs on the list were built early in the seventeenth

century, some even earlier (four are dated 1585, 1590,

1598, and 1600), at a time when the Rückpositiv was still

considered an important feature of the Werkorgel.

One of the most significant aspects of Niedt's

listing, is the fact that of the two hundred twenty-nine divisions of the sixty-three organs represented, the Pedal

is the largest with 28^ of the total number of divisions.

There can be little doubt that the provision of ample

resources in the Pedal divisions of these organs is closely 154 related with the development of the rich polyphonic solo literature of that time, a literature replete with impor­ tant pedal parts.

The stops included in the specifications are classi­ fied into the families of Principals, Flutes, Reeds,

Aliquots, and Mixtures. Of these, the stops of octave relationship.belonging to the Flute family constitute the majority of all stops, leading with 29% of the total. Principals of octave relationships comprise 25^ of the total, a figure matched by the combined Ailquot^ and Mix­ ture stops. Flue stops (Flutes, Principals, Aliquots, and Mixtures) total 79^ of all stops, with Reeds completing the list with 21^. Thus, nearly four-fifths of the average organ in Niedt's listing consists of flue pipes, while slightly more than one-fifth is assigned to the Reeds, a ratio of approximately 4 to 1 .

The tonal configurations formed by the assignment of certain pipe families to the separate divisions of the organ deserve special attention. Deployment of those stops of octave relationship belonging to the Principal family,

for example, provides divisional distinctiveness not only

through pitch differentiation but by frequency of use as

®Wiedt's listing is not always clear in the designa­ tion of Aliquots of Principal mensuration and Aliquots of Flute mensuration. For this study all fractional pitches have been included in the Aliquot family regardless of their mensuration. 155 well; thus the Principals number l66 on the Hauptwerk, of which the 8 ’ is the most frequently used. The Rückpositiv with 121 Principals is most strongly represented by the 4' pitch, while the Brustwerk reflects a somewhat similar deployment, though on a smaller scale with only 5 7 .

Between the Rückpositiv and the Brustwerk lies the Oberwerk whose tonal configuration resembles that of the Hauptwerk, but on a scale approximately one-half that of its larger counterpart. Thus the four divisions, each with its own distinctiveness, are related to each other by pairing: the larger Hauptwerk with the smaller Oberwerk; and the larger

Rückpositiv with the smaller Brustwerk. There can be little doubt that the registrational permutations offered by such

divisional deployment of Principal stops must have provided

a wealth of tonal combinations for the sensitive organist.

Of interest is the overwhelming incidence of the

4' Oktava (157)j far surpassing the 8' Gedackt (94), the stop most commonly used in the playing of basso continue.

Undoubtedly the 4' Oktava was regarded by builders not only

as an important pitch-defining stop in both manual and

Pedal plena, but as a solo voice in the Pedal (where it

occurs 44 times) for cantus firmi settings as well.

With respect to stops of the Flute, family the afore­

mentioned concept of divisional pairing is again evident,

though not quite as distinct as with the Principals. The

Hauptwerk and Oberwerk reflect rather similar structures in 156 the deployment of Flute stops, with the Oberwerk taking a lesser position. The Rückpositiv and the Brustwerk, too, reveal somewhat similar structures with the Brustwerk con­

taining slightly less than one-half the stops of the Rück­ positiv. This last division has the largest number of Flutes, with 8' pitch predominating. The Pedal is repre­

sented by all pitches of Flute stops in a well-ordered progression.

It is interesting to note that an overall compari­

son of Principal and Flute families reveals that the Flute

stops (703) appear more frequently than Principals (613).

The 703 Flute stops, however, represent a greater variety

of individual stop types as compared with the smaller

number of representative types within the Principal family. Of all the divisions represented in Niedt's listing,

the Pedal has the greatest number of Reed stops (248), more

than twice that of the next largest division, the Rück­ positiv with 101. Among the various pitches of Pedal Peeds,

the 1 6 ' appears most frequently. From the standpoint of

tonal conceptualization, this fact suggests that the 16 ' Reed was probably used to strengthen Pedal plena in the pillaring of bold superstructures of flue stops with or

without manual Reeds. The unusually large number of 2'

Reed stops in the Pedal suggests that the builders con­

sidered this pitch and quality necessary for the brilliance 157 and penetration required of Pedal plena in clear contra­ puntal playing.

Reed stops are deployed rather freely among the manual divisions without evidence of the kind of divisional pairing which characterize the distribution pattern of the

Flutes and Principals. Each division, however, is well equipped with 8 ' Reeds, primarily of solo character. The next largest group is the l6 ', with 4' and 2' only infre­ quently represented. The 8 ' Trommete has the distinction of being the most frequently represented of all Reed stops, the Pedal alone having more (55) than all manuals combined.

There can be little doubt that this particular stop was not only considered a valuable solo voice in cantus firmi set­

tings, but also an important tonal color in Pedal plena.

The distribution pattern of Aliquot stops indicates

a shift of emphasis from lower to higher pitches in the

divisional progression of Hauptwerk-Riickpositiv-Oberwerk-

Brustwerk. Only in the Brustwerk is the 2 2/3' superseded

by its octave, 1 1/3'. In addition,, that division carries

the least number of Aliquot stops. Mixtures of not more than four ranks are predomi­

nant in each division while those ranging from five to nine

ranks are rather evenly distributed over the several divi­

sions. Pairing occurs both in Hauptwerk and Oberwerk as

well as in Rückpositiv and Brustwerk while the Pedal shows

a well-balanced distribution of Mixture stops of all 158 pitches up to and including one of fifteen ranks. The implications inherent in such design underscore the desire of builders to equip all divisions of the organ, the Pedal in particular, with sufficient incisiveness to cope success- fully with the complexities of contrapuntal musical textures played on the organs of that day.

In summary, it may be said that since the Hauptwerk and Pedal were assigned the largest number of Principal stops, and since these stops were characterized generally by clear, singing qualities, these two divisions probably formed the basic units used in accompanying congregational chorales. To the Rilckpositiv and Pedal were assigned the largest numbers of Flutes whose tonal features of a broader and suaver nature served as a foil for the keener incisive­ ness of the Principals.

To the Rilckpositiv also belongs the greatest amount of manual Reeds, affording a rich array of solo registra­ tional possibilities. The Pedal, however, holds the

greatest number of Reeds of any division, underscoring its

two essential functions, namely, its soloistic role in cantus firmus settings and its bold support of strong flue

superstructures.

The overall distribution of Aliquot stops is less

marked by sharp distinctions than any of the other stop

families. Concerning Mixtures, however, the organ builders 159 showed a marked preference for assigning the greatest number to the Pedal.

With only slight exception, there seems to be an overall relationship between the Hauptwerk and Rückpositiv as a group and the Oberwerk and Brustwerk as a group. The differences between Hauptwerk and Rückpositiv are slight as are the differences between Oberwerk and Brustwerk. Con­ sidered together in two groupings, however, the Oberwerk- Brustwerk combination shows a marked reduction in tonal amounts of stops as compared to .the Hauptwerk-RÜckpositiv combination, thus affording an additional pairing arrange­ ment, distinct from that referred to earlier. The Pedal is in all respects adequate and flexible enough to support any combination.

It will be observed from the above discussion that only slight consideration has been accorded the Hinterwerk,

Seitenpositiv, and Unterwerk divisions. Taken together they control but 3^ of all stops of all divisions of all organs represented by the Niedt listing. Since there

appear to be no tonal features significant enough to affect the main tonal designs of the chief divisions of Hauptwerk,

Rückpositiv, Oberwerk, Brustwerk, and Pedal, it seems super­

fluous to include them in the discussion. For the sake of

completeness, however, they are included in the statistical

presentation given below (pp. 167-I8 5 ). l60

Niedt also provides some details of the mechanical equipment of the organs included in his list. Of the sixty- three specifications given, he reports the number of bellows for only thirty-eight organs. Of these, the average number of stops is thirty-eight while the average number of bellows is eight. Thus, the everall average of bellows per organ is 4 .7 6 . A comparison of this average with Bendeler’s observations (above, p. 11), seems to suggest that a reasonable degree of consistency existed among builders of that time. It must be noted, however, that Niedt has not provided precise sizes of the bellows, thus making difficult any analysis of wind pressure.

Inter-manual couplers are rather evenly distributed, while the division most frequently coupled to the Pedal is the Rückpositiv. Of the auxiliary stops the Tremolo occurs most frequently (34) with the Cymbelstern appearing twenty- six times. The remaining stops in this category appear infrequently. These are the Glockenspiel, Paucken, Vogel- geschrei, fliegender Adler, Noli me tangere, Trummel, and

Vogelgesang.

Biermann's Organ Specifications-1738 Biermann's listing differs from Niedt's listing in

three respects: size, geographical representation, and

date of publication. ,In size, the Biermann listing of

twenty organs is less than one-third of the Niedt listing; l6l and in geographical representation it is limited to organs of Hildesheim and immediate environs. Its provincial scope is offset, however, by the fact that it was published twenty-one years after Niedt's listing; hence it includes organs which could not possibly have been recorded in the listing of Niedt, Among the twenty organs are : one organ of one manual and pedals; eight organs of two manuals and pedals; and seven organs of three manuals and pedals. In addition there are four organs of one manual without pedals. The

divisions represented in the order of frequency are Pedal,

Manual (Hauptmanual or Hauptwerk), Rückpositiv, Oberwerk,

Brustwerk, Oberpositiv, and Hinterwerk.

Of the Manual divisions the Hauptwerk appears most

frequently, surpassing the Rückpositiv by almost one-third.

In this respect the specifications of Niedt and Biermann

stand in marked contrast, with Biermann’s list reflecting

the contemporaneous trend away from the Rückpositiv. The

fact that the earliest organ listed by Biermann dates from

1612 (twenty-seven years later than the earliest reported

by Niedt), and also that Biermann's list was published

twenty-one years later than Niedt's list, would account for

the decrease of the Rückpositiv in the Biermann list.

Of the fifty-eight divisions represented by the

organs included in Biermann's compilation, the Pedal is the

largest with 28^ of the total, a percentage matched exactly 102 by Niedt. The next largest division in both lists is the

Hauptwerkj but the relationship between the Hauptwerk and

Pedal is different. In the Biermann listing the Pedal is used 2.% more frequently than the Hauptwerk while in the Niedt listing it is used 8^ more frequently. This suggests that among the organs listed by Biermann the Hauptwerk came to have a more important position in tonal design because of the diminishing role of the Rückpositiv.

A comparison of the distribution of stop families reported by both Biermann and Niedt. reveals that the Princi­ pal family appears in greater proportion in Biermann's

listing. Further, the total number of Principals in

Biermann's list (159, or 27#) is larger than the combined

Aliquot stops (59, or 10#) and Mixtures (92, or 15#). In Niedt's listings the figures match exactly. Thus it appears

that the builders of those organs represented by Biermann's

list favored an overall increase of Principals of octave

relationships in the tonal design of their instruments with

a corresponding decrease in harmonic corroborating stops.

Flue stops (Principals, Aliquots, and Mixtures) comprise

80# of all stops in Biermann's list (compared to 79# in

Niedt's), with Reeds completing the list with 20# (com­ pared to 21# in Niedt). Thus the Biermann list reveals a

preference, if slight, for an overall increase in Flues and

a decrease in Reeds in tonal design. l6l and in geographical representation it is limited to organs of Hildesheim and immediate environs. Its provincial scope is offset, however, by the fact that it was published twenty-one years after Niedt’s listing; hence it includes organs which could not possibly have been recorded in the listing of Niedt.

Among the twenty organs are : one organ of one manual and pedals; eight organs of two manuals and pedals; and seven organs of three manuals and pedals. In addition

there are four organs of one manual without pedals. The

divisions represented in the order of frequency are Pedal,

Manual (Hauptmanual or Hauptwerk), Rückpositiv, Oberwerk,

Brustwerk, Oberpositiv, and Hinterwerk. Of the Manual divisions the Hauptwerk appears most

frequently, surpassing the Rückpositiv by almost one-third.

In this respect the specifications of Niedt and Biermann

stand in marked contrast, with Biermann's list reflecting

the contemporaneous trend away from the Rückpositiv. The

fact that the earliest organ listed by Biermann dates from

1612 (twenty-seven years later than the earliest reported

by Niedt), and also that Biermann's list was published twenty-one years later than Niedt's list, would account for

the decrease of the Rückpositiv in the Biermann list.

Of the fifty-eight divisions represented by the

organs included in Biermann's compilation, the Pedal is the

largest with 28^ of the total, a percentage matched exactly 162 by Niedt. The next largest division in both lists is the

Hauptwerk, but the relationship between the Hauptwerk and

Pedal is different. In the Biermann listing the Pedal is used 2^ more frequently than the Hauptwerk while in the

Niedt listing it is used 8$ more frequently. This suggests that among the organs listed by Biermann the Hauptwerk came to have a more important position in tonal design because of the diminishing role of the Rückpositiv.

A comparison of the distribution of stop families reported by both Biermann and Niedt reveals that the Princi­ pal family appears in greater proportion in Biermann's

listing. Further, the total number of Principals in Biermann's list (159^ or 2'J%) is larger than the combined Aliquot stops (59, or 10$) and Mixtures (92, or 15$). In Niedt's listings the figures match exactly. Thus it appears

that the builders of those organs represented by Biermann's

list favored an overall increase of Principals of octave relationships in the tonal design of their instruments with

a corresponding decrease in harmonic corroborating stops.

Flue stops (Principals, Aliquots, and Mixtures) comprise

80$ of all stops in Biermann's list (compared to 79$ in Niedt's), with Reeds completing the list with 20$ (com­

pared to 21$ in Niedt). Thus the Biermann list reveals a

preference, if slight, for an overall increase in Flues and

a decrease in Reeds in tonal design. 1 6 3 The principle of divisional pairing>-fahove^ p. 155) is also noted in the Biermann listings, particularly among the Principals. The Hauptwerk (53) and the Oberwerk (27) are paired with the Rückpositiv (24) and the Brustwerk (13), the larger division in each case being approximately twice the size of the smaller. Similarly, the principle of pair­

ing applies to the predominant pitches in these divisions:

Hauptwerk 8' (22); Oberwerk 8 ’ (12); Rückpositiv 2' (11);

and Brustwerk 2 ’ (5). Of all the Principals (indeed, of

all stops) the 4' Octava appears most frequently (36). On

this point Biermann and Niedt agree. They also agree on

the preponderance of 8' pitch rather than l6' pitch in the

Pedal as far as the Principals are concerned.

The pairing of divisions with respect to Flute

stops is not quite as marked as that of the Principals.

The Hauptwerk (46) and the Oberwerk (19) show a similar

pitch distribution pattern; while the Rückpositiv (33) and

the Brustwerk (20) show similarity with the exception of

the preponderance of the 4' pitch in the Brustwerk. In

contradistinction to both Hauptwerk and Oberwerk, neither the Rückpositiv nor the Brustwerk contains l6’ Flute stops.

A comparison of the Niedt and Biermann listings with

respect to Flute stop distribution in the Pedal shows that

while there is basic agreement on the frequency of 32',

l6', and 8', there is a marked increase of frequency of the

4', 2', and especially 1' stops in the Biermann listing. l64

Further comparison shows that the Flutes outnumbered the

Principals by only 1^ while in the Niedt listing there is a % differential. A consideration of the Reeds included in Biermann's

list reveals that the Pedal has the greatest number (5 6 ),

more than twice that of the next largest division, the

Hauptwerk (24). It is interesting to note that the Biermann

listing assigns the greater amount of manual Reeds to the

Hauptwerk whereas the Niedt listing places the greater

amount in the Rückpositiv. The previously-mentioned reduc­ tion in the number of Rückpositives in the Biermann listing

may account for the tendency of builders to move the Reeds

formerly associated with that division into the Hauptwerk.

The pitch distribution pattern of Pedal Reeds is

similar in both Biermann and Niedt with 32', I6 ', 8 ', 4', and 2' pitches fully represented. The most frequently used

Reed stop in the Pedal is the 8' Trompet (31), a- stop well

suited for the playing of cantus firmi.

The principle of pairing also applies with certain

exceptions to the Aliquots. The Hauptwerk and Oberwerk carry

5 1/3' and 2 2/3' in proportional amounts, while the. Rück­

positiv and Brustwerk carry the 2 2/3' and 1 1/3' in

proportion. The 1 3/5' appears only twice in the entire

list. Of interest is the absence of 2 2/3' and 1 1/3'

pitches in the Pedal. This is offset, however, by substan­

tial amounts of 10 2/3 ' and 5 1/3 ' pitches. 165 The distribution of Mixtures of not. more than four

ranks among the four main manuals is marked by almost equal pairings: Hauptwerk (19) Oberwerk (7); and Rückpositiv (20)

Brustwerk (7). Mixtures of five to nine ranks are less equally paired. The distribution of Pedal Mixtures in the

Biermann list shows marked contrast to that noted by Niedt.

In the Biermann list Mixtures of one to four ranks are out­

numbered 3 to 1 by Mixtures of five to nine ranks. In

Niedt's listing, the opposite obtains. Since the Oberpositiv division appears but twice

and the Hinterwerk only once, they have not been included

in the above evaluation. For the sake of completeness,

however, they have been included in the statistical presen­

tation below (pp. 186-2 0 0 ). Concerning mechanical aspects, • Biermann reports a

total of sixty-eight bellows for fourteen of the twenty

organs, an average of 4.8 bellows per organ. This com­

pares favorably with the 4.75 average given by Niedt. Since the couplers on the organs of Biermann's

listing are not clearly specified in all cases, there is

some confusion with respect to the various kinds repre­

sented. While the inter-manual couplers are generally

identified, the Manual to Pedal couplers are not specified.

In several instances Biermann uses the term Coppel, but

fails to stipulate precisely which connective arrangement

is meant. l66

In common with the Niedt listing, the Biermann list reveals that the Tremolo and Cymbelstern predominate among the auxiliary stops. Completing the list are single ex­ amples of Pauck, Vogelgeschrey, Vogelgesang, and

Glockenspiel. TABLE 1

DIVISIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL STOPS (Niedt)

Key: HW=Hauptwerk; RP=RÜclcpositiv; OW=Ot)erwerk; B¥=Brustwerk; P=Pedal; HnW=Hinterwerkj UN=Unterwerkj OP=OUerpositiv; SP=Se:|.tenposltiv.

Stop Division Total

Principals HW RP ow BW P Hn¥ U¥ OP SP

Gimbeloktava 1' 2 2 Coppel-Oktava 4' 1 1 Gross-Principal l6' 1 1 Klein-Principal 8' 1 1 Lieblich Principal 8* 1 1 Oktava l6' '3 3 Oktava 8' 15 ’3 *7 *2 44 1 72 Oktava 4' 47 25 26 9 44 i 3 *i 157 Oktava 2' 10 16 3 18 4 1 . a 52 Principal 32' • , • « * • • « 7 # • 7 Principal l6 ' 15 1 5 2 29 a « 52 Principal 8 ' 30 27 18 3 8 1 87 Principal 4' 2 25 1 12 1 1 43 Principal 2' 1 • ■ • m 1 « • • # 2 Quintadecima 2' • ■ # # 2 9 • • • • • 2 Quintviole 8' « # # • 1 9 9 « • * • 1 Salcional l6' * , 1 2 1 4 Salcional 8' 6 7 4 3 a a 20 Salcional 4' 1 • • 1 , • a a 2 Sedecima 2' 1 3 * a . a ,. a a 4 TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Principals m RP OW BW p HnW uw OP SP

Sedecima 1* 3 1 1 4 9 Sedecima Scharff 1' 1 , « ., , , 1 Superoktava 4' • . • • • « 6 . • 6 Superoktava 2' 25 l4 12 2 11 1 65 Superoktava 1' 3 • * • # 3 3 • « 9 Viol da Gamba 8' 2 2 « , .. i 2 'i 8 Violen-Bass l6’ • • 1 • • 1

Total Principals l66 121 86 57 166 3 2 10 2 613

Flutes

Bauerflüte 2' 2 2 Bauerfltite 1' 10 10 Bauerpfeiffe 2' • • . . # • 1 1 Bauerpfeiffe 1' . , 1 1 Blockflôte 8' 1 1 2 4 Blockflôte 4' 4 10 *i 3 18 Blockflüte 2' 2 3 1 6 Bourdon l6' 12 2 7 3 24 Feldflôte 2' * , 1 1 Feldpfeiffe 4' 1 • # • • • • 1 Peldpfeiffe 2' ■ • # * ■ • 1 • • 1 00 TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Peldpfeiffe (?') 1 Flachflttte 2' 3 3 Flûte 1 10 1 3 3 18 Flûte 4' 2 7 4 2 1 16 Flûte 2' 1 2 1 4 Flûtenbass 4' 1 1 Flôtenbass 2' 1 1 Flute Douce 8 ’ 1 3 Flute Douce 4' 1 1 2 5 Gedackt l6' 2 1 2 5 Gedackt 8* 17 30 7 18 19 1 i Gedackt 4' 1 5 3 5 1 1 ! l Gedackt-Plûte 8' i 1 Gemshorn l6’ 1 1 Gemshorn 8* 1 1 2 1 6 Gemshorn 4' 1 1 2 Gemshorn 2' 2 9 7 3 24 Gross-Gedackt 1 1 Gross-Gedackt 8' 1 Gross-Gemshorn l6' 1 1 Gross Queerflûte 4 ’ 1 1 Grosse Queer-Flûte 8' 1 1 Hohlflüte 16' 1 1 2 Hohlflûte 8> 4 3 7 1 5 21 Hohlflüte 4' 5 5 2 3 1 16 H Hohlflûte 2' 1 1 VD TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Flutes HW RP OW BW P HnW UW OP SP

Holzflttte 8' 2 1 3 Holzpfeiffe 8' 1 « • 1 Human-Gedackt 8' 1 1 Klein Gedackt 4' 1 1 Klein-Gedackt 2' 1 1 Klein Gemshorn 8' 1 Kleine Fl8te 4' *2 *2 4 Kleine Flttte 2' 1 1 Kleine Queer-Fl5te 4' *i 1 Kleine Quintadena 8' "i 1 Kützialflôte 1' 1 2 Liehlich Gedackt 8' i 2 Nachthorn 4 ’ 1 9 11 Nachthorn 2' 8 8 Nachthorn 1' 1 1 Offene-Fl6te 4' ‘6 3 9 Offener Subbass 32' 1 1 Queerflôte 8' 1 1 Queerflftte 4' 2 13 2 18 Queerflûte 2' • » 3 • • * • 3 Queer-Pfeiffe 4' « . 2 * , « « 2 Quintadena l6' 23 2 7 *i 2 *2 38 Quintadena 8' 3 38 8 3 5 1 58 Quintadena 4' 2 2 1 7 8 20 Quintadena 2' « , 1 . , « • 1 H 2 , * * , 2 -

stop Division Total

Flutes H¥ RP 0¥ B¥ P Hn¥ U¥ OP SP

Rohrflüte 8' 7 3 4 14 Rohrflttte 4' 6 5 3 *2 *2 *i 19 Schwiegel 1' • • • • 2 2 i . ! 5 Sifflet 2 ’ 3 1 4 Sifflet 1' 9 3 13 SplelflBte 8' 8 1 5 14 SpielflBte 4' 2 3 1 6 Spielflôte 2' • . 1 % # 1 Spielpfeiffe 8' . * 1 1 SpitzflBte 8' 9 3 3 *1 16 Spitzfltite 4' 6 1 2 1 12 SpitzflBte 2' 1 3 1 1 ’ i 7 Subbass 32’ 3 3 Subbass l6 ' 31 31 Unterbass 32’ 2 2 Untersatz 32’ 2 2 Untersatz l6 ' 16 16 WaldflBte 8 ’ 2 2 Waldflüte 4 ’ *2 1 3 WaldflBte 2' 9 *3 iô 24 ¥aldpfeiffe 2 ’ « • • • . « 1 • • • • .. 1 ¥eite-Pfeiffe 8 ’ • • 1 • • 1

Total Flutes 147 197 98 83 152 2 2 19 3 703 H H TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Reeds HW RP OW BW P HnW UW OP SP

Baarpfeiffe 8' 6 1 1 8 Basson l6' « « • • • • *i .* ! • a 1 CimPel-Regal 8' • • • • 1 • • # # 1 Contra-Posaune 32' • . a a 1 1 Cornet 8' 1 1 2 1 a a a * 5 Cornet 4' 1 a a a a a , 1 Cornet 2' a a 46 46 Cornett-Bass 2' a a 1 1 Dulcian l6' 4 21 1 2 17 45 Dulcian 8' 4 4 2 10 2 22 Fagotto l6' , • , , 1 1 2 Franzüsische-Posaune l6' 1 • • « , a . a « 1 Ceigen-Jungfer-Regal 4' 1 • » a e » * 1 Gross-Posaune 32' « « * , 3 3 Gross-Regai 8' • # . . 'i a # a a 1 Harffen-Regal l6' , « a a a a 1 Harffen-Regal 8' 1 1 « a a a 2 Hautbois 8' 2 , , a a a a 4 Jungfern-Regal 8' 2 6 Jungfern-Regal 4' ’i 1 Klein Regai 2' , , 1 1 Kruimnhorn 8' *5 11 4 *2 10 34 Krummhorn 4' 1 1 • « 1 a a a a 3 Krummhorn 2' 1 1 a a a a a a 2 Posaune 32' , * « a a a 9 9 H -d Posaune l6' « « « , 3 a a a 53 a a a a . . 53 ro TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Reeds HW RP OW BW P HnW UW OP SP

Posaune 8* 1 2 3 Rankett 8' 1 1 2 Regal l6' , , 1 « « 1 Regal 8' 1 4 1 10 l6 Regal 4' . . 2 1 1 # # 4 Schallmey l6' 1 • , « # # « # # J * * 1 Schallmey 8 ’ . , 1 • • 1 • • 2 Schallmey 4 ’ 1 8 3 18 • • 30 Schallmey 2 ’ . , • , • • 1 # # 1 Schnarrwerk l6' . , « , 1 1 Sing-Regal 8 ’ « , 1 1 .. , « 2 Sordun l6’ 2 1 1 1 5 Trichter-Regal 8' 1 11 2 2 l6 Trommete l6' l6 2 1 19 Trommete 8' 20 17 12 2 55 2 109 Trommete 4' 2 2 3 1 19 2 29 Trommete 2' 1 1 Vox Humana 8' 2 8 3 , * 1 15 Waldhorn 8' , * 1 1 Waldhorn 2' 1 1 , * 2 Zincke 8' 3 2 2 • • • • 7

Total Reeds 69 101 42 47 248 1 13 1 522 M SI 00 TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Aliquots HW RP OW BW P HnW UW OP SP

Bauerpfeiffe 1 1/3' 1 1 Cimbel 1 1/3' * , *i , « 'i • • • • 2 Décima 4' (3 1/5') « • 1 • • • « • • • • 1 Décima 1 3/5' « • • • 1 1 2 Ditonus 1 3/5' « , 1 1 1 3 Gedackt-Quinta 3' (2 2/3') 1 • # 1 2 Gedackt-Quinta 1 1/3' • « • • 1 1

Gedackt-Quintflote 3' 1 p , • • • • 1 (2 2/3') Gross-Quinta 6' (5 1/3') 1 1 Hohlquinta 3' (2 2/3') "i • # 1 • • 1 3 Fasat 5' (5 1/3' ?) 1 « • • • 1 Fasat 3' (2 2/3') 15 3 5 2 25 Nasat 1 1/2' (l 1/3') « « 1 1 2 *2 ! 6

Nasat-Quinta 3' (2 2/3') 2 , « 1 • • 1 4 Offene-Flôte 3' (2 2/3') p , 1 • • « • 1

Quarta 3' (2 2/3') • • • • • • ’i ! • • . . 1 Quinta 6' (5 1/3') 3 • • • . 3 • • , . 6 Quinta 3' (2 2/3') 17 19 11 6 . 7 1 1 1 63 Quinta 1 1/2' (1 1/3') 5 6 4 7 1 # # * # 24 Quinta Dulcis o' (5 1/3') 1 . « • • • • • • • • 1

Quintfltite 3' (2 2/3') • • 1 • • p # • • • • • • • • 1

Rohrquint 12' (10 2/3') • « « * » # 1 • • # # 1

Sexta 2 5/4' (3 1/5' ?) • , . • • • • • • • • • • « 1 Sexta 2' (1 3/5') 7 12 9 1 4 1 34 H Sifflet 3' (2 2/3') • • * • • » • • 1 • • • • • • 1 TABLE 1--Continued

Stop Division Total

Aliquots HW RP OW BW P HnW UW OP SP

Sifflet 11/2' (1 1/3') 1 8 1 3 13 Spitzquint 3' (2 2/3') , • • • 2 a a *i .. .. a a a a 3 Spitz-Quinta 1 1/2' 1 • • • . a a a a .. .. a a a a 1 (11/3') ^ Terz 2' (13/5') 1 1 1 a a .. .. a a a a 3 Terzia 1 3/5' , « » , 1 • a .. . . a . a a 1 Tertian 2' (1 3/5') a a 1 ,, , , a a a a 1 Waldflttte 6 (5 1/3 ') 1 a a , , a a a a 1 WaldflBte 3' (22/3') • • 1 • • 1

Total Aliquots 54 58 36 27 26 2 2 5 1 211

Mixtures

Gimbel 1 4 3 1 1 1 1 12 Cimbel II 5 1 2 3 1 12 Cimbel III 9 1 8 4 22 Cimbel TV 1 , » 1 Cimbelscharff 1 a a 1 Cimbelscharff IV 1 1 Copendoff III # » a a 1 1 Coppel # • a a a a *i •• 1 a a a a 1 2 Coppel II * • • a 2 ui TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Mixtures

Coppel III 1 Mixtura 12 3 l4 Mixtura II 1 3 4 Mixtura III 1 1 11 Mixtura IV i 1 4 1 15 Mixtura V 6 4 3 2 15 Mixtura VI 18 4 4 16 44 Mixtura VII 2 2 Mixtura VIII 2 1 4 10 Mixtura IX 1 1 Mixtura X 4 'i i 3 9 Mixtura XI 1 1 2 Mixtura XII 1 1 Mixtura XV 1 Quinta (4'-l 1/3') 1 1 Rauschflôte II 1 1 Rauschpfeiffe II 6 11 Rauschpfeiffe III 4 1 1 13 Rauschquint II 5 2 7 Rauschquinta III 4 2 3 9 Scharff 7 1 1 1 11 Scharff III 1 7 10 Scharff IV 1 2 3 Scharff V 1 1 Scharff VI 9 1 12 22 H SI Scharff VII 1 1 2 cn TABLE 1— Continued

Stop Division Total

Mixtures H¥ RP 0¥ B¥ P Hn¥ U¥ OP SP

Scharff VIII 2 2 Scharff IX 1 « « . , • • • • .. .. 1 Sesquialtera II 3 22 3 10 1 • # .. Tertian II 5 7 1 4 « • . . • « 1 « « 18 Tertian III « • . • « • 1 .. .. 1 Zinck II • • 1 1

Total Mixtures 93 99 38 47 71 1 8 1 358

Grand Totals 529 576 300 261 663 9 6 55 8 2,407

Couplers Total Auxiliary Stops Total HW-RP 2 Tremulant 34 HW-BW 1 Cymbelstern 26 HW-OW 2 Glockenspiel (2'--48 notes 1 0¥-B¥ 1 Paucken 6 RP-P 5 Vogelgeschrei 2 0¥-P 1 Noli Me Tangere 1 H¥-P 1 Trummel 5 0¥-RP-B¥ 2 Vogelgesang 1 H¥-RP-0¥ 3 Fliegender Adler 1 H¥-0¥-B¥-RP 3 21 77 -0 •SI TABLE 2

COMPARATIVE TOTALS OF STOPS AND FREQUENCY OF STOP FAMILIES BY DIVISION (Niedt)

Percentage of Stops Division Principals Flutes Reeds Aliquots Mixtures Total ' by Division

HW 166 147 69 54 93 529 22^

RP 121 197 101 58 99 576 24$^ OW 86 98 42 36 38 300 ' 12^

BW 57 83 47 27 47 26l 11^

HnW 3 2 1 2 1 9 3+/10^

UW 2 2 • • 2 • • 6 3/10^

OP 10 19 13 5 8 55 2^

SP 2 3 1 1 1 8 3+/lO^ P 166 152 248 26 71 663 28^

Total: 613 703 522 211 358 2,407 100$^ Percentage of Stop Families : 25% 29^ 21^ 9^ l6fo — --- »— lOOfo H -<1 00 179 TABLE 3

DIVISIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF STOPS (Niedt)

HW

RP

OW

BW

HnW

UW

OP

SP p

Percentage 0 10 15 20 25 30

TABLE 4

DISTRIBUTION OF STOP FAMILIES (Niedt)

Principals

Flutes

Reeds

Aliquots

Mixtures

Percentage 10 15 20 2 5 3 0 i8o

TABLE 5 FREQUENCY OF DIVISIONS (Niedt)

HW

RP

OW

BW

HnW

UW OP

SP

P

Percentage 0 5 10 15 -20 25 30 Total niimber of divisions ; 229 I8l TABLE 6

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Niedt)

HAUPTWERK 80

70 60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Principals Flutes Reeds

80

70

60 58

50 4o

30

20

10

0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/3' 1 3/5’ 1 I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures 182 TABLE 7

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Niedt)

RÜCKPOSITIV

80 78

70

6o

50 4o

30 30

20

10

0 l6> 8 ’ 4' 2' 1' l6' 8' 4' 2' 1' l6' 8' 4' I I Principals Flutes Reeds

80

70 60

50

40 30 it 22 20 13 10

0 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/3' 1 3/5' 1 1/3' I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures 183 TABLE 8

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Nledt)—

OBERWERK 80 70 60 50 4o 4/ 32 30 27 20 2/ 13 10 0 1 l6 ' 8 ' 4 ’ 2 ’ i> 1 6 ’ 8 ' 4' 2 ' 1 ' 1 6 » 8 ' 4' 2 ' 1 ' Principals Flutes Reeds

80 70 60

50 4o 30 ÎS 20 Zo 10 0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/3 ' 1 3/5' 1 1/3 ' I-TV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures 184 TABLE 9

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Niedt)

BRUSTWERK 80

70 6o 50 4o

30 29 V, Z! 20 10

0 J- l6 ’ 8 ’ 4 ' 2 ' 1 ' l6' 8' 4* 2' 1 ' 1 6 ' 8' 4' Principals Flutes Reeds

80

70 6o 50 4o 3 3 30

20

10

0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 ' 1 ' 1 i-rv v-ix x-xv Aliquots Mixtures 185 TABLE 10

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Niedt)

PEDAL 80 11 70 6o SS SI 50 So 4o 35- 30 33 20 IS 10 13

0 32' 16' 8' 4' 2' 1' 32' 16' 8' 4' 2' 1' 32' 16' 8' 4' 2' Principals Flutes Reeds

80 70 6o 50 4L 4o 30 20 ZO 10 0

Aliquots Mixtures TABLE 11

DIVISIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF INDIVIDUAL STOPS (Blemann)

Key: HW=Hauptwerk; RP=Rückpositivj OW=Oberwerk; BW=Brustwerkj P=Pedalj 0P=0'berpositiv; HnW=Hlnterwerk.

Stop Division Total

Principals HW RP ow B¥ P OP HnW

Echo 4' 1 1 Octava 8 ' *3 *2 *9 a a 14 Octava 4' l4 2 7 1 12 a a 36 Octava 2 ’ 8 9 3 5 a a 1 "i 27 Praestant l6 ' 1 « « a a a a 1 a a 2 Praestant 8 ' 2 . « 1 a a 1 1 5 Praestant-Chorale 8 ’ « , a a a a 1 a a a a 1 Praestant 4' 2 a a 1 a a 3 Principal l6 ' 3 a # 1 # e 7 a a 11 Principal 8 ' 9 3 4 2 4 a a 22 Principal 4' 1 6 • • 3 ' a • 1 12 Superoctava 2' 3 2 4 # • a a 1 10 Viol di Gamha l6 ' 1 a a a a a a a a a a 1 Viol di Gamba 8 ' 8 5 1 14

Total Principals 53 24 27 13 34 6 2 159

H 00 CT\ TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Flutes HW RP OW BW p OP HnW

Bauerfltit 1' 3 3 Bordun l6 ' *1 1 Coppelfl6t 4' 1 1 Dulceflttt 4' 2 *i 3 Dulceflftt 1' 1 Feldflüt 1' 1 1 Flachflüt 8 ' 1 1 Flachflüt 4' 1 1 FlachfIttt 2' 3 3 Flasnet 2' 1 1 Flaute Douce 4' 2 Fleute douce 4' 3 Floit Bass 1' 1 Flûte 4' i 3 Flûte 2' 1 1 Flûte Douce 4' i 1 Gedacht 8 ' 5 6 18 Gedacht 4' 1 1 2 Gedacht-Cammerton 8 ' 1 Gedachtflût 4' "i 1 Gemshorn 8 ' 3 . , 3 Gemshorn 4' . « 1 1 Gemshorn 2 ’ 3 2 1 7 Grob Gedacht 8 ' 1 1 Gross Perduna 32' 1 1 H Hollflût 8 ' 2 1 1 • • GO 4 -SI TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Flutes HW RP OW BW P OP HnW

Hollflfit 4' 1 1 Nachthorn 4' *2 *2 4 Nachthorn 2 ' 1 1 2 4 Nachthorn 1' 3 3 Nasatfloit 2' , * 1 1 Perduna l6 ' 2 2 4 8 Plockflüt 8 ' 1 1 Plockfl5t 4 ’ 1 1 2 Queerfl5t 4' « . 1 1 2 Quintadena l6 ' 9 1 10 Quintadena 8 ’ 1 *8 2 i 14 Rohrfltit 8 ' 1 2 1 8 Rohrflët 4' 1 , * 1 2 Sanfft Gedacht 8 ' 1 Spitzflttt 8 ' 3 , * 1 4 Spitzflttt 4' 1 5 1 7 Spitzflfit 2> • • 1 • • 2 Subbass l6 ' , * , * ^ * io 10 Traversiere 4' 1 i 2 Untersatz l6 ' 2 2 Waldflttt 4' 1 *3 4 Waldflüt 2 ' 1 1 1 1 3 i 1 9

H 00 00 TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Flutes HW RP OW BW P OP HnW

Waldflôt 1' 1 1 Ziffltit 1' 1 *i 2

Total Flutes 46 33 19 20 44 4 4 170

Reeds Basson l6 ' 1 1 Cornet 4' 1 * . 1 2 Cornet 2 ’ 9 9 Cornet a Bouquin 2' « . 1 1 Cornette di Caccia 8 ' 1 1 Dulcian l6 ' 2 3 Dulcian 8 ' 1 Fagotto 32' • « 1 1 Fagotto l6 ' *2 *2 1 1 4 10 Hautbois 8 ' 4 2 2 10 Krumhorn 8 ' 1 4 1 6 Posaune l6 ' • • • • 13 13 Posaunen Bass 32' • • • • , , 1 1 Regal 8 ' • • • • 1 # « 1 Schalmey 8 ' 1 • , e • 1 H 00 Schalmey 4' ■ • » # • « 4 4 VO TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Reeds HW RP OW BW P OP HnW

Trechterregal 8 ' 1 1 2 Trompet l6 ’ *2 • « *i .. * * 3 Trompet 8 ’ 11 • • 3 l6 1 31 Trompet 4' 2 • m • * 3 » # 5 Vox Humana 8 ' 5 1 2 1 9 Zlnck 8 ' 2 2

Total Reeds 24 l4 12 7 56 3 1 117

Aliquots

Ditonus 3' (2 2/3') .. 1 1 Ditonus 1' (1 3/5') , . 1 1 Hasat 3' (2 2/3') 2 1 • 1 4 Hasat 11/2' (1 1/3') 1 1 Plockflüt 3 ' (2 2 /3 ') 1 , * 1 Quinta 12' (10 2/3') . . , • • • ’i 1 Quinta 6 ' (5 1/3') 6 • • 2 # # 4 12 Quinta 3' (2 2/3') 8 6 5 3 • * i 23 Quinta 1 1/2' (1 1/3') 1 5 » « 2 • • 1 10 Quintflttt 1 3/4' (1 3/5') # # * • • • 1 ■ • # « 1 Repet-Ditonus 3' (2 2/3') 1 • • • • • • • • • • 1 H VO o TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Aliquots HW RP OW BW P OP HnW

Rohrfltit 12' (10 2/3') 2 2 Zifflot 11/2' (11/3') *i • • • • • • 1

Total Aliquots 20 I4 8 7 7 2 1 59

Mixtures

Cymbel 1 1 Cynibel II 1 4 a a 5 Cymbel III 3 9 a 1 4 Mixtur « , 1 a a 1 Mixtur III 2 , , 2 Mixtur rV 2 5 "i 'i 9 Mixtur V 1 3 4 8 Mixtur VI 9 1 2 , , 5 *2 19 Mixtur VII 1 , a 1 Mixtur VI-XII 1 a a a a a a 1 Rauschpfeiffe III 1 * a a a a a 1 3 Scharff III 1 2 a a 1 a a 5 Scharff IV , , I a a 1 2 Scharff V 1 • a a a a a a a .. 1 H Vû H TABLE 11— Continued

Stop Division Total

Mixtures HW RP OW BW P OP HnW

Sesquialtera 8 7 3 2 20 Tertian 1 1 2 3 3 10

Total Mixtures 30 22 10 10 12 7 1 92

Grand Totals 173 107 76 57 153 22 9 597

Couplers Total Couplers (contd.) Total Auxiliary Stops Total BW-HW 4{?) RP-OW 1 Cymbelstern 16 OP-HW 1 HnW-OW-HW 1 Tremolo 12 RP-HW 2 (?) RP-P 2 (?) Pauck 1 BW-OW 1 HW-P 1 (?) Vogelgeschrey 1 OW—HW 3 (?) OW-P l(?) Vogelgesang 1 HnW-HW 1 BW-P 1 (?) Glockenspiel 1 19(î) 32

I—' VO w TABLE 12 COMPARATIVE TOTALS OF STOPS AND FREQUENCY OF STOP FAMILIES BY DIVISION (Biermann)

Percentage of Stops Division Principals Flutes Reeds Aliquots Mixtures Total by Division

HW 53 46 24 20 30 173 29%

RP 24 33 14 14 22 107 l8%

OW 27 19 12 8 10 76 13%

BW 13 20 7 7 10 57 9^

OP 6 4 3 2 7 22 4%

HnW 2 4 1 1 1 9 1%

P 34 44 56 7 12 153 26%

Total: 159 170 117 59 92 597 100% Percentage of Stop ^amilies: 27% 28^ 20% 10% 15% --- — > -- 100%

H VO U) 194

TABLE 13

DIVISIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF STOPS (Biermann)

HW

RP

OW

BW

OP

HnW

P

Percentage 0 10 15 20 25 30

TABLE l4

DISTRIBUTION OF STOP FAMILIES (Biermann)

Principals

Flutes

Reeds

Aliquots

Mixtures

Percentage 0 10 15 20 2 5 30 195

TABLE 15

FREQUENCY OF DIVISIONS (Biermann)

HW JÆ-

RP

OW

BW

OP

HnW P rercentage 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Total number of divisions: 58 1 9 6

TABLE 16

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Biermann)

HAUPTWERK

60

50 4o 30 Z2 20 IS- IS '7 if f 10 s z 1 0 1 i î i L 1 6 ' 8 ' 4' 2 ' 1 ' 1 6 ’ 8 » 4' 2 ' 1 6 ' 8 ’ 4' Principals Flutes Reeds

60

50 4o 30

20 /9 10 0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/3' 1 3/5' l 1/3' I-IV V-IX X-3CV Aliquots Mixtures 197 TABLE 17 PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Biermann)

RÛCKPOSITIV

60

50 4o 30 20 lb /£> 10

_L l6* 8' 4' 2' 1' l6 ' 8 ' 4' 2 » 1 ' 1 6 ’ 8 ' 4 ’ 2 ' 1 » Principals Flutes Reeds

6o 50 4o 30 Zo 20

10

0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/ 3 ' 1 3/5' 1 1/3' I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures 198 TABLE 18

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Biermann)

OBERWERK

60

50 4o 30 20

10 to 0 16' 8 ' 4' 2 ’ 1 ' 16' 8 ' 4' 2 ' 1 ' 16' 8 ' 4' 1 ' Principals Flutes Reeds

60

50 4o 30 20 10

0 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2 / 3 ' 1 3/5' 1 1/3' I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixture s 1 9 9 TABLE 19

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Biermann)

BRUSTWERK

60

50 4o 30

20 10

0 J_ 1 6 ' 8' 4 ’ 2' 1' 1 6 ' 8' 4' 2' 1' l6' 8' 4' 2' 1' Principals Flutes Reeds

60

50 4o

30

20 10 z j 0 JL 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/ 3 ' 1 3/5' 1 1/3 I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures 200 TABLE 20

PROFILES OF PITCH DISTRIBUTION (Biermann)

PEDAL

60

50 4o 30

2° 20 14 J , li> 10 8 8 ) / % 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 ' 1 6 ’ 8 ’ 4' 2 ' 1 ' 32' 16 ' 8 ' 4' 2 ' 1 ' 3 2 ' 1 6 ' 8 ' 4' 2 ' Principals Flutes Reeds

60

50 40

30 20

10 ^

0 10 2/3' 5 1/3' 3 1/5' 2 2/ 3 ' 1 3/5' 1 1/3' I-IV V-IX X-XV Aliquots Mixtures CHAPTER VI

TEMPERAMENT AND PITCH

During the course of the Baroque era a number of treatises on temperament were published, representing a wide range of views. Recent studies of these writings, notably those of J. Murray Barbour,1 have disclosed that the change from the older mean and just temperaments to equal temperament was marked by slow and uneven progress, reaching a culmination only after an extended period of struggle with both tradition and the experimental attitude common during the Baroque era.

Among the organ building treatises with which this study is concerned are two statements on temperament, those of Trost and Fabricius. The statement of Trost dates from

1677: Regarding temperament it is essential to understand both science and art. Here one calls upon the instrumenti instrumentorum, the monochord, for with it one can bring into full harmony many hundreds of pipes, and to cause them to agree with all other instruments, with the human voice, and indeed with nature itself. Today all arts and sciences have

^J. Murray Barbour, Tuning and Temperament; A Historical Survey (East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1953).

201 202 virtually reached a peak, and in only a few years music has risen to such great heights that it seems hard to "believe it can go any higher. Everyone knows that the diatonic^ chromatic^ and enharmonic genera are insufficient by themselves.. All three must be heard together if music is to reach its fullest bloom. One can see how the foremost com­ posers of today (when dealing delightfully with modus fictus and mixtim fictis^ in which case there can'be no pure genus)^ produce their Oeneralbass in this way. One can also see that the best compositions^ which are fifty years old or lessj can be played without tedium on the ears on organs which are not tuned exclu­ sively to either one of the three genera. In almost all organs the pipes are mutilated and pinched because there is scarcely an organ builder who knows the correct princi­ ples of proportions of a monochord, and how to derive a scale therefrom. In truth, whoever cannot lay out a scale, but merely copies from others, his scale will be either too small or too big. If too small, the pipes need to be pinched in to set a temperament. It is a sin and a shame to see such a thing. If too large, then the pipes are battered and cut up so that they look as if young dogs, rats, or mice had ripped and torn them. But what can I advise? On the monochord are brass or steel strings, and no pipes; thus one can see that the monochord alone is not com­ pletely helpful. Therefore the organ builder also needs to know artistic principles as well as physics and mathematics. I.'m often amused when I hear people talk about a pack of wolves, what wonderful animals these must be, and where they should be kept. Then these same people want to discuss such things as fifths, fourths, and octaves, and still more about wolves 1 Certainly if one understands the correct rationes of temperament and the dif­ ference between the strings of a monochord and pipe bodies, he would say that when pipes had not been made in correct proportions, this was called by the old-timers the wolf howl, or that here or there a wolf had been caught. To be sure, it is a wolf howl when pipes are not in their correct proportion and stand in an in­ correct temperament. But whoever does not understand triplum genus, namely diatonicum, chromaticum, and enharmonicum cannot make a 203 correct temperament; but rather makes real wolves (pipes; I mean; which are scaled on these prin­ ciples). Often such a wolf howls as if he had another wolf inside howling with. him. When such wolves are to be extracted from an organ (it were better if they had not been there to begin with) one must call upon a man who understands the true scientific principles of music; who will throw away the ill-designed; ill-scaled; and ill-tempered pipes which are making such a wolf- howling; and substitute correct ones. Otherwise one cannot get rid of the wolveS; for if from' the beginning a pipe is not built according to correct proportions ; it can never be voiced properly. This organ is tuned in a tempera­ ment which permits the satisfactory playing of both old and new p i e c e s . 2

Of interest is Trost's observation that the diatonic ; chromatic; and enharmonic genera were to be "heard together" if music was "to reach its fullest bloom." This

combination; he claims ; formed the foundation upon which the "foremost composers of the day" based their musical

creations. There can be little doubt that these views re­

flect a trend away from older temperaments; and evince a preference for a tonal system in which the n-umber of useable

keys was substantially greater. In addition Trost observes :

Unlike in earlier times ; there is no pure genus today; but rather a mixture of diatonic; chromatic; and enharmonic [genera]; therefore no thirds or fifths can remain pure. Adjustments downward have to be made in some intervals while others need to be adjusted upwards in proper proportion; the octaves ; however; remain pure.3

^Beschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 31-39.

^Beschreibung WeisenfelS; p. 39 204 From these statements it is reasonable to conclude that Trost may be numbered among those who^ in the latter part of the seventeenth century, favored the establishment of equal temperament.

The actual intervallic adjustments which character­ ized the temperament of the Weisenfels organ are given in the table provided by Trost:

Fifths Major Thirds

c A B^ d A 2 cf AB d*A 3 a ■p d A c -P e A 2 m V b^ C d^ c^ c V 3 b •H e A d^ •H f* 1 CÜ A c & A d* bO g A 2 c6 ft A e «5 g* V 2 d w g V f. CQ a A 1 d* gf V ft "ë b^ V 3 CD 0 e a A g rO b A 1 f A g^ c V 3 f^ B V a c*A 1 Figure 32 [Source : Beschreibung Weisenfels, p . 39]

Trost does not explain the meaning of the symbols A and V used in the table. Presumably they refer to intervallic

flatting or sharping required in setting a temperament.

Unfortunately, the beats associated with the tempering

process are not numbered for the fifths, but they are given

for the thirds. Thus, for example, "e beats against | pj "

indicates that the major third e-g^ was tempered sharp at a

rate of two beats per second.

Trost also notes that at his time music "fifty

years old or less" sounded best on organs possessing some 205 kind of equally tempered tonal organization. This fifty year span extends approximately from the death of Sweelinck through the lives of such organ composers as Scheldt and

Buxtehude almost to the birth of J. S. Bach. Had Trost lived until Bach's day he would have seen many of his prog­ nostications come true.

Dating from 1756, almost eighty years after Trost's treatise, is the statement of Pabricius which discloses certain components of what he considered to be a desirable temperament:

For good tuning it must first be determined whether the organ should be set in Chorton, so that it may be used with Zinken, Posaunen, Dulcianen, and other accompanimental instruments. The organ builder must accomplish this by having a correct pitch pipe available. With it he should first test the fundamental stop, namely the Octava, through octaves, fifths, and thirds to see if they are free of wolves and without beats. The builder normally sets his temperament with the 4' Principal or Octava, tuning everything from octave to octave until it is all in order according to the monochord and the organ builder's ear. Great care must be taken with the octaves, fifths, and thirds, as far as beats are concerned, which are the best guides for the builder. No wolves must be heard (by which term the old-timers described out-of-tuneness), rather the octaves and thirds (but not the fifths) are all pure, without beats, from bottom to top (except which is the third of B, and which is too high. This the scholars have discussed, calling it wolf). In testing, the bellows must be operated without wiggling or jerking, so that there is no unsteadiness of wind. Second, he tunes all thirds which must also be pure, without beats C c e, F f a, etc. If the octaves and thirds have been tuned pre­ cisely the fifths will not be much trouble at all. 206

(N.B. thirds per slncopatlam can occasionally be heard in an Octav pipe as a part of its sound). Third, he tunes all fifths which should beat slightly over or under which I will explain, This can be demonstrated by the following standard:

Ô 12 % 2D T 'r r 'I' "1 "1 1 k C e

Third Fifth Octave

Figure. 33 [Source : Unterricht,p . 6 7 ]

This standard shows a third at point 8 , a fifth at point 16, and an octave at point 42 [24]. If for example a pipe sounds C and I want another one to sound the octave higher and then tune it, I have to work at it until it does not beat, for only then is it pure and belongs in its natural place at point 42 [24]. So also with fifths and thirds, when they no longer beat they are at their natural place, namely the fifth at point 16, and the third at point 8 . If, how­ ever, the tuning has not been solid the beating will begin anew. The farther I move from the point, over or under, the more rapid becomes the beating, for the disagreeable tones are in a dissonant relationship, a qua natura abhorret, and for that reason they vibrate or beat. When brought back to the correct point and consonant relationship, then "Nature is happy" and there is no more beating. Since the thirds and octaves are not supposed to beat or sound false as before mentioned, but only the fifths, one must guard that the beat does not exceed 1/48 of the stand­ ard. Therefore one takes the letter g, indicated on the standard next to point 16; the fifth is low by that much. By nature it is supposed to stand right at point 16 but it actually needs to be lowered 1/2 a point or 1/48 part. How this falseness in the fifth derives, whether natural or unnatural, may be investigated 207

iDy the artifices. Meanwhile the old, false fifth remains, as has long "been the case. One more thing about tuning fifths. If I wish to tune the upper fifth d with g, which is pure and is pro fundamento, I will need to lower the d about l/4ü and let it beat. If the d is right, then I have to raise the g enough to cause it to beat. All this is in the ear and practice. Experience has shown that beats are readily discernable in the tuning of the Regals. If one wishes to make the octaves correct, he should always use a special tuning rank of pipes, listening to every key to see if they are all in tune with one another. Beats are also helpful here. Do this with both large and small Principals, Super Octav, Sedetz, Mixtur, Cymbeln, Gedackt, etc., in short everything that is present. This is a long and tedious task, especially when dealing with the work of an incompetent builder. Next, draw two, three, or more registers together, small or large, and examine all keys; for example, Principal-Klein Gedackt, or Grob- Gedackt-Principal, and whatever other kinds of registrational changes one can make. This will require a great deal of trouble, time, and patience. But it is absolutely necessary since a stop may sound perfectly good by itself, yet if drawn into combination it may cause wind robbing and subsequent beating, which is a big vitium. It is also important to examine whether the voices of the Rückpositiv are in tune with the Oberwerk by coupling them together. Some­ times it happens that when the wind in one or another of the chests has a loss of pressure for some reason, or occasionally overblows, then the tone in the pipes either drops or rises resulting in beats.4

There can be little doubt that Pabricius' statement on temperament is quite conservative for his time. The system which he advocates is essentially a version of mean- tone temperament in which thirds and octaves were tuned

^Unterricht, pp. 64-75' 208 pure, with fifths flatted slightly. This temperament^ strongly advocated almost one-hundred fifty years earlier by Praetorius, and even earlier by Schlich (Spiegel der

Orgelmacher und Organisten, 1511) and Salinas (De musica libri VII, 1577) had been used extensively throughout

Germany in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

By Fabricius' time^ however, it was well on its way toward being replaced by equal temperament.

The fact that for many years conflicting views on temperament coexisted is underscored in a passage from

Preuss' treatise dating from 1729. He notes:

All the organs in our neighborhood [Hamburg] are still tuned in the old Praetorian temperament, which contains many errors includ­ ing the hard thirds of c#-f, d&-g, f^-bf , g#-c, b-d*, not to mention also a few smaller thirds and fifths, so that one cannot play in all keys. I wish that organ builders would abandon the older temperaments and replace them with new [equal] as is being done in other places. If one takes something away from the thirds and fifths and gives something to the others, he would get a better temperament.5

There can be little doubt that Preuss' I729 appeal

for an equal temperament stands in marked contrast to the

above-mentioned 1756 temperament proposal recommended by Fabricius.

Another instance where disagreement over temperament

occurred is reported by Biermann. He tells how the organist

^Grundregeln, p. 7. Elsewhere Preuss states some­ what despairingly, ""I have never heard an organ completely in tune" (Grundregeln, p. 62). 209 of the church in Riechenberg persuaded the organ builder to abandon the old Praetorian temperament for a "newly dis­ covered temperament" of his own. For three days they tried to temper the organ without success. At the end of this time the distraught organ builder declared flatly that the

"newly discovered temperament" was "an absolutely impossible thing." Rlien the organist expressed chagrin at the failure

of his temperament, which he claimed had worked perfectly well in tuning his clavichord and harpsichord, the organ

builder corrected him by pointing out that tempering

stringed instruments and tempering organs were two com­

pletely different matters. The outcome of this incident

was to return to the original intent of the builder to set

the organ in Praetorian temperament--"the best after

all[l]"G

Biermann comments on still another instance;

I am told that several years ago a strange organ builder tried to change this organ [the Cloister Church at Heiningen ] from its Praetorian temperament into a newly dis­ covered temperament in which the fifths and fourths were pure. As a result the major thirds sounded so hard that there was scarcely any semblance left of the original. No wind instruments could play in tune with this organ in concerted music. Finally, everything had to be re-done. Pipes which had been cut shorter had to be lengthened; and the instrument was returned to its original temperament.

^Organographia, p . l4.

^Organographia, p. 24. 210

In addition to problems of tuning and temperament, both of which are understood as discrete yet related aspects of tonal organization, the organ builders of the

Baroque era also had to deal with the problems of Ton or pitch. The treatises offer limited information about such pitch designations as Chorton and Kammerton. Of the former,

Mittag states:

This is the most natural. It makes the organ sound so much fresher and pleasanter than when it is tuned in Kammerton. It [ Chorton ] stands a second higher than Kammerton and is especially pleasant in chorale singing and preluding. One does not need to transpose all those chorales whose ranges lie a bit low. With concerted music, especially with oboes and flutes, one can easily transpose down a tone

Fabricius, commenting on Chorton, had noted that it

was particularly suited to concerted music "with Zinken,

Posaunen, Dulcianen, and other accompanimental instruments"

(above, p. 205). Apparently both Chorton and Kammerton

were suited for concerted music. Fabricius stipulates that

Chorton was especially suited to brass instruments, but he

does not state conclusively which tone is suited to the

woodwinds. Mittag identifies Kammerton as suitable for use

with woodwinds, but says nothing about brass instruments. Whether or not there is any real contradiction present in

these two statements seems less important than the more

^HistorisChe Abhandlung, p . 7• 211 troublesome question of which tone was best suited for

concerted music with both brass instruments and woodwinds. CHAPTER VII

REGISTRATION AND PERFORMANCE PRACTICES

During the Baroque era a number of changes involv­ ing the organ and its literature took place— changes which affected not only musical styles but also manners of per­ formance. One of the most significant of these involved the gradual refutation of certain older registrational principles which stipulated that stops of "narrow" and

"broad" scale were not ordinarily combined. Organists avoided, for example, the combination of an 8 ' Principal and an 8 ' Gedeckt in the same division. If an increase in sound was desired, the registrational scheme was built not by layering greater amounts of similar pitches but by in­ creasing the intensity of the ensemble, augmenting the 8 ' base with appropriate harmonic corroboration. The rule discouraging the combination of an 8 ’ Principal with an 8 '

Gedeckt had its rationale in the fact that these two arch­ types represented dissimilar tonal qualities which did not blend well. They represented the two basic families of flue

stops, "narrow" and "wide" scale, into which all non-reed

pipes were classified.^

^Complete categorizations are provided by Praetorius in the "Universal Table" of stops (Syntagma, p. 126). 212 213 Among the views expressed in the treatises of the time regarding the refutation of the older rules, none is quite as explicit as that of Adlung;

I do not support the old rule which states that no two identically pitched stops of different scale may he drawn together. Both Niedt, and Werckmeister before him, have written in defense of the rule stating that broad and pompous scales cannot match well with narrow or mild scales. I’ve known organists who, when using the l6’ Posaune in the Pedal, retire the 1 6 ' Subbass not because of any drain on the wind supply, but simply because of the rule. In his introduction to Niedt's treatise, Mattheson asks for exceptions to the older rule, although in his own Vollkommene Capell- meister he appears to defend it s t r o n g l y . [2] Now I am no friend of those who ruthlessly pull out all stops and mix them indiscriminately as is sometimes done in full organ combinations. My reason, however, is that in such cases the organ itself suffers, particularly the bellows which, because of the large numbers of stops sounding, require much greater activity, which also makes the job of the bellows pumper very unpleasant .... But neither am I a friend of the old rules because: 1) there is insufficient evidence to support them; 2) the makers of these rules cannot speak clearly about them; 3) they put strong restrictions on the music, often preventing the player from expressing its "soul." What is that old rule again? One register is strong and pompous, another mild, therefore they may not be drawn together? That makes about as much sense as to say that I must not put sugar on a sour salad; and that two 8' stops cannot sound together without beating, I do not see at all. Experience, through which I am well qualified to speak, has long proved the opposite to me.

t^^The passages referred to essentially substantiate Adlung's impressions, although in one instance Mattheson calls for a Rückpositiv combination which includes both 8' Principal and 8 ' Quintadeen (Capellmeister, pp. 467-468). 214 Let me cite some examples showing why it is not always possible to follow such restrictions. The Vox Humana^ without the support of another 8 ' stop will never sound like the human voice. Who will dare say (when these two stops are combined) that a Reed and a Flute stop are of the same family or of similar quality? Or when the Pedal needs to be strengthened, is it wrong to add to the l6 ' Subbass the l6 ' Principal, l6 ’ Violon, or the 1 6 ' Posaune? If this is wrong, how can one strengthen the Pedal at a l l . [ 3 j Similarly, if the Dulcian 1 6 ’ in my own organ were to be used alone, who would hear it in such a large church? . . . In short, what is the sense of building newer and larger organs if our hands are tied by these old rules--if I am not free to combine with an 8 ' Gedeckt a Gemshorn or Quintadeen of the same size? Those who stand in the forefront of the art of registrationL4]also disagree with the older rules, and this is good, for there is no music so lovely that it cannot become boring through constant repetition, always with the same registration. There is indeed no food so delicious that it cannot eventually become disgusting with too frequent repetition. So also with most other things in life. We ought to take Werckmeister’s advice and turn it around. We should prize, for example, such combinations as 8 ' Gedeckt with Quintaton, or a Violdigambe, or a Queerflüte. . . . Do we not do something similar in the orchestra when we combine oboes with violins, clarinets with trumpets, etc.? Why not, then, do the same with the o r g a n ? [ 5 ] Finally, the organist should consider not only his own taste but also that of his listeners. He should choose his stops to reflect his moods, at times

[3]Elsewhere, however, he states somewhat contra­ dictorily, "in louder combinations leave off the softer stops. They only take wind and do nothing to help the ensemble" (Anleitung, p. 486).

S. Bach's distinction in this area is noted by both C. P. E. Bach and Forkel (Bach Reader, pp. 223, 276, 314).

[5]a fundamental presupposition which eventually led to the orchestrally oriented organs of the Romantic era. 215 joyful, at times sorrowful. In so doing, he will more effectively communicate his emotions to his listeners. They, too, have many moods, and a good organist must be like a good cook who, while working with such basic materials as meat, will nevertheless, be able to prepare a richly varied fare for the enjoyment of his listeners through artistic registration.o

While Adlung’s rather lengthy polemic voices an essentially aesthetic appeal, the observations of Boxberg on the other hand, embrace similar views but for different reasons. He notes:

Each pipe of each register [ of the GÔrlitz organ ] has its own wind channel, so there is no wind robbing if another register is drawn, as happens on a chest having common wind channels. Hence, the old rule which maintains that one may not draw two eight foot stops or two four foot stops, if they stand on the same chest, goes by the board.7

There can be little doubt that Boxberg's view dis­ closes one of the fundamental reasons for the existence of the old rule, namely that in older organs disagreeable unsteadiness and alterations both in pitch and tone often occurred when two 8 ' stops were drawn in the same division.

Later developments, notably the increased use of larger and more efficient bellows as well as more sophisticated means

of wind distribution, alleviated the older problems con­

siderably, permitting the art of registration to develop

^Anleitung, pp. 492-496.

Tseschreibung GÜrlitz, p. [8 ]. 216 along lines more reflective of the changing artistic temper of the times.

During the Baroque era an organist was involved in three principal areas of performance: accompanying congre­ gational chorales; performing soloistic works both "bound" and free; and playing basso continue parts in concerted music. Each of the three functions carried with it certain demands of musical style and registrational procedures.

Adlung observes that for accompanying congregational

singing an organist was expected to select registrations

according to the size of the building, the season of the

liturgical year, the text of the chorale, and the size of

the congregation. Thus acoustical, liturgical, literary,

and practical considerations formed the principal factors

in artistic registration. There is reason to believe that organists changed

stops frequently,® not only to underscore the Affekt of the

®The text of the proffered agreement which Bach re­ ceived from the church council of the Liebfraukirche in Halle included the stipulation, "to take care to accompany attentively the regular chorales and those prescribed by the minister, before and after the sermons on Sundays and feast days, as well as at Communion and at Vespers and on the eves of holidays slowly and without unusual embellish­ ment, in four or five parts, on the Principal, to change the other stops at each verse, also to use the Quint and the reeds, the Gedeckts, as well as syncopations and suspen­ sions, in such manner that the congregation can take the organ as the basis of good harmony and unison tone, and thus sing devoutly and give praise and thanks to the Most High" (Translation from Bach Reader, pp. 65-66). 217 chorale,9 bat also to avoid tedium. Monotony was also counteracted by key substitutions. "in those chorales such as 'Allein Gott in der H5h' or 'Der Grosse Glaube’ which are sung every Sunday," notes Adlung, "the organist does well to -play them in different keys occasionally, provided they do not exceed reasonable limits of height or depth."10

Suggested for the first-named chorale were the keys of

E, F, F^, G, G^, A, or B; for the latter, C, C^, D, D"^, E, or F.

Variety was also achieved by altering cadential formulae. Adlung states that older chorales in Mixolydian,

Hypomixolydian, Phrygian, and Hypophrygian modes, and

especially those ending with a minor third, could be al­

tered by the organist to include major thirds in the

cadences. "Or," he adds, "if one wishes to follow Telemann's

practice of exchanging old for new, he can play the chorale

in Ionian, changing all triads from minor to major.

Apparently some organists had carried this particular prac­

tice too far, for the same writer observes:

Those who are in the habit of ending each stanza with a major triad, even if the chorale is in a minor key, do so they say, because the

9of interest is Bach's recommendation to Johann Ziegler to play the chorales not "merely offhand but according to the Affekt of the words" (Bach Reader, p. 237).

^^Anleitung, p . 676.

l^Anleitung, p. 677. 218 major triad represents "completeness" and there­ fore is appropriate to the final chord. But let me ask: 1 ) is the ending of a single stanza the ending of the complete thought; 2 ) in the case of sad choralesj is it not appropriate to retain its character by a sad ending?12

Adlung reports that at his time opposing views were held among congregations regarding the degree of freedom permitted the organist in changing the harmonies of the ac­ companied chorales. Apparently some congregations permitted

few if any deviations from the fixed chorale while others not only permitted, hut encouraged free harmonizations.

Adlung observes:

When a congregation sings a chorale in unison or octaves, l^3J it matters not how the bass notes and harmonic progressions move . . . but if a congregation is used to singing a bass line along with the melody, then it is bad when organist and congregation are not in agreement. The most important consideration must always be "orderly singing." The organist may display his art in his preludes which are bound to no pre­ disposed bass, otherwise he. does well to avoid confusing the people. Nevertheless, an organist should not permit himself to be so restricted ‘ that he plays only one set of notes year in and year out.

Again, the same writer reports that the various

accompanimental freedoms employed by organists included:

placing the melody in the bass; two voice variation and

^^Anleitung, p . 678.

[13]"The melody and the upper voice are bound together" (Anleitung, p. 675). Placement of the cantus firmus in the uppermost voice in organ accompaniments is firmly estab­ lished in Scheidt's Gttrlitzer Tabulaturbuch of 1650.

1^Anleitung, p. 679. 219 diminution^ with either hass or upper voice moving

"lustily;" "fidgeting" with the feet; coloration; and

"breaking and chopping" [the chorale] into unrecognizable patterns. "Are these," he asks, "proper means for keeping a congregation in order? . . . Not only does a congregation lose its sense of devotion through such disturbance, but the organist himself certainly does not serve God thereby since he cannot place his mind properly on the text."^5 if variety of accompanimental texture was desired by an organ­ ist he was advised by Adlung to play the chorale without variation in trio with the right hand taking the melody,

the left hand providing a middle voice on a separate manual,

and the pedal supplying the bass. A variation of this

procedure placed the melody in the left hand while the

right hand provided appropriately matching lines by impro­

visation. Additional means of achieving variety included

increasing the volume of the organ on the final stanza of a

chorale. This practice also had the very utilitarian value,

as Adlung points out, of alerting the pastor "that his

entrance was required. A practice which presumably found rather widespread

use during the Baroque era was the bridging over of the

^^Anleitung, p. 686.

l^Anleitung, p . 491. 220 lines of the chorales with interludial passage work.^^

Adlung neither condemns nor endorses it completely. "If usedj" he states, "it should not he so elaborate as to con­ fuse the congregation, nor so time-consuming as to delay the continuation of the chorale. In penitential or funeral chorales they should not be used at all."^®

Some speculation arises when an attempt is made to explain the existence of this practice. One answer might lie in the nature of Baroque art itself which was largely characterized by a spirit of exuberance. The same spirit which moved an organist to call freely and regularly upon a large body of agréments in the artistic playing of a cantus firmus could also move him to resort to flights of fancy in interludial passages between lines of the congre­ gational chorales. On the other hand, it is not unreason­ able to assume that the practice resulted from problems of

slow tempi employed by congregations of that past age.

There can be little wonder that the young Bach, to cite but one example, could scarcely contain his restive mind

and fingers during the playing of slowly moving chorales,

but broke into freely moving voices and interludes on frequent occasions--to some, altogether too frequent.19

l^One example is Bach's chorale, "Allein Gott in der H5h sei Ehr," (B.W.V. 715). l^Anleitung, p . 684. 19see the reprimand directed at Bach by the Arnstadt Consistory (Bach Reader, p. 51). 221 Bach's musical "indiscretions” were by no means singular, and there is little doubt that they were not only equalled but surpassed far beyond the bounds of good taste by many performers of that day. A perusal of the following passage by Johann Ludwig casts some light on a number of these performance practices. The passage amounts to a tirade against "incompetant braggarts," and includes these strictures :

a) Jumping about in octaves with the left hand; bl Using a murky prelude for a hymn of penitence; c) Using unnatural modulations; d) Pulling all stops, which makes the organ sound "like a fly on a carriage cushion;" e) Playing running interludes between each line of a chorale; f) Making false passing tones, chromatic alter­ ations, unnatural colorations and bad syncopations in the upper voice melody, which should be left as is; g) The complaint of an organist who says that the organ is inadequate to his talents; h) The technician who does not understand registration; i) Indiscriminate coupling of manuals, espe­ cially in playing fast music with l6 ' stops which do not have ample time to speak, making only a "jâmmerliches Geheule;" J) Holding the bench with both hands and play­ ing vigorously on the Pedals as though "possessed by the devil;" k) Using the Mixtures and Cimbels for General- bass; these make it sound "as if someone is rattling a key chain." The first and foremost principle of continuo playing is that the right hand must not predominate. Yet there are many who use the Mixtures and Cimbels and cover up the rest of the ensemble.20

20johann Ludwig, Den Unverschâmten Entehren der Orgeln (Erlangen: Wolfgang Walthe'r,' 176'4), pp. '9-12.' ' 222 It is difficult for the modern reader to ascertain precisely the extent to which the various practices noted thus far were carried out, since there was rather wide­ spread lack of uniformity in Germany through-out the Baroque era. A principal reason for the existence of this condition was that city churches generally had an extensive and richly varied musical life in contradistinction to smaller village churches which had very limited musical opportunities. It was the city church with its superior organ that attracted the hest organist. Here were found singers and instru­ mentalists able to perform concerted music of various kinds.

Here, too, were found the cultured social classes among whom changing ideas and styles in literary and musical ex­ pression flowed freely. In such surroundings, an organist had ample opportunity to explore various facets of artistic

organ playing.

In village churches, on the other hand, the organs

were usually modest, and the singers and instrumentalists

were few. In addition, the membership consisted largely of the peasantry whose limited cultural development generally

‘discouraged elaborate musical expression.

Furthermore, there were some areas of Germany where there existed rigid views on worship and the liturgical role

of the organ. In such areas there was a tendency to look

with disfavor on the artistic freedoms practiced by organ­

ists in a less rigid milieu. 223 On some occasions congregational chorales were sung unaccompanied. Some differences of opinion regarding this practice were prevalent, as Adlung observes:

One might ask whether it is good to silence the organ during Lent as is done in the city church at Jena, as well as during peni­ tential days, as is done here CErfurt]. My answer: no, because congregational singing suffers badly. The congregation often loses its pitch in long hymns, so much so that at the end they are mumbling rather than singing. Even if the cantor tries to bring them up it is impossible, and the results, if not hideous, are ridiculous. The organist should play along with a quiet registration in order not to dis­ tract from the devotion. . . . It is out of place to make loud noises on the organ as if one were calling the congregation to dancing at the church fair. How is it possible for an organist, who should be singing along in his thoughts, to have a heart filled with penitence while his hands and feet are producing joyful sounds

For funerals, adds Adlung, the normal practice included the elimination of all sharp sounding stops from

the accompanimental registration. An 8' Gedeckt was pre­ sumed to be sufficient to lead congregational singing for

such an occasion in a small church. In larger churches two

or more stops, of which one was usually the 8' Principal,

were used. "The Pedal," he adds, "should have one or two stops at the most."22

Although the organ was used to accompany congre­

gational singing, it was also used extensively as a solo

2lAnleitung, p. 4$1.

^^Anleitung, p. 487. 224 instrument. Principal portions of the Protestant liturgy, such as the prelude, the chorale preludes, organ versets, offertories, and postludes, required soloistic organ play­ ing. The literature dating from this time contains large numbers of both "bound" and free organ pieces, written for such liturgical functions. To what extent this solo liter­ ature was augmented by improvisational works remains still to be answered. Unfortunately, the treatises provide little infor­ mation about performance practices of free organ works or

about registrational procedures appropriate to them.

Regarding preludes, Adlung recommends only that the organ­

ist select registrations which would tend to weary neither

player nor listeners. He adds, "Some know only the raging

of full organ. These are satisfied with only one dress— quite convenient for a lady organist."^3 por postludes the

organist normally drew more stops than those in use for

congregational chorales.

That the organ played a soloistic role in respon-

sorial settings may be seen from the Magnificat versets of

such composers as S c h e i d t 2 4 and Pachelbel,25 as well as in

23Anleitung, p. 490.

2^Samuel Scheidt, "Tabulatura Nova, III" P.P.T. I (Wiesbaden: Breitkopf and H&rtel, 1958), pp. 157-190.

25johann Pachelbel, "94 Kompositionen--Pugen über das Magnificat für Orgel Oder Klavier," P.T.O. XVII (Graz Akademische Pruck, 1959). 225 such works as Bach's chorale prelude "Jesus Christus unser

Heiland" (B.W.V. 665) whose subtitle sub coininunione indi­ cates that it was designed for use during the distribution of Communion^, either in alternation with figurai settings by the Kantorei or with congregational singing.

For playing "bound" works such as chorale preludes or chorale introductions, Adlung provides a compendium of procedures. The list includes the following arrangements suitable for chorales of a serious nature: a slow fugue; a four-voice setting with the chorale in the pedal; the

chorale in the left hand with the right hand on the same or another keyboard playing two voices, forming a trio; the

left hand plays the chorale In the tenor, the pedal plays

the bass, the right hand a free part, resulting In another

trio; the chorale with soft stops, as a lamento; the left

hand plays the chorale, the right hand adds a free second

part; the right hand plays the chorale, the left hand adds

a second free part.

For the playing of chorale preludes appropriate to

more joyous chorales, the list includes: a sinfonia, sona­

tina, or large sonata with or without a fugue, played with strong registration and concluding with the playing of the

chorale itself in unison; small fughettas made from the

beginnings of phrases; the cantus firmus in long notes in

the right hand while the left hand provides variations as a

second voice; the exact reverse of the foregoing; the 226 cantus firmus in the pedal while "both hands execute varia­

tions, resulting in a three voice setting; the right hand plays the cantus firmus on one manual, the left hand plays

a free second voice while the bass is played on the pedals;

the left hand plays the cantus firmus as the tenor voice

while the right hand provides variations on another manual

with the bass played on the pedals; alternation of the

chorale phrases on two different manuals, forte and piano,

adding the pedal only after the stanza has been completed;

the unadorned chorale in the left hand while the right hand and pedals provide variations; the reverse of the proceed­ ing. 26

This list of arrangements afforded the organist

numerous possibilities for expressing the Affekt of the

chorale text either in abstract, contrapuntal textures, or

in adorned cantus firmus settings.

The concern for Affekt, an important aspect of most

of Baroque music, tended to draw from the organist increas­

ing amounts of subjective "interpretation," which in some

instances became almost programmatic. One such instance is

reported by Mattheson who notes that in 1710 Christian

Raupach programmed a special series of organ recitals

("musical allusions") in which he played variations on

selected chorales whose texts together with their "meanings"

2^Anleitung, pp. 685-687. 227 were distributed to the listeners "beforehand.^7 The avowed purpose of these organ "interpretations" was to evoke In the listeners a deeper sense of devotion than was possible either In a simple reading of the text from the chorale book, or the playing of the plain chorale on the organ.

Some registration suggestions are offered In the treatises, though they lack specificity with regard to the particular kinds of works performed. The recommendations of Adlung are quite general In nature and Include such observations as:

Do not draw any stops unless you have tested each one ahead of time, . . . Do not draw a Reed stop, especially for an artistic performance, until you have determined whether or not It Is In tune. Do not assume that since It was In tune yesterday that It Is still In tune today. . . . Do not play slow or fast music using the same kinds of stops. . . . For Imitative registrations leave nothing off which could clarify It, but add nothing which would detract from It. . . . D o not use Quints, Tertlas or Mixtures alone. In the upper octaves the problem Is not as great as In the lower ranges where the Tertlas are unbearable. . . . The Tertlas are more suited to playing In major keys rather than In minor.2o

Mattheson recommends two registrational schemes,

the first suitable for the playing of chorales on two manuals and pedals, the second exemplifying the tendency

^7Johann Mattheson, G-rundlage elner Ehrenpforte (Hamburg, 17^0), p. 287.

2&Anleltung, pp. 483-484. 228 to terrace dynamic levels from one manual to another:

¥erk: l6 ' Trommete, 8 ’ Spitzflüte, 4' Octave Oherwerk: 8 ’ Trommete, 8 ' Zlncke, 4 ’ Flttte, 31 [2 2/3'] Nasat Rückpositiv: 8 ' Gedeckt alone Pedal: 1 6 ' Dulcian, 1 6 ' Suhbass, 1 6 ' Posaune, 1 6 ’ Principal, o' Trommete, 2' Cornet

Werk: 1 6 ' Principal, 8 ' Octave, 4' Octave, 2' Octave, II Rauschpfeiffe, Mixture Rückpositiv: 8 ' Principal, 8 ' Quintadeen, 4' Octave, Sesquialtera, and perhaps a 1 1/2' [1 1/3'] Quintfltttgen Brust: 8 * Principal, 4 ’ Octave, Scharff Oberwerk: 8 ' Principal, Scharff Pedal: 32' Principal, 32' Grossposaune, 1 6 ' Principal, I6 ' Posaune, 8 ' Octave, 8 ' Trommet, 4' Octave, 4' Schallmey, Mixture, and Rauschpfeiffe When playing on one keyboard, a good com­ bination consists of 8 ' Rohrflote, 4' Spitzfltite, 2' Waldfltite, and 1' Siffl6te. The I6 ' Principal is ample support in the pedal. If, however, more is desired an 8 ' Gemshorn could be added to it.29

Additional suggestions by Mattheson include solo

combinations of Viol da Gamba, Principal, or Queerflüte,

each with the Cornet; 8 ' Gedeckt with 2' Waldfltite; 8 '

Trommete; 4' Clairon or Vox Humana. "The Pedal," he adds,

can be represented by the I6 ' Principal alone. If more is

desired it can be replaced by a combination of 1 6 ' Violone and 4' Nachthorn."30

29çapellmeister, p . 468.

SOçapellmeister, p . 469. 229 Among the listings of registrational practices in ' use during the Baroque era is that found in a notebook of

Gottfried Silbermann, dating from 1741.31 The booklet was prepared to accompany the completed organ (his opus 45) at

Grosshartmannsdorfj and was presented to the organist as a book of instructions for combining the stops of the new organ. Although the suggested combinations are rather ex­ tensive, they leave unanswered the question of styles of playing and the particular works to which they were appro­ priate . Some of the combinations given below are clearly designed for the playing of solo lines, while the remaining appear to be plena groupings of various qualities and intensities.

Suggested for a full sound in the Hauptwerk were:

8 1 prinzipal, 8 ' Rohrflttte, 4' Oktave, 2 2/3' Quinte, 2'

Superoktave, and IV Mixture. Recommended for the Oberwerk were: S' Gedackt, 4' Rohrflüte, 2' Prinzipal, 1 1/3' Quinte, 1' Sifflôte, and II Zimbel. The Pedal combination included the l6 ' Subbass, l6 ' Posaune, and 8 ' Oktave. Another combi­ nation, less intense in character, included in the

Hauptwerk: 8 ' Rohrfl&te, 4' Oktave, and 2' Superoktave.

31a comparison of the Silbermann listings reported in Gotthold Frotscher, Geschichte des Orgelspiels und der Orgelkomposition (Berlinl Merseburger, 1959)' PP- 10'2'6_ 1027, and William Sumner, The Organ (London: Macdonald, 1958) p. 367 reveals marked discrepancies. Sumner provides the specification of the organ in question. 230 Recommended, for the Oberwerk: 8 ’ Gedackt, 4 ’ Rohrflfite,

2' Prinzipal, and 1' Sifflôte; for the Pedal, l6 ' Suhbass and l6 ' Posaune. The reduction of volume in this scheme as compared to the former was due primarily to the elimination of all mutation and mixture stops, and not to any altera­ tions in the basic combinations of stops having octave relationships.

Three basic flute combinations were designated by

Silbermann of which the first included 8 ' Rohrfltite and 4'

Spitzflôte in the Hauptwerk, and 8 ' Gedackt and 4' Rohrfltite in the Oberwerk. In spite of the fact that both manuals carried the same pitches, the differences in tonal qualities provided possibilities for contrast. In addition, both were suited as accompanimental combinations against a solo stop or combination on a different manual.

A second flute combination included either 8 '

Prinzipal, 8 ’ Rohrfltite, or 8 ' Quintadena together with the 4' Spitzfltite in the Hauptwerk, and 8 ' Gedackt, 4' Rohr­ fltite, and 2' Gemshorn in the Oberwerk. Of particular

interest in this grouping of stops is the fact that the 4 ’ Spitzfltite on the Hauptwerk could be combined equally with three different kinds of 8 ’ tone. Principal, Rohrfltite,

and Quintadena. This was made possible by the structure of

the Spitzfltite, a tapered pipe, whose resonators sustained

and enhanced the higher harmonics present in the standing

wave patterns of the pipes, blending with and mildly 231 reinforcing those harmonics present in either Principal,

Rohrfltite, or Quintadena. A third flute combination comprised the 8 ' Gedackt, 4' Rohrfltite, and 1' Siffltite. The fact that the 2' inter­ mediary between 4' and 1' was omitted caused the 1' Siffltite to be heard with greater distinctiveness. It would seem that this combination was particularly suited to rapidly moving passages, or brisk part playing on one manual. It could have served also as a foil for a reed stop in a bicinium.

The rich penetrating sounds of the Kornett, espe­ cially appropriate for ornamented chorale cantus firmi, were achieved by combining in the Hauptwerk: 8 ' Prinzipal,

8 ’ Rohrfltite, 4' Oktave, and III Kornett, with 4' Spitzfltite optional. This combination with its keen quality was used against an accompaniment of 8 ' Gedackt and 4' Rohrfltite, or

2' Gemshorn in the Oberwerk. A somewhat similar sound was

achieved by combining on the Oberwerk: 8 ' Gedackt, 2 2/3'

Nasat, and 1 3/5' Terz. The last two stops together formed

the Sesquialtera. In some organs of the time both stops sounded simultaneously when the Sesquialtera stop control

was drawn. Adlung recommends, however, that the two be

kept separate "in order to provide for greater amounts of variety."32

3^Anleitung, p. 462. 232 Related to the Kornett sound, hut less intense, was the so-called Nasat combination. This consisted of 8 '

Gedackt, 4' Rohrfltite, and 2 2/3’ Nasat on the Oberwerk. The accompanimental manual in this case was the Hauptwerk, whose 8 ’ Rohrfltite and 4' Spitzfltite served as substantial, yet yielding support. The omission of the Terz in the Nasat combination reduced the overall metallic quality of the sound markedly, making it suitable for chorales of a more restrained nature. In a trio the Nasat grouping was par­ ticularly effective. When most of the mutations or harmonic corroborating

stops were brought together, the resulting sound was decid­

edly metallic, lending to it the common appelation

’’Stahlspiel. '' Such a combination, according to Silberman,

included 8 ’ Gedackt (as a base for pitch determination),

2 2/3' Nasat, 1 3/5' Terz, 1 1/3' Quinte, and 1 ’ Sifflote. The combination was especially appropriate .for the playing

of rapid, patterned figurations.

It is not without interest that in the registra­

tional suggestions of both Mattheson and Silbermann duplication of pitches of pipes having dissimilar mensu­

rations is permitted. Such evidence supports the fact that

there had indeed occurred by the time of the late Baroque

era significant conceptual changes in registration, as

opposed to those principles prevalent at the onset of the

Baroque era--principles which discouraged such duplication. 233 An interesting aspect of registration and one which engaged the scientifically-oriented minds of several of the treatise writers of the Baroque era, was the mathematical computation of the permutations possible in any given com­ bination of stops. Trost, for example, makes the following observations regarding the organ in Weisenfels (above, p, 90): on the Oberwerk, 2,015 changes; on the Brustwerk,

1,037 changes; on the Pedal, 4t8 changes. Coupling the Oberwerk to the Pedal afforded 958,188 changes; Brustwerk to Pedal afforded 494,172 changes; Oberwerk to Brustwerk afforded 2,086,505 changes. When all divisions were coupled, the total amounted to 460,638,844 changes, not including the individual coupling of one divisional Mixture to another division without Mixture. The total number of possible combinations in all divisions, together with all

Mixtures amounted to 464,183,999» Calculating further, Trost adds : Since the Tremulant lends a different spirit to a combination, and is in fact an ■important and beautiful variation, the compu­ tations including the Tremulant equal 928,367,998. . . . If one played this organ one-hundred times every day, changing combinations all the time, and if one lived longer than one-hundred years, he could not in his lifetime realize all these combinations.33

33Beschreibung Weisenfels, pp. 41-53» 234 Another method of calculating registrational pos­ sibilities is discussed hy Adlung:

I am computing on the basis of the present standard of seventy Sundays and Feast days in one year, since the organ is not played during the week except for Vespers. For each of the [ seventy ] days I count 10 chorales, although that, many are not normally sung. I count 10 stanzas for each chorale, though some have more while the majority have less. Multi­ plying the 70 days times the 10 chorales gives 700 chorales, each with 10 stanzas, totalling 7,000 stanzas. On an organ of 20 stops . . . there are 1,048,575 changes of registration possible according to my tabulation. This divided by 7,000 gives 1,048 years [ sic 1 if every stanza were played with a different registration. Even Methuselah didn't live that long.34

In addition to its use in accompanying congrega­

tional singing and the playing of solo works, the organ was

also used for realizing continue parts in concerted music.

Registrational schemes for such functions are stipulated

in some detail by Adlung: In concerted music the organist selects a quiet 8 ' stop on the Positiv for the right hand, in order to realize the figured bass. In the Pedal only what is necessary for support is drawn.[35] If the bass line can be more reason­ ably played with the left hand on the main manual the l6 ' Quintaton_or Bourdon is usually selected. Strengthening the"sound is usually accomplished by the addition of the 8 ' Principal or even a

34Anleitung, pp. 504-505.

[353in the continue part of J. S. Bach's "Cantata 8o, 'Ein Feste Burg'"7" the l6 ' Posaune is specifically indicated for the Pedal. Its purpose is to strengthen the cantus firmus in canon at the octave with the Tromba I part. 2 3 5 4 ’ stop, especially when playing staccato.[36J A quiet 8 ' stop also serves well between a l6 ' and a 2'. The l6 ' may be combined with more yielding stops, depending particularly on the strength or weakness of the singers and instru­ mentalists. In any case the organ-must not dominate. Occasionally a composer writes an obbligato part for the continue player. The organist should try to realize this as much as possible by careful selection of stops. It may be an obbligato Violoncello or Fagotto part for the left hand. In such a case do not use a l6 ' manual stop, so there will, be a dis­ tinction between the true bass in the pedal and the left hand running passages. Sometimes there are 8 ' and l6 ' Reed stops present, of which the Fagott is most use­ ful. Where these are not present the organist must, unfortunately, draw what he can, and not what he would like. Quite often the obbligato part is assigned to the right hand. In such instances the organist selects more incisive stops. If the part drops far below c ', however, it is best to omit Quints and Tertias, as well as the Sesquialtera. . . . If there are several arias the registration should be changed.37

Occasionally the music director, lacking instru­ mentalists such as oboists or flutists, wrote parts for these instruments into the continue part. The organist was

expected to realize each part by distinctive registration.

"But,” observes Adlung, "an organist having available fewer

than three manuals finds it difficult to realize these parts, especially if he does not play the pedals well."38

[36]cf., Boxberg’s suggestion (above, pp. 133-134) of the 4' Salicet in similar combinations.

37Anleitung, p. 488.

S^Anleitung, p . 4$0. 236

Passages such as those given above seem to imply a broader role for the continue player of the Baroque era than heretofore understood. Continue parts were usually played on the manuals while the bass line was represented by a bassoon, violoncello, or other bass instrument. By Adlung's day, however, the duties of the continue player had been expanded to include the playing of obbligato parts which often substituted for missing Instruments. It is difficult to determine with precision, however, whether or not such substitutionary practices were widespread (it would seem more likely to be practiced where there were accomplished organists), and whether such practices, con­ tributed to the later conception of the organ as an

"orchestra."

A particularly vexing problem arose when an organ­

ist, playing parts originally designed for such instruments

as oboes or flutes, was accompanied by Waldhorns or Trum­ pets. "When such an arrangement is used," Adlung complains,

"the melody often sounds terrible."39 There can be little

doubt that this last was essentially a tuning problem made

troublesome by discrepancies between the tempered keyboards of the organ and the intonations of natural, valveless

Waldhorns and Trumpets. Indeed, the difficulties arising

from the use of both transposing and non-transposing

39Anleitung, p . 490. 237 instruments together with the organ created the development of some interesting organ devices. One of these was the so-called Kammerregister3 a stop tuned in Kammerton and pitched a second helow the remainder of the organ which was tuned in Chorton. With this stop (frequently designated as

Musikgedackt or Musiziergedackt) continuo parts could he played in a lower key without keyboard transposition. It is known that the St. Jakobi organ in Hamburg possessed an

8 ' Gedackt in Kammerton3 while the organ in the castle church at Merseburg had 8 ' Grobgedackt3 4' Principal3 and 4 ’

Gedackt in the Riickpositiv, as well as 16 ' Subbass and 8 '

Oktav in the Pedal3 all in Kammerton. T h e remaining stops were in Chorton. Another device designed to facilitate transposi­ tion for the continuo player was the so-called Kammer- koppel. With this arrangement a complete manual could be moved downward, engaging keys appropriate to the new key.

According to Adlung the adjustment was made so the organist could play either in high Kammerton (a second below

Chorton) or low Kammerton (one and one-half steps below

Chorton).The system could not have worked successfully unless the keyboard were tempered equally.

^^Anleitung, p. 386.

^lAnleitung, p. 387. CHAPTER VIII

SUMMARY

The organ building treatises which date from the period between Praetorius' Syntagma Musicum (I619) and

Adlung's Musica Mechanica Organoedi (I768) provide impor­ tant information about Baroque organs. Some of this

information is detailed and exact, some of it is incomplete and ambiguous. Master builders were apparently reluctant

to divulge in minute detail all facets of their profession

and in certain instances offered only statements of a gen­

eral nature. Ambiguity in the treatises sometimes results

from the fact that the authors were not primarily skilled writers. Moreover, the treatises contain numerous refer­

ences to units of measurement which are no longer in use

and whose values cannot be determined precisely. Organ builders generally agreed that a good wind

distribution system should provide an adequate and even flow

of pressured air to the pipes and should operate freely

under a broad range of weather conditions. The treatises

describe highly sophisticated designs and methods of con­

struction of bellows, wind trunks, and wind chests. During

the Baroque era the slider chest came, to be the preferred

238 2 3 9 mechanism for wind distribution although the older spring chest continued to be used. The treatises provide ample information about many of the details of slider chest con­ struction but they do not fully clarify the methods used by builders to determine the exact proportions of the various sections of the chest, particularly the tone channels.

Only Bendeler. touches on this matter. Direct mechanical, or tracker, action was the only

system used in the playing mechanism of Baroque organs. While refinements of certain parts of the action, such as

trackers, roller boards, and squares, differed in minor

aspects, the linkage system as a whole was designed and

built to provide a high degree of responsiveness, and

builders devised numerous methods to assure this. Key­

boards were considered satisfactory only when they

functioned with an ease which facilitated precise deline­ ation of part playing in polyphonic music and the subtle

nuance of agréments. Split chromatics and short octaves,

both significant features of older organs, were gradually

discontinued. Substantial information is provided in the treatises

concerning the construction of pipes, the problems of voic­

ing and tuning, as well as pipe mensuration or scaling. Of

all aspects of Baroque organ building the subject of scaling

was most likely to be considered a "trade secret," and it

is probable that there were as many views on this matter as 240 there were builders. The most detailed discussion of scaling in the treatises of the time is the passage pro­ vided by Bendeler in his Organopoeia. Indeed, if it were not for this important passage there would be little to inform the reader of the processes involved in the scaling of organ pipes during that period in history when the organ stood at one of the highest points of its development.

The organ case and the disposition of the various divisions of the organ were of special concern to builders of the Baroque era. During the latter part of this period there was a general change in divisional deployment from the earlier Werkprinzip, or sectional design of Hauptwerk,

Rückpositiv, and Pedal towers, to a more broadly conceived

and unified design. Though not discarded completely, the

Riickpositiv was used less and less frequently, while the

case itself gradually assumed a more massive and homo­

geneous appearance. The treatises reveal that a rich variety of stops,

both flue and reed, were included among organs of the

Baroque era. The consistent presence of full complements

of stops of basic pitches as well as an abundance of

harmonic corroborating stops indicates that builders in­

tended the tonal results to be characterized by incisiveness,

clarity, color, and variety. Of particular interest is the

impressive number of reed stops included in Baroque organs,

a fact which may suggest to the modern organist that the 241 arbitrary strictures heretofore placed against the use of reeds in polyphonic textures could scarcely be substanti­ ated if judged on the basis of evidence in the treatises.

Organ builders often disagreed on matters of

temperament. There is sufficient evidence to indicate that

equal temperament was favored during the latter part of the

Baroque era although older temperaments, notably the

Praetorian temperament, continued to be used.

During the Baroque era an important change occurred

in concepts of registration. The treatises clearly indicate

that according to older rules of registration the combina­

tion of similarly-pitched pipes of dissimilar mensuration,

for example an 8' Principal and an 8' Gedeckt, was ordi­

narily avoided. However, as the Baroque era progressed and

as various alterations .and refinements of pipe mensurations

were advanced, the older rules gradually yielded to prac­

tices which permitted almost unlimited combinations of pipes of both broad and narrow scale families of tone. Contempo­

rary comments reveal that organists of the later Baroque

era experimented freely with registrational combinations considered by older organists to be uncommon and even

shocking.1

With the revival of interest in Baroque organs

there has been a definite, if slow, turning away from long

^e.g., Porkel’s comments on Bach's registration practices"(Bach Header, p. 3l4). 2 4 2 held nineteenth century principles of organ building. The orchestrally-oriented organs of that age are gradually being replaced by instruments whose tonal characteristics are more compatible with those qualities appropriate to the literature of the Baroque era. In this process the organ as described by Praetorius in his Syntagma Musicum has come to be regarded as the archtype of Baroque organs and the model for the whole of the Baroque era. From evidence disclosed by the treatises here examined however, it appears that for the late Baroque literature it is not the Praetorius organ which is most appropriate but rather a unique type of organ, highly sophisticated, embodying substantial structural and tonal variations and refinements of earlier Praetorian models. Accordingly, to speak of "the" Baroque organ as if there were but one type is misleading. Such a fiction is inconsistent with the evidence provided in the treatises. Far from a fixed type, "the" Baroque organ underwent vital and significant change throughout the one-hundred fifty years of the Baroque era. APPENDIX I

ON THE ACQUISITION OF AN ORGAN

Of interest are some of the procedures followed hy a typical seventeenth or eighteenth century German church ' in ordering and receiving a new organ. The contemporaneous treatises reveal some of the thoughts and expectations attendant to such a purchase. Trost, for example, points up the following: Before an organ is built a master builder is carefully selected. One must check up on his other installations and repair work; also what other Instruments such as clavichords, regals, etc., he has built, to see how far they reveal his knowledge of musica scientifica and practica (NB with a true musician it would read musica practica and scientifica since he doesn't worry too much about correct propor­ tional relationships, but more the way the organ is laid out and disposed, since it's much more important for him to play the organ well). Don't forget to check if the builder is a virtuous or degraded person; whether he is a drunkard, playboy, or the like, and how he gets along with people, for a good part of his work depends on this point. When such a competent organ builder has been found he should provide points of informa­ tion on what kind of organ he intends to build, and to demonstrate visually, from largest to smallest, all details of the case, and how it will look when completed. Finally, he shall state how long it will take and how many men he will need. . . . It is important not to rush a builder for a dead-line otherwise he has to resort to slovenly workmanship, or he may feel

243 2# that a rope has heen thrown over his horns because of the impatience of the buyers. Then a formal contractual agreement is made with the organ builder including the purchasing of all materials, building of the case, whether a special cabinet-maker will need to be hired or not, whether any smithing or related work will be needed, costs, labor, board, hiring a lad as bellows pumper when it is to be tuned, and many other matters, in­ cluding his wages. Check carefully to see that the disposition is written into the contract so that both parties are assured of receiving exactly what they agreed upon.[Ij A great complaint is that many churches (more from lack of understanding of what goes into the building of an organ) are so miserly that when an organ is finished they pay the man almost nothing and still expect a first-rate organ. Therefore many good master builders become vexed and leave. . . . "Wo küpffern Geld da auch kiipfferne Seelmesse."2

Worth noting are some of the qualities expected of these master builders referred to by Trost. He observes that such builders had to have an exacting knowledge of mathematics, since it was used regularly for scaling and establishing proportions in metal and wood. Master builders also had to possess skills in carpentry, cabinet-making, turning, casting, copper smithing, boring, tin smithing, pin making, wire drawing, stone setting, plastering, glue

making, leather tanning, metal refining and alloying, as

well as architecture and acoustics.

[l^Adiung corroborates, "Black and white are the best arbitrators" (Anleitung, p. 524).

^Beschrelbung Weisenfels, pp. 55-69. 245

Adlung notes that the congregation usually provided the master builder with free lodging. Such generosity was offset, however, by the retention of part of the payment of the organ until the guarantee period was over (Trost notes that the builder was obliged to "bear arms"--that is, be ready to make good on any fault in the organ, for a year and a day). "if the church is assigned the responsibility for the material," says Adlung, "all work from beginning to end must be done inside the church building to avoid sus­ picion of the builder making changes, and also that personnel can be better controlled."3

Both Trost and Adlung provide rather detailed accountings of the many items to be checked out in the formal testing of the organ. They agree in principle that the testing was best done by an impartial judge who, in the presence of the builder and the church officials, had to examine everything about the organ from the builder's draw­ ings and contract details to the actual functions and tonal responses of the instrument. Both Trost and Adlung point out that the best examiner was a skilled organist who also understood the working of the instrument. "Because jealousy between builders is so great it is not good to have another builder examine the organ by himself," notes Adlung, "since he would tend to deprecate other builders to make himself

3Anleitung, p. 526. 246 appear the hest."^ Usually the examiner was free to call in any other advisers he chose to aid him in completing the examination.

Only after every detail of the instrument had heen scrupulously examined with all faults corrected, was the organ accepted and the contract considered fulfilled. Trost points up some interesting procedures which concluded the contractual agreements :

After the test has been completed, according to an old custom, the organ builder's helpers receive as much wine as the largest pipe contains. It is also the better part of dis­ cretion to give the organ builder and the helpers a tip. At his request the builder shall be pro­ vided with a testimonial, telling of his honesty, for his own future security. Finally, the organ builder and his helpers shall be treated to a good meal and a good drink--then is the organ finished.5

^Anleitung, p. 534.

^Beschrelbung Weisenfels, p . 68. APPENDIX II

ORGAN SPECIFICATIONS FROM NIEDT'S MUSIKALISCHER HANDLEITUNG

Specification 1 Specification 2

Bergen St. Petri, Berlin

Werk Werk

Principal 8> Principal 8 ’ Gedact 8' Bordun 1 6 ' Block-Fltite 4' Octava 4' Octava 4' Super-Octava 2' Superoctava 2' Quinta 3' Scharff Sexta 2 ’ Quinta 3' Sedecima 1' Repetirende Cimtel Mixtura V Spiel-Fl8te 8' Rückpositiv Zincke 8' Anhang Principal 4' Principal 2 ’ Gedact 8 ’ Gedact 8 ’ Quinta 3 ’ Kleine Fifite 4' Superoctava 2' Quinta 1 1/2' Cimbel II Cimbel 111 Trommete 4 ’ Regal 8' Harffen-Regal 8’ Riickpositiv Pedal Principal 4' Posaune 8' Quintadena 8' Schallmey 2 ’ Block-Fl5te 4' Trommet 4' Octava 2' Gedact 8' Rausch-Pfeiffe 3 ’ Octava 4' Tertian 1 4/5’ Fititen-Bass 2' Krumhorn 8' Regal 4'

Tremulant

2 4 7 248

Pedal Brust

Sut)-Bas s 1 6 ' Principal 8 ' Octava 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 » Flûte 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' Octava 4' Super-Octava 2 * Super-Octava 2 ' Coppel II Sesquialtera II Posaune 1 6 ' Nasat 3 ’ Troimnet 8 ’ Spitz-Fltite 2 ' Schallmey 4' Scharff IV-V-VI Cimbel III Seven bellows Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommet 8 '

Specification 3 Pedal The Cathedral5 Bremen Principal 1 6 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ' Werk Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Principal 1 6 ' Flüten-Bass 4' Octava 8 ' Wacht-Horn 2 ’ Octava 4' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Super-Octava 2 ’ Mixtur VI Gedact 8 ' Contra-Posaune 32' Spitz-Fltite 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Rohr-Flûte 4' Trommet 8 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Trommet 4' Mixtura IV-VT Cornet 2 ' Flach-Flûte 2 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommet 1 6 ' Dulcian 8 ' Twelve bellows; four valves

Oberwerk Built from 1694 to 1698 by Arp Schnitger Principal 8 * Holtz-Fltite 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Specification 4 Quintadena 8 ’ Octava 8 ’ St. Ansgar5 Bremen Spitz-Fltite 4' Wald-Fltite 2 ' Werk Tertian II Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Scharff IV-V-VI Octava 8 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Rohr-Fltite 8 ' Vox humana 8 ' Flute douce 8 ' Octava 4' Nasat 3' Mixtura VI 249 cimbel III Specification 5 Raus ch.-Pf elf fe 2 ' Trommet 1 6 ' St. Stephan, Bremen Trommet 8 ' Vox humana 8 ’ Werk Brustposltlv Principal 8' Quintadena 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Rohr-Flttte 8' Octava 4' Rohr-Fl5te 4' Octava 2 ’ Octava 4' Scharff IV Nasat 3' Sesquialtera II Octava 2' Tertian II Mixtura IV-V-VI Dulcian 8 ' Cimbel III Tromme t-Schalmey 4' Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommet 8' Riickpositiv Tertian II

Principal 8 ' Oberwerk Spitz-Flfite 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Principal 8' Octava .4’ Quintadena 8' Rohr-FH.ftte 4> Gedact 8 ' Sifflet 1/2 ' Octava 4' Mixtura VI Spitz-Fltite 4' Sesquialtera II Quinta 3' Dulcian 1 6 ' Octava 2' Schalmey 8 ' Gemshorn 2 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Mixtura III-IV-V Sesquialtera II Pedal Vox humana 8' Trichter-Regal 8' Principal 1 6 ' Sub-bass 1 6 ' Brust Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Gedact, wood 8' Quinta 3' Block-Flüte, wood 8' Mixtura VI Octava 2' Raus ch-Pf eiff e III Wald-Fl6te 2' Posaune 1 6 ' Quinta 1 1/2' Trommet 8 ' Sesquialtera II Trommet 4' Scharff III-IV Cornet 2 ' Dulcian 8' Pedal

Principal 1 6 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ’ Octava 8 > Octava 4' 250

Rausch-Quint II Wald-Fl8 te 6 ' Mixtura VI Mixtura II Posaune 1 6 » Sesquialtera II Trommet 8 ’ Dulcian 1 6 ' Schallmey 4 ’ Trichter-Regal 8 ' Cornet 2 > Pedal Eight bellows; four valves; two Tremulants Principal 16 > Suh-Bass 1 6 ’ Built hy Arp Schnitger Octava 8 ’ Octava 4' Mixtura VI Specification 6 Rausch-Quinte III Posaune 1 6 ' Unserer Liehen Frauen, Trommete 8 ' Bremen Trommete 4' Cornet 2 ' Werk

Principal Specification 7 Principal Spitz-Fltite 8 ' St. Martini, Bremen Rohr-Flôte 8 ' Octava 4' Werk Nasat 3 ’ Mixtura VI Bordun 1 6 ’ Cimhel III Principal 8 ’ Rausch-Pfeiffe II Rohr-Fltite 8 ’ Trommete 1 6 ’ Octava 4 ’ Trommete 8 ’ Nasat 3' Trommete 4' Mixtura VI Cimhel III Brustpositiv Rausch-Pfeiffe II Dulcian I6 ’ Gedact 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Octava 4' Octava 2 ' Riickpositiv Scharff IV Sesquialtera II Gedact 8 ’ Tertian II Principal 4' Dulcian 8 ' Octava 2 ' Vox humana 8 ' Wald-Fltite 2 ' Scharff IV-V-VI Riickpositiv Sesquialtera II Tertian II Octava 8' Dulcian 8 > Octava 4' Gedact 8 ' Pedal Quintadena 8 ' Rohr-Fltite 4' Principal 1 6 ' 251 Gedact 8' Specification 9 Octava 4' Mixtura VI Buxtehude Posaune Trommete 8 ’ Oberwerk Trommete 4' Cornet 2' Principal 8 ’ Gedact 8 ' Six bellows; three valves; Quintadena 8 ' Tremulant Octava 4' Flôte 4> Gemshorn 2 ' Specification 8 Sesquialtera 11 Scharff IV-V-Vl Buesfleth Krumhorn 8 * Dulcian l6' Werk We rk Principal 8 ' Quintadena l6 ' Principal 8 > Gedact 8 ' Quintadena l6’ Octava 4' Gedact Nasat-Quinta 3' Octava I: Super-Octava 2 ' Spitz-Flüte 4' Sesquialtera 11 Nasat 3 ’ Mixtura IV-V Rausch-Pfeiffe 11 Cimbel 11 Super-Octava 2 ' Trommete 8 ' Mixtur IV-V-Vl Trommete 8 ' Brust Brust Gedact 8» Hohl-Fltite 4' Hohl-Flttte 8' Sesquialtera 11 Block-Fltitej wood 4' Scharff 111 Wald-Fltite 2' Nasat-Quinta 1 1/2' Octava 2' Octava 2' Quinta 1 1/2' Cimbel 111 Pedal Sesquialtera 11 Dulcian 8' Untersatz l6' Octava 4' Pedal Principal 8' Mixtura IV Principal l6' Posaune l6' Sub-Bass 1 6 ' Trommete 8' Octava 8' Cornet 2' Octava 4' Mixtur IV-V-Vl Five bellows; one coupler; Posaune 1 6 ' Tremulant Trommete 8' Cornet 2 ' 252

Six- bellows; four valves; Six bellows; Cimbelstern; two Tremulants 0¥-Pj RP-W couplers; Paucken; fliegender Adler

Specification 10 Specification 11 Heiliger Geist Kirche, Colberg Coesslin

Werk Oberwerk

Principal 8 ' Principal 8 » Quintadena 1 6 » Flûte 8 » Bordun 1 6 » Octava 4» Block-Pltite 8 » Super-Octava 2 » Octava 4» Quinta 3' Spitz-Flûte 4» Sexta 2 » Sedecima 2 » Mixtura Quinta 3' Flûte 4» Tertian II Dulcian 8 » Mixtur IV Sordun 1 6 » Riickpositiv Posaune 8 » Principal 4» Riickpositiv Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 8 » Principal 4» Gedact 4» Flûte 8 » Octava 2 » Quintadena 8 » Quinta 3' Hohl-Flüte 4» Mixtura Quer-Flûte 4» Trommete 8 » Gemshorn 2 » Nasat 3' Pedal Mixtura III Krumhorn 8 » Sub-bass 1 6 » Gedact 8 » Pedal Octava 4» Super-Octava 2 » Principal 1 6 » Cimbel Principal 8 » Dulcian 1 6 ’ Waldhorn 8 » Trommete 8 » Octava 4» Feld-Flûte 2 » Bauer-Flûte 1 » Mixtura VI Posaune 1 6 » Trommete 8 » Cornet 2 » 2 5 3

Specification 12 Suh-Bass 1 6 ’ Gedact l6 ’ Pfarrkirche, Salcional 1 6 ’ Danzig Octava 8 ' Hohlflût 8 ' Werk Quintadena 8 ’ Super-Octava 4 ’ Principal 1 6 ' Rausch-Quinta 3 ’ Hohlflote 1 6 ' Bauerflûte 2 ’ Quintadena 1 6 ' Sexta 2 ’ Octava 8 ’ Mixtura XI Salcional 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Hohlfltite 8 ’ Trommete 8 ’ Spielflëte 8 ’ Krumhorn 8 ’ Octava 4 ’ Schallmey 4 ’ Offene Flûte 4 ’ Cornet 2 ’ Sedecima 2 ’ Quinta 3' Built in 1549 hy Anton Spitz-Quinta 1 1/2 ’ Lehmann Mixtura XI Rückpositiv Specification 13

Principal 8 ’ Pfarrkirche, Flûte 8 ’ Danzig Spiel-FlÛte 8 ’ Salcional 8 ’ (second organ) Quintadena 8 ’ Octava 4 ’ Oherwerk Wald-Flûte 4 ’ Super-Octava 2 ’ Principal 8 ’ Gemshorn 2 ’ Hohlflûte 1 6 ' Quinta 3' Hohlflûte 8 ’ Nasat 5 ’ Octava 4 ’ Mixtura VI Sedecima 2 ’ Trommete 8 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe 3 ’ Krumhorn 8 ’ Cimhel 1 ’ halher Cornet 8 ’ Mixtura VIII Brustpositiv Riickpositiv

Principal 4’ Principal 8 ' Gedact 8 ’ Flûte 8 ’ Quintadena 4 ’ Quintadena 8 ’ Flûte 2 ’ Octava 4 ’ Schwiegel 1 ’ Spielflûte 4' Regal 8 ’ Blockflûte 4> Wald-Flûte 2 ' Pedal Gemshorn 2 ’ Octava 2 ’ Untersatz 32’ Sifflet 2 ' 254 Nasat 1 1/2 ' Quinta 1 1/2' Cimbel 1 ' Regal 8 ' Mixtura III Trommete 8 ' ■ Riickpositiv Krumhorn 8 » Jungfer-Regal 8 ' Principal 8 ' Hohl-Flûte 8 ' Pedal Salcional 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Principal l6 ' Octava 4' Sub-Bass l6 ' Superoctava 2 ' Hohlflûte 8 ' Sedecima 1 ' Quintadena 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Quarta 3' Mixtura Bauerflûte 1 ' Querflûte 4' Cimbel Trommete 8 ' Mixtura X Halb-Zincke 8 ' Trommete 8 » Schallmey 4' Pedal Cornet 2 ' Krumhorn 8 ' Sub-Bass 32' Sub-Bass l6 ' Eight bellows Octava 8 ' Salcional 8 ' Octava 4' Specification 14 Superoctava 2 ' Mixtura Heilige Dreifaltigkeit, Posaune l6 ' Danzig Trommete 9' Krum-Horn 8 ' Oberwerk Schallmey 4' Cornet 2 ' Principal l6 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Eight bellows; Cimbelstern Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Superoctava 2 ' Specification 15 Quinta 3' Quinta 1 1/2 ' St. Johannes, Danzig Sexta 2 ' Mixtura Oberwerk Spiel-Flûte 8 ' Salcional 8 ' Principal l6 Hohl-Flûte 4' Quintadena l6 Octava 8 Brust Octava 4 Sedecima 2 Principal 4' Quinta 3 Flûte 8 ' Sexta 2 Octava 2 ' Spiel-Flûte 8 Sifflet 2 ' Quintadena 8 255

Quer-Flûte Octava 4' Offene Flûte 4' Quintadecima 2 ' Quinta 3' Brust Mixtura II Hohl-Flûte 8 ' Principal 4' Spiel-Flûte 8 ' Flûte 8 ' Salcional 8' Block-Flûte 4 ’ Quintadena 8' Octava 2 ' Schwiegel 1 ' Brust Sing-Regal 8' Principal 4' Rückpositiv Flûte 2 » Quintadena 4' Principal 8' Octava 8 ' Flûte 8 « Regai 8' Salcional 8 ’ Octava 4 ’ Rückpositiv Superoctava 2 ' Raus ch-Quint a 3 ’ Principal 8' Sexta 2 ' Octava 4' Cimbel Quintadena 2 ' Mixtur Quinta 3' Trommete 8 ' Wald-Flûte 2 ' Krumhorn 8 ' Mixtura Flûte 8' Pedal Salcional 4' Trommete 8 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ' halber Zincke 8' Octava 8' Quintadena 8' Pedal Octava 4 ’ Superoctava 2 ' Offener Sub-Bass l6' Bauer-Flûte 1 ' Octava 8 ' Mixtura Hohl-Flûte 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Salcional 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Octava 4» Cornet 2 ' Quintadena 4' Mixtura Eight bellows; two Cimbel- Posaune 1 6 ' sterne; Paucken Trommete 8 ' Cornet 2 ’

Specification l6 Six bellows; two Cimbel- sterne St. Bartholomaei; Danzig

Oberwerk

Principal 1 6 ' Bordun 16 ' 256 Specification 17 Specification l8

St. CatharineDanzig Krenzkirche, Dresden

Oherwerk Oherwerk

Principal 8 ' Principal 8 ' Bordun 1 6 » Quintadena l6 ' Octava 4» Octava 4' Quindecima 2 » Nasat 3' Hohl-Quinta 3 ’ Octava 2 ' Schwiegel 1 ' Mixtura manualis & pedalis Mixtura II Gedact 8 ’ Hohl-Fltite 8 ' Gemshorn 2 ' Salcional 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Trommete - 8 ' Brust Brust Gedact 8 ' Principal 4' Gedact 4' Fltite 8 > Octava 2 ’ Octava 2 ' Sedecima 1 ' Regal 8' Cimhel

Riickpositiv Riickpositiv

Principal 4' Principal 4' Octava 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Fltite 8 ' Quinta 3' Spiel-Fltite 4' Octava 2 ' Salcional 8 > Sexta 2 ' Wald-Fltite 2 ' Cimhel-scharff Quinta 3' Scharff Sexta 2 ’ Fltite 4' Mixtura Spitz-Fltite 4' Trommete 4> Regal 8 ’

Pedal Pedal

Principal l6' Principal 4' Octava 8 ' Suh-Bass 1 6 » Hohl-Fltite 8 ' Octava 8 ' Salcional 8 ' Octava 4' Octava 8 ' Kiitzial-Fltite 1 ’ Mixtura IV Posaune 1 6 » Posaune l6' Trommete 8 » Trommete 8 > Cornet 2 » Cornet 2 * Trommete 4-:

Eight hellows; Cimhel- Ten hellows; Vogelgeschrey; Paucken Sonne; Sterne; RP-P coupler; 257 0¥-B¥-RP couplers Specification 20 The Castle, Dresden Specification 19 ¥erk Alt-Dresden Principal 8 HaupG-Manual Quintadena 16 Lieblich Principal, wood 8 Principal 8 ' Quinta dulcis 6 Quintadena l6 > Octava 4 Gemshorn 8 > Coppel-Octava 4 Viola di Gamha 8 ' Superoctava 2 Octava 4' Hohl-Quinta 3 Rohr-Flfite 4 ’ Super'-Octava 1 Quinta 3' Mixtura III Superoctava 2 ' Quintadena 8 Cimhel-Octava 1 ' Trommete 8 Grosse Sesquialtera Quintadena 4 Mixtura IV Blockflôte 2 Basson l6 ’ Octava 2 Cimbel-Octava 1 Oherwerk Jungfern-Regal

Principal S' Unterwerk Vox humanaj a-c''’ Liehlich Gedact 8 ’ Principal 4' Quint-Viole 8 ’ Gedact 8 ' Flute douce 4« Gedact 4' Octava 4 ’ Octava 4' Superoctava 2 ’ Quinta 1 1/2 ' Sedec. Scharff 1 ' Sexta 2 5/4' Zinck II Mixtura V Pedal

Pedal Sub-Bass l6 ' Octava 8 ' Principal 1 6 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Sub-Bass l6 ' Posaune l6 ' Octava 8 ' Octava '4' Eight bellows; H¥-P coupler Quinta instead 3 ’ Octava of 2 ' Tertian Mixture 2 ' Superoctava - 1 ' Posaune l6 ' Trommete 8 '

Built by Johann Heinrich Graebener 2 5 8

Specification 21 Specification 22

Lutheran Church, Elbingen Elmshorn

Oberwerk ¥erk

Principal 8 ' Principal 8 ' Gedact 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' Octava 4' Superoctava 2 ' Spitz-Flëte 4' Quinta 1 1/2 > Nasat-Quinta 3 ’ Sexta 2 > Octava 2 ' Mixtura Rausch-Pfeiffe II Principal, wood 8 » Mixtura V Principal, wood 4' Trommete 8 ' Spitz-Fl6te 8 ’ Trichter-Regal 8 ' Quintadena 4' Troirariete 8 ’ Riickpositiv Regal 8 ' Principal 4' Riickpositiv Quintadena ^ 8 ' Spitz-Fltite 2 ' Principal 4' Sesquialtera II Gedact 8 ' Scharff IV-V Octava 2 ' Dulcian l6 ' Nasat 3' Krumhorn 8 ' Cimbel 1 1/2 ' Cimbelstern Mixtura Spitz-Flôte 8 ' Pedal Quintadena 8 ' Dulcian 8 ' Untersatz 1 6 ' Jungfern-Regal 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ’ Pedal Octava 2 ' Trommete 8 ' Sub-Bass l6 ' Cornet 2 ' Octava 8 ' Super-Octava 4' Four bellows; Tremulant Sexta Mixtura Posaune l6 ' Specification 23 Trommete 8 ' Cornet 2 ' The Castle, Brüningen

Eight bellows; three valves; Oberwerk Cimbelstern Principal 8 ' Grosse Quer-Fltite 8 ' Mixtura VI-VII-VIII Quinta 3 ' Octava 4' 2 5 9 Quintadena 1 6 ' Specification 24 Cimbel II Nacht-Horn 4' St. Nicolai, Hamburg Hohl-Flttte 2' Kleine Quer-Flfite 4 ’ Werk Rohrfltite 8' Gemshorn 8' Principal 1 6 ' Rohr-Fl6te 1 6 ' Brust Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 8' Klein Gedact 2' Spitzflttte 8' Super-Octava 1 ' Salcional 8» Cimbel II Quinta 6' Mixtur III Octava 4» Repetirendes Cimbel- Scharff III Regal 8' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Gross-Regal 8' Superoctava 2' Rancket 8' Flachflëte 2 ’ Mixtura VIII- IX-X Pedal Trommete 1 6 ’

Principal 1 6 ' Oberwerk Gross Gemshorn 1 6 ' Klein Gemshorn 8 ' Weite Pfeiffe 8 ’ Gross Querfltite 4' Hohlfltite 8 ' Gedact 4' Octava 4 ’ Schallmey 4' Quintadena 8 ' Trommete 8 ’ Rohrfitite 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Spielfltite 4' Sordun 1 6 ' Nasat 3' Gedact-Quinta 3' Gemshorn 2 ' Klein-Regal 2 ' Scharff. VI Krumhorn 8 ' Cimbel III Rancket 8 ' Trommet 8 ’ Gimhel III Vox humana 8 ’ Bauerfltite 1 ' Trommete 4 ’ Gedact-Quinta 1/2 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ’ Brust Super-Octava 4' Hohlfltite 4' Principal 4' Nacht-Horn 41 Blockfltite 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Rohrfltite 4 ’ Mixtura V Quinta 3' Octava 8 » Naldfltite 2 ' Quinta 3' Nasat 1 1/2 ' Hohl-Quinta Tertian III Kleine Quintadena Scharff IV-V-VI Dulcian 8 ' Tremulant; coupler; Baar-Pfeiffe 8 '

Built in 1596 by David Beck 2 6 0

RÜckpositiv Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Nasat Quinta Bordun 1 6 ' Octava Gedact 8 ' Mixtura Quintadena 8 ' Octava 4' Brust Blockflôte 4 ’ Querflôte 2 ' Flûte 4' Sesquialtera II Octava 2 ' Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Scharff Scharff VII-VIII-IX Regal Dulcian 1 6 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Riickpositiv Schallmey 4' Principal 4' Pedal Quintadena 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Principal 32' Flûte 4' Octava 1 6 ' Flûte 2 ' Suh-Bass 1 6 ' Sesquialtera II Octava 8 ' Octava 2 ' Quinta 6 ' Scharff Rausch-Pfeiffe III Sifflet 1/2 ' Octava 4' Regal 8 ' Nachthorn 2 ' Mixtura X Pedal Posaune 32' Posaune 1 6 ' Untersatz 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Krumhorn 8 ' Mixtura Trommete 4' Trommete Cornet 2 ' Six bellows; short octave Couplers to three manuals ; in Pedal five valves; Cimbelstern

Built in 1686 by Arp Specification 26 Schnitger St. Jacobi, Hamburg

Specification 25 Werk

St. Nicolai, Hamburg Krumhorn 8 ' (smaller organ) Cimbel III Octava 2 ' Werk Nasat Octava I: Principal 8 ' Rohrflüte 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Principal 4' 261

Holtzflôte 8 ' Pedal - Spitzflëte 4' Gemshorn 2 ' Principal 32' Mixtura VI Posaune 32' Trommete 8 ' Posaune l6 ' Trommete 4' Nachthorn 2 ' Rauschpfeiffe II Oberwerk Dulcian l6 ' Octava l6 ' Principal l6 ' Octava 8 ' Trommete l6 ' Octava 4' Quintadena l6 ' Sub-Bass l6 ' Spitzflôte 8 ' Mixtura VI Octava 4' Trommete 8 ' Rohrfltite 4' Trommete 4' Super-Octava 2 ' Cornet 2 ' Octava 8 ' Gedact in Gammerton Rauschfltite II Specification 27 Blockfltite 2 ' Mixtura VI St. Catharine, Hamburg Rückpositiv Brust

Baarpfeiffe 8 ’ Principal 8 ' Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Octava 4' Sesquialtera II Scharff VII Quer-Fltite 4' Quintadena 4' Octava 4> Waldpfeiffe 2 ' Gedact 8 ' Dulcian l6 ' Principal 8 ' Regai 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Fltite 4' Oberwerk Scharff IV-V-VI Dulcian l6 ' Principal 8 ' Schallmey 4' Hohlfltite 8 ' Blockfltite 2 ' Fltite 4' Gemshorn 2 ' Brust Nasat 3 ’ Scharff VI Trichter-Regal 8 ' Waldfltite 2 ' Dulcian 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Scharff V Zincke 8 ' Wald-Fltite 2 ' Trommete 4' Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Werk Hohlfltite 4' Sesquialtera II Principal l6 ' Quintadena l6 ' Bordun l6 ' Octava 8 ' 262

Spitzflôte 8 > Specification 28 Querfltite 8 ’ • Octava 4' St. Petri, Hamburg Octava 2 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe II Brust Mixtura X Trommete l6 ' Dulcian 8 ' Regal 4' Rückpositiv Octava 8 ' Quintadena 4' Principal 8 ' Sesquialtera Gedact 8 ' Scharff Quintadena 8 ' Octava 41 Oberpositiv Blockfltite 4 ’ Hohlfltite 4' Cimbelstern Quintfltite 1 1/2 ' Trommete 8 ' Sifflet 1 ' Trommete 4' Sesquialtera II Scharff Scharff VIII Nasat 3' Regai 8 ' Octava 4' Baarpfeiffe 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Schallmey 4' Octava 8 ' Spitzfltite 4' Pedal Gemshorn 2 ' Baar-Pfeiffe 8 ' Principal 32' Suh-Bass 1 6 ' Werk Octava 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Trommete 1 6 ' Octava 4' Spitzfltite 8 ' Nachthorn 4' Scharff Rauschpfeiffe II Mixtura Cimhel III Rausch-Pfeiffe Mixtura V Gedact 1 6 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Flachfltite 2 ' Krumhorn 8 ' Octava 4' Trommete 8 ' Holtz-Pfeiffe 8 ' Schallmey 4' Octava 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Principal 1 6 ' Gross-Posaune 32' Principal 1 6 ' Rückpositiv Cornet-Bass 2 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Sixteen bellows; two Dulcian 1 6 ' Tremulants Octava 4' Blockfltite 2 ' Sesquialtera Gedact 8 ' Principal 8 ' Quer-Fltite 2 ' 263

Quintadena 8 ' ¥aldflôte 2 ' Sifflet 1 ' Tertian II Scharff Sifflet 1/2 ' Schallmey Scharff IV Trichter-Regal 8 ' Pedal Schallmey 4' Principal 24' Rückpositiv Mixtura Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Trommete 4' Quintadena 8 ' Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Untersatz l6 ' Octava 2 ' Trommete 8 ' Flute douce 4' Posaune l6 ' Gedact-Quinta 3' Rausch-Pfeiffe Sesquialtera .II Gedact 8 ' Quinta 1 1/2 ' Cornet 2 ' Spitzfltite 2 ' Scharff IV-V-VI Manual couplers; Tremulant Dulcian l6 ' Hautbois 8 ’

Specification 29 Pedal

St. Michael, Hamburg Principal 1 6 ' Sub-Bass l6 ' Werk Rohr-Quint 1 2 ' Octava 8 ' Principal 1 6 ' Octava 4' Quintadena l6 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Octava 8 ' Mixtura VI Rohrfltite 8 ' Nachthorn 2 ' Octava 4' Gross-Posaune 32' Spitzfltite 4' Posaune 1 6 ' Nasat 3 ’ Dulcian l6 ' Super-Octava 2 ' Trommete 8 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe II Trommete 4' Mixtura IV-V-VI Cornet 2 ' Cimbel III Trommete 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Specification 30 Vox humana 8 ' Cathedral, Hamburg Brust Werk Flute douce 8 ' Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Rohrfltite 4' Quintadena l6 ' Quinta 3' Hohl-Fltite 8 ' Octava 2 ' Hohl-Fltite 4' 264

Octava 4 ’ Cimhel Nasat 3 ’ Trommete 8 ' Mixtura Scharff Rückpositiv Blockfltite 2 ’ Trommete l6 ' Principal 4' Trommete 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Rückpositiv Tertian II Superoctava 2 ' Principal 8 ’ Fltite 4' Quintadena 8 ' Scharff III Octava 4' Sesquialtera II Gedact 8 ' Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Fltite 4' Dulcian l6 ' Mixtura Scharff Pedal Sifflet 1 > Baar-Pfeiffe 8 ' Untersatz l6 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Pedal Nacht-Horn 2 ' Mixtura VI Principal l6 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Octava 8 ' Posaune l6 ' Untersatz l6< Trommete 8 ' Octava 4' Cornet 2 ' Gedact 8 ' Rauschpfeiffe Six bellows; two TremulantSj Mixtura one fast, one slow; four Posaune l6 ' valve s Trommete 8 ’ Cornet 2 ' Built by Arp Schnitger

Specification 31 Specification 32 St. Johannes, Hamburg St. Mary Magdalene Hamburg Werk Werk Principal 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Principal 8 ' Holtzfltite 8 ' Quintadena l6 ' Spielfltite 4' Blockfltite 4' Nasat 3 ’ Mixtura VI Octava 4' Octava 4' Gemshorn 4' Htiltzern Principal 8 ' Raus ch-Pfeiffe III Dulcian 1 6 ' Mixtura IV-V Trommete 8 ' 265

Rückpositiv Scharff IV Sesquialtera II Principal 4' Dulcian 8 ' Gedact 8 ’ Noli me tangere Quintadena 8 > Querf16te 4' Pedal Sesquialtera II Scharff V Untersatz 1 6 ’ Schallmey 4 ’ Trommet 8 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Trommet 4>

Pedal Three bellows; Tremulant on entire organ; Cimbelstern; Untersatz 1 6 ' manual to Pedal couplers Octava 8 ' Mixtura VI Built in 1700 by Arp Posaune 1 6 ' Schnitger Trommete 8 ' Trommete 4' Bauer-Flttte 1 ' Specification 34 Five bellows; Tremulant; Insterburg short octave in Pedal Werk Built in 1629 by Gottfried Fritsche Principal 8 ' Bordun 1 6 ' Octava 4' Specification 33 Super-Octava 2 ' Quinta 1 1/2 ' St. Gertrudj Hamburg Sexta 2 ' Mixtura VII Werk Spiel-Flüte 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Principal 8 ' Offene Flttte 4' Gedact 8 ' Rohrflûte 4' Hohlflôte 4' Schallmey 1 6 ' Nasat 3' Krumhorn 2 ' Brustpositiv Octava 4> Mixtura IV-V-VI Principal 4' Super-Octava 2 ' Gedact 8 ' Cimbel III Octava 2 ' Trommete. 8 ' Nasat 3' Cimbel 1 1/2 ' Brust Mixtura Spitzfltite 8 ' Human-Gedact, wood 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Flôte, wood 4' Dulcian 8 ' Waldflttte 2 ’ Jungfern-Regal 8 ' Sifflet 1 1/2' 266

Pedal Gemshorn 2 ' Rausch-Quinte , 3' SuTo-Bass 1 6 ' Quinta 1 1/ 2 ' Octava 8 ’ Sexta 2 ' Super-Octava 4 ’ Hohlfltite 4' Sexta Mixtura X Mixtura Trommete 8' Posaune 16 ' Krum-Horn 4' Trommete 8' Cornet 2 ' Brust

Eight bellows; three valves; Gedact 8 ' Cimbelstern Gedact 4' Principal 2 ' Sedecima 1 ' Specification 35 Cimbel Repetirte Quinta 1/2 ' Kneiphoff Cathedral Regal 8' Ktinigsberg Pedal Oberwerk Principal 1 6 ' Principal 8 Untersatz 1 6 ' Bordun 16 Octava 8' Spielfltite 8 Gedact 8 ' Spielfltite 4 Octava 4' Hohlfltite 8 Quintadena 4' Octava 4 Sifflet Offene Fltite 4 Nacht-Horn I: Queerfltite 4 Bauer-Pfeiffe 1 1/2 ' Superoctava 2 Copendoff II-III Kleine Fltite 4 Mixtura XII Rausch-Quint 3 Posaune 1 6 ' Quinta 1 1/2 Posaune 8' Sexta 2 Dulcian 1 6 ' Mixtura X Trommete 8 ' Cornet 8 Krum-Horn 8' Krumhorn 4 Schallmey 4' Cornet 2 ' Riickpositiv Ten bellows; Tremulant ; Principal 4' manual couplers Gedact 8' Quintadena 8' Quintadena 4 ’ Kleine Fltite 4> Queerfltite 4> Superoctava 2 ' Octava 8 ' Wald-Horn 2 ’ Waldfltite 2 ' 267

Specification 36 Pedal

KtinigsTDerg Untersatz Bordun 16 Oberwerk Principal 8 Octava 4 Principal 8 ' Bauer-Pfeiffe 2 Octava 4' Quintadena 4 Superoctava 2 ' Rausch-Quint Rohrfltite 8 * Nachthorn 4 Offene Fltite 4* Gedact 8 Bordun 1 6 » Spitz-Quint Gedact 4' Dulcian l i Spitz-Quint 3 ’ Posaune 16 Quinta 4 ' -1 1/2 ' Trommete 8 Mixtura X Schallmey 8 Dulcian 8 ' Dulcian 8 Cimbelstern Cornet 2 Riickpositiv Eight bellows; Tremulant coupler to OW and BW Principal 8 ' Octava 4' Built in 1590 by Riemann Quintadena 8 ' Quintadena 4» Gedact 8 * Specification 37 Blockfltite 4' Queerfltite 4' Ltibenichtj Ktinigsberg Superoctava 2 ' Rausch-Quinta 3' Oberwerk Mixtura VIII Waldfltite 3' Principal 8 ' Gedact-Quintfltite 3' Bordun 1 6 ' Sexta 2 ' Spiel-Pfeiffe 8 ' Hohlfltite 4' Viola di Gamba 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Queerfltite 4' Trommete 8 ' Octava 4' Krumhorn 4' Quinta 3 ’ Superoctava 2 ' Brust Sexta 2 ' Waldfltite 2 ' Principal 4' Sifflet 1 ' Octava 2 ' Mixtura VI Gedact 8 ' Trommete 1 6 ' Gedact 4' Cornet 8 ' Quinta 3 ’ Vox humana 8 ' Salcional 4' Decima Riickpositiv Mixtura III Principal 4' Gedact 8 ' 268

Blockflôte 4' Specification 38 Quinta 3 ’ Octava 2 ' Royal Castle, KÜnlgsberg Sexta 2 ' Mixtura IV Oberwerk Dulcian l6 ' Krumhorn 8 ' Principal 8 ' Bordun 1 6 ' Oherposltlv Queer-Fltite 4' Splel-Flôte 8 ' Flute douce 4' Gedact 8 ' Gedact-Flüte 8 > Gedact 4' Quintadena 8 ' Rausch-Quint 3' Nasat-Quinta 3 ’ Quinta 1 1/2 > Rohrflôte 4' Octava 4' Gemshorn 2 ' Superoctava 2 ’ Sexta 2 ' Sedecima 1 ' Mixtura IV Mixtura IV Hautbois 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Schnarrwerk l6 ' Trommete 8 '

Pedal Brust

Principal l6' Principal 4 ’ Violen-Bass l6' Octava 2 ' Octava 8 ’ Quinta 1/2 > Gedact 8 ' Sexta Quintadena 4 ’ Regal 8 ' Super-Octava 4 ’ S. Superoctava 4' Riickpositiv Mixtura IV Bauer-Pfeiffe 1 ' Principal 4' Posaune 32' Quintadena 8 ' Posaune l6' Gedact 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Gedact 4' Schallmey 4' Quinta 1 1/2 ' Cornet 2 ' Querflôte, halb 4' Gemshorn 2 ' Nine bellows; Cimbelstern; Sexta 2 » Vogelgeschrey; Trummeln; Mixtura VI manual Tremulant; Pedal Dulcian 8' Tremulant ; four valves; coupler to manuals Pedal

Built In 1698 by Johann Untersatz 2 6 ’ Josua Mosengel Octava 8 ' Quintadena 4' Gedact 8 > Octava 4 ’ Super-Octava 2 ' Quinta 3' 26g

Bauer-Pfeiffe 1 ' Fltite 41 Nacht-Horn 4' Octava 4' Sexta 2 ' Quinta 3 ’ Posaune 1 6 ' Mixtura Trommete 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Schallmey Trommete 8 ' Cornet 2 ' Schallmey 4'

Six bellowsj Tremulant Eight bellows; Tremulant on entire organ; three valves; Built in 1600 by Adrian manual coupler Zimmermann Built by David Tramp

Specification 39 Specification 40 Haberberg, Kttnigsberg Steindamm^ Ktinigsberg Oberwerk Werk Principal 8 ’ Bordun 1 6 ' Principal 8 ' Spielfltite 8 ' Fltite 8 ' Salcional 8 ' Fltite 4' Octava 4' Octava 4 ’ Fltite 4' Super-Octava 2 ' Super-Octava 2 ' Sedecima 1 ' Quinta 3' Quinta 3' Quinta 1/2 ' Sexta 2 ' Sexta 2 ' Mixtura Mixtura Cornet 8 ' Riickpositiv

Riickpositiv Principal 4' Fltite 8 ' Principal 4' Queerfltite 4' Fltite 8 ' Super-Octava 2 ' Fltite 4' Quinta 3' Queerfltite 4' Sexta 2 ' Queerfltite 2 ' Mixtura Gemshorn 2 ' Trommete 8 ' Quinta 3' Sexta 2 ' Pedal Mixtura Trommete 8 ' Principal 8 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ' Pedal Fltite 8 ' Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Superoctava 2 ' Bordun 1 6 ' Bauerfltite 1 ' Fltite 8 ' Trommete 8 > 270

Built In 1672 by Brust David Tramp Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 4' Specification 4l Wald-Fltite 2 ' Cimbel repetirt III Sackheim, KÔnigsberg Regal 8 '

Manual Rückpositiv

Principal 4' Principal 4' Gedact 8 ' Lieblich Gedact 8 ' Flûte 4' Octava 2 ' Octava 2 ’ Quinta 3 ’ Quinta 3 ’ Tertian II Tertian II Mixtura Mixtura Quintadena 8 ' Dulcian 8 ' Queer-Fltite 4' Rohrfltite 4' Pedal Sifflet 2 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Sub-Bass 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Octava 4' Pedal Super-Octava 2 ' Bauerfltite 1 > Principal, narrow scale 16 > Trommete 41 Octava 8 ' Gedact 8 ’ Built in 1707 by Mosengel Octava 4' Bauer-Pfeiffe 1 ' Coppel II-III Specification 42 Posaune 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Pfarrkirche, Ktinigsberg Jungfern-Regal 4' Cornet 2 ' Oberwerk Four valves Principal 8 > Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 4' Specification 43 Super-Octava 2 ' Schwiegel 1 ' Leipzig Quinta 3 ’ Sexta 2 ’ Werk Cimbel-Scharff IV Spitzfltite 8 ’ Principal 8 ' Offene Fltite 4' Quintadena 1 6 ' Gemshorn 14' Octava 4 ’ Krumhorn 8 ' Superoctava 2 ' Quinta 3' Tertian II 271 Splelflüte 8 > Hohlfltite 4' Gedact 4' Sesquialtera II Feld-rPfeiffe 2 ' Seltenposltlv Gemshorn 2 ' Sifflet I 1/2' Gedact 8 > Mixtura VIII Octava 4' Cimbel III Rohrfltite 4' Krumhorn 8 ' Gemshorn 2 ’ Regai 8 ' Quinta 3 ’ Cimbel Rückpositiv Viola di Gamba 8 ' Vox humana 8' Principal 8 ' Bordun l6 ' Pedal Blockfltite 8 » Sesquialtera II Sub-Bass l6 ' Hohl-Fltite 8 ’ Octava 8' Quintadena 8 ' Octava 4> Octava 4' Sifflet 1 ’ Spiel-Fltite 2 ' Mixtura Mixtura V Posaune l6 ' Dulcian l6 ' Trommete 8' Baarpfeiffe 8 ' Schallmey 4' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Vox humana 8 ' Scharff IV-V Specification 44 Pedal Marienkirche, Liibeck Principal Werk ; Sub-Bass Octava 8' Principal l6 ’ Bauerfltite 2 ' Quintadena l6 ’ Mixtura VI Octava 8' Gross-Posaune 24' Spitz-Fltite 8 ' Posaune i6 » Octava 4' Trommete 8' Hohlfltite 4' Principal 1 6 ' Nasat 3' Gedact 8 ' Rauschpfeiffe IV Octava 4' Scharff IV Nachthorn 2 ' Mixtura XV Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommete l6 ' Krumhorn 8' Trommete 8' Cornet 2 ' Zincke 8’ Sixteen bellows; Cimbelstern; Brust two Trummeln; two Tremulants

Principal l6' Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' 272

Specification 45 Octava 4' Gedact 8 ' St. Johannes, Liineburg Octava 4' Nachthorn 2 ' Werk Rausch-Pfeiffe Mixtura Principal 1 6 ' Posaune, half of wood Quintadena 1 6 ' Posaune Octava 8' Trommete 8 ' Redact S' Trommete 4' Octava 4' Cornet 2 ' Spitz-Flôte 4' Octava 4' Built by Matthias Dropa Mixtura VI-VII Scharff Troirmete 1 6 ’ Specification 46 Dulcian 8 ’ Schallmey 4' St. Michaelis, Lüneburg Oberwerk Werk

Principal 8 > Principal 1 6 ’ Rohr-Flôte 8' Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 4' Octava 8' Rohr-Flfite 4' Salcional 8 ' Nasat 3' Octava 4' Gemshorn 2 ' Quinta 3' Mixtura V-VI Wald-Plüte 2 ' Sesquialtera Scharff IV Trommete 8’ Mixtura VI-VIII Krumhorn 8' Trommete 1 6 ' Vox humana 8 ' Dulcian 8 '

Rückpositiv Oberpositiv

Principal 8 ' Viola di Gamba 8' Quintadena 8' Gedact 8' Octava 4' Octava 4 ’ Wald-Flôte 2 ' Rohr-Flôte 4' Sifflet 1 ' Nasat 3' Scharff V-VI-VII Gemshorn 2 ' Sesquialtera Mixtura V-VI Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Baar-Pfeiffe 8 > Krumiiorn 8' Regal 4 ’ Vox humana 8 »

Pedal Rückpositiv

Principal 16 ' Principal 8 « Untersatz, half of wood Quintadena 8 « Untersatz Gedact 8' 2 7 3 Block-Flôte 4' Scharff Octava 4' Trommete l6 ' Sesquialtera II Mixtura Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Gemshorn Scharff IV Spitzfltite 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Bordun l6 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Schallmey 4' Rückpositiv

Pedal Principal 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Principal l6 ' Octava 4' Suh-Bass l6 ' Scharff Octava 8 ' Trichter-Regal 8 ' Quinta 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Nacht-Horn 2 ’ Baar-Pfeiffe 8 ' Mixtura VIII Fltite 4' Posaune 32' Sesquialtera Posaune l6 ' Sifflet 1 1/2 ' Trommete 8 ' Trommete 4' Pedal Cornet 2 ' Principal 1 6 ' Ten bellows; four valves; Octava 8 ' three Tremulants; Coppelung; Octava 4' Trummel; Cimbelglocken Scharff Mixtura Posaune 1 6 ' Specification 4? Trommete 8 ' Cornet 2 ' St. Lamberti, Lüneburg Superoctava 2 ' Untersatz 1 6 ' Oberwerk Four valves; Tremulant; Octava 8 ' Trummel Octava 4' Cimbel Scharff Specification 48 Vox humana 8 ' Hohlfltite 8 ' Mühlhaus en Hohlfltite 4' Nasat Werk Trommete Krumhorn 8 ' Principal 8' Bordun 1 6 ' Werk Octava 4' Super-Octava 2' Principal 1 6 ' Quinta 3' Octava 8 ' Sexta 2' Octava 4' Sifflet 1 1/2' Rausch-Pfeiffe Mixtura VI 2 7 4

Mixtura VII-VIII Mixtura X Spielfltite 8 ' Posaune Salcional 8 ' Posaune li: Waldhorn 2 ' Dulcian l6 ’ Offene Fltite 4> Trommete 8 ’ Sordun 1 6 ' Krumhorn 8 ’ Zincke 8 > Schallmey 4' Cornet 2 ’ Rückpositiv Fourteen bellowsj Paucken; Principal 8 > Cimbelstern Gedact 8 > Quintadena 8 ' Quintadena 4' Specification 49 Hohlfltite 4 ’ Gemshorn 2 ’ Otterndorff Queerfltite 4 ’ Super-Octava 2 ' Werk Sifflet 1 ' Quinta 3' Quintadena 1 6 ' Tertian II Principal 8 ’ Mixtura VI Gedact 8 ’ Dulcian 1 6 ' Mixtura V Krumhorn 8 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe II Octava 4 ’ Oberpositiv Octava 2 ’ Tremulant Principal 4 ’ Cimbelstern Salcional 1 6 ’ Viole di Gamba 8 ' Oberwerk Flute douce 4' Wald-Fltite 2 ’ Gedact 8 ’ Spitzfltite 4 ’ Trommete 8 ’ Quinta 3' Zincke 8 ’ Tertian II Trommete 4 ’ Cimbel IV Nasat-Quinta 3' Hohlfltite 8 ' Gemshorn 2 ’ Harffen-Regal 1 6 ’ Hautbois 8 ' Rückpositiv Trommete 4 ’ Principal 4 ’ Pedal Gedact 8 ' Rohrfltite 4' Principal 1 6 ’ Scharff IV Sub-Bass 32' Quintadena 8 ’ Sub-Bass 1 6 ’ Sesquialtera II Octava 8 ’ Sifflet 1 ’ Quintadena 4 ’ Krumhorn 8 ’ Nachthorn 4 ’ Trichter-Regal 8 ’ Superoctava 2 ’ Schallmey 4 ’ S. Superoctava 1 ’ 275

Pedal Brust

Posaune 1 6 ' Gedact 8' Dulcian 1 6 ' Gedact ■ 4' Untersatz 1 6 ' Octava 2' Trommete 8 « Quinta rep. 1 1/2' Octava 8 ' Sedecima 1' Trommete 4' Cimbel-Scharff III Cornet 2 ' Quintadena IV Regal 1 6 ' OW-HW coupler. Jungfern-Regal 8 ' Rückpositiv Specification 50 Principal 1 2 ' St. DominicO; Braga Principal 8 ' Octava - • 4' Werk Superoctava 2 ' Sifflet 1 ' Principal 1 6 ' Quinta 3 ’ Octava 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Octava 4' Mixtura V Superoctava 2 > Salcional 1 6 ' Quinta 3 ’ Quintadena 8 ' Kiitzialf lôte 1 ' Rohrflôte 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Blockflôte 4' Quinta 1/2 ' Querflôte 4' Mixtura X Gemshorn 2 ' Cimtel IV Waldflôte 2 ' Gross Gedact 1 6 ! Dulcian^ wood 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Offene Plôte 4' Cornet 4' Spitzflôte 2 ' Pedal Oberpositiv Principal 32' Principal 8 ' Principal 1 6 » Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 1 6 ' Gemshorn 8 ' Octava 8 ' Hohlflôte 8 ' Salcional 1 6 ' Octava 4' Superoctava 4' Superoctava 2 ' rQuinta 3' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Coppel jSuperoctava 2 ' Coppel 1/2 -1 ' (-Tertia 2 ' Mixtura VI Bauerflôte 1 ' Nachthorn 4' Spitzflôte 2 ' Surdun 1 6 ' Nachthorn 4' Krumhorn 8 ' Mixtura VIII Grosse Quinta 6 ' Posaune 32' Posaune 1 6 ' 276

Trommete 8 ' Cimbel II Schallmey 4' Superoctava 1 ' Cornet 2 ' Vox humana. Dulcian l6 ' Twelve bellows; couplers to Pedal all four manuals Principal l6 ' Sub-Bass l6 ' Specification 51 Octava 8 ' Octava 4* St. Nicolai, Rostock Quinta 3' Flôte 2 » Oberwerk Posaune 1 6 ’ Trommete 8 ' Principal 1 6 ' Schallmey 4 ’ Octava 8 ' Cornet 2 ' Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Octava 4 ’ Specification 52 Octava 2 ' Quinta 3 ’ Rudelstadt Ditonus 1 3/5' Mixtura III Werk Fagotto 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Principal 8 ' Rohrflote l6 ’ Hinterwerk Octava 4' Superoctava 2 ’ Quintadena l6 ' Quinta 3' Viola di Gamba 8 ' Tertian II Gemshorn 8 ' Mixtura V Octava 4' Hohlfltite 8 ' Quinta 3' Offene Fltite 4' Octava 2 ’ Krumhorn 8 ' Ditonus 3/5' Mixtura III Riickpositiv Trommete 8 ' Trommete from c ' to c' ' Principal 4' Glockenspiel, 48 notes Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 8' Brust Gemshorn 8 ' Quinta 3' Principal 4' Mixtura III Gedact 8 ' Blockfltite 4' Quintadena 8 ' Trommete 8 ' Flute douce 4' Quinta 3' Pedal Octava 2 ' Waldflôte 2 ' Untersatz l6' Ditonus 3 / 5 ' Octava 8 ' 277 Octava 4' Superoctava 2’ Bauerfltite 1 ' (Régula Disdiapason) Quintadena 4' Quinta 3 ’ Posaune l6 ' (Nete) Krumhorn 8 > Terz 2 ’ Cornet 2 ' (Sesqui. Octava) Queer-Fltite 4 ’ Six bellows (Tibia transversa) Gedact 4 ’ (Pileata) Specification 53 Kleine Fltite 2 ’ (Flauto piccolo) Sendomir Mixtura IV (Régula mixta) Werk Dulcian l6 ’ (Dolzlana) Principal 8 > Dulcian 8 ’ (Prlmar.) (Dolzlana) Gedact l6 ' (Pressior.) Brustpositiv Octava 4' (Régula Diapason) Principal 4 ’ Superoctava 2 ' (Fourniture) (Disdiapason) Gedact 8 ’ S. Superoctava 1 ' (Pileata) (Disdisdiapason) Quinta 3 ’ Superoctava 1 ’ (Régula Diapente) (Régula Disdiapason) Quinta 1 1/2 ’ S. Superoctava 1’ (Disdiapente) (Disdisdiapason) Terz 2 ' Quinta 3' (Ditonus) (Régula diapente) Spitzfltite 8 ' Quinta 11/2' (Flauta cuspida) (Disdiapente) Blockfltite 4' Spitz-Fltite 4' (Tibia) (Flauta cuspida) Trommete l6 ' Offene-Fltite 3' (Tuba) (Aperta) Krumhorn 8 ’ Terz 2' (Phocinx) (Ditonus) Mixtura VI Mixtura III (Régula mixta) (Régula mixta) Cornet 8 ' Rückpositiv (Litlce) Krumhorn 4' Principal 4 ’ (Lituus) (Primaria) Octava 8 ’ Pedal (Régula Diapason) Gedact 8 ’ Principal l6 ' (Obtusior) (Primaria) 278

Gedact 1 6 ’ Queer-Flôte 4> (Pressior) Block-Flüte 4 ’ Octava 2 ' Octava 2 ’ (Diapason) Nasat 1/2 ' Gedact 8 ’ Sedecima 1 ' (Pileata) Tertian II Superoctava 4 ’ Scharff III (Disdiapason) Krumhorn 8 ' Nachthorn 4 ’ Schallmey 4' (Pastorita) S. Superoctava 2 ’ Rückpositiv (Disdisdiapason) Quinta 3 ’“1 1/2 ' Principal 8 ' (Diapente) Quintadena 8 ' Mixtura VI Rohr-Fltite 8 ' (Régula mixta) Octava 4' Posaune l6 ’ Wald-Flôte 2 ' (Buccina) Sifflet 1/2 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Sesquialtera II (Dolziana) Scharff V Trommete 8 ' Dulcian l6 ' (Tuba) Trichter-Regal 8 ' Trommete 4' (Tuba) Pedal Trommete 2 ’ (Tuba) Principal l6 > Sub-Bas s l6 ' Octava 8 ' Spécification $4 Nachthorn 1 ' Octava 4' St. Cosmi, Stade Mixtura VI Dulcian l6 ' Werk Posaune 1 6 ' Trommete 8 ' Principal l6 ’ Cornet 2 ' Quintadena 1 6 ’ Octava 8 ' Eight bellowsj Tremulant; Gedact 8 ' Cimbelstern Octava 4' Rohr-Flttte 4 ’ Nasat 3' Specification 65 Superoctava 2 ’ Mixtura IX Stockholm Cimbel III Trommete 1 6 ’ Werk Trommete 8 ' Block-Fltite 4' Principal l6 ' Quintadena l6 ' Brust Octava 8 ' Rohrflôte 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Quinta 6 ' 2 7 9 Octava 4' Ten bellows; HW-RP coupler Quinta 3' Super-Octava 2 > Built by Jürgen Winsig Mixtura V Cimbel II Frantztisische Posaune 1 6 ' Specification 56 Trommete 8 ' Pfarrkirche, Stolpe Oberwerk Werk Viola di Gamba 8 ' Quintadena 8 > Principal 8 ' Octava 4' Bordun 1 6 ’ Spitz-Quinte 3' Octava 4' Rohrflôte 4 ’ Superoctava 2 ' Superoctava 2 ' Quinta 3 ’ Sifflet 1 ' Sexta 2 ' Cimbeln II Cimbel II Harffen-Regal 8 ' Mixtura IV Spitzflôte 8' Riickpositiv Hohlflôte 4' Quintadena 4' Principal 8' Krumhorn 8' Quintadena l6 ' Salcional 8' Rückpositiv Rohrflôte 8 > Octava 4 ’ Principal 4' Gedact 4 ’ Quintadena 8' Superoctava 2 ' Gedact 8' Quinta 3 ’ Octava 2 ' Mixtura IV Quinta 1 1/2 ' Sesquialtera II Mixtura III Dulcian I6 ' Trommete 8 ' Hautbois 8' Pedal Pedal Principal 8' Principal 1 6 ' Bordun 1 6 ' Sub-Bass 32' Hohlflôte 8' Octava 8' Octava 4' Octava 4' Schwiegel 1 ' Decima 3/5' Posaune I6' Rausch-Quint ■ II Trommete 8 ' Sesquialtera II Bauerflôte 1 ' Six bellows Posaune 32' Trommete l6' Trommete 8' Cornet 2 '

Split chromatics: a^-g^;et'-cÿ 280 Specification 57 Cimbel II Posaune 1 6 ' St. Nicolai, Stralsund Trommete 8 ' Schallmey 4> Werk Cornet 2 ’ Fagotto, wood 1 6 ’ Gross-Principal 1 6 ’ Klein-Principal 8 ' Six bellows; four valves; Octava 4' Vogelgesang; Tremulant; Superoctava 2 ' three Cimbelstern; manual Mixtura V couplers Sesquialtera II Piute douce 4' Spielfltite or Gemshorn 8 ' Specification 58 Quintadena 1 6 ' Trommete 1 6 ’ St. Johannes Cloister Stralsund Brust Werk Principal 4 ’ Superoctava 2 ' Principal 8 ' Gross-Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' Quinta 3' Super-Octava 2 ' Tertia 3/5' Mixtura IV-VI Cimbel I Nasat 3' Quintadena 8 ' Gedact Klein-Gedact 4' Dulcian ii: Vox humana, c ' to c ' ' ' Trommete 8 > Trommete, C to I I I Rückpositiv Rtickpositiv Principal 4' Principal 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Gedact 4' Quintadena 8 ' Sifflet 1 ' Octava 4 ’ Sesquialtera II Nasat 3' Mixtura V Super-Octava 2 ' Schallmey 4' Feld-Pfeiffe 4' Geigen-Jungfer-Regal 4' Sifflet 1 ' Mixtura V Pedal Sesquialtera II Trommete 8 ’ Gedact 8 ' Schallmey 4 ’ Dulcian 1 6 ' Trommete 4' Pedal Cornet 2 '

Principal 8 ' Three bellows ; Tremulant; Sub-Bass 1 6 ' Cimbelstern Gedact 8 ' Octava 4' 281

Specification 59 Specification 60

Marienkirche, Thoren Neustadt, Thoren

Werk Werk

Principal 8 ' Principal 8 ' Bordun l6 ' Bordun, half wood, half Quintadena S' metal 6 ' Octava 4' Spielfltite 8 ’ Superoctava 2 ' Salcional 8 ' Queer-Pfeiffe Octava 4' Quinta Quinta 3' Mixtura Superoctava 2 ' Cimbel Sedecima 1 ' Trommete 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Krum-Horn 8 ' Mixtura VI Riickpositiv Riickpositiv

Principal 8 ' Principal 4' Octava 4> Fltite 8 ' Fltite 8 ' Octava 2 ' Blockfltite •Quinta 3' Superoctava 2 ' Salcional 8 ' Gemshorn 2 ' Mixtura III Salcional 8 » Trommete 8 ' Waldfltite 4» Sifflet 2 ' Pedal Mixtura Cimbel Sub-Bass, wood 1 6 ' Quinta Octava, wood 8 ' Trommete I: Superoctava 4' Mixtura VI Pedal Posaune l6 ' Cornet 2 ' Gedact 8 ' Untersatz 1 6 ' Quintadena 4' Specification 6l Waldfltite 4' Feld-Pfeiffe Tilse Cimbel Posaune 1 6 ' Oberwerk Dulcian 8 ‘ Cornet 2 ' Principal 8 ' Bordun l6 ' Tremulant; Paucken; Spielfltite 8 ' OW-P, RP-P couplers Gedact 8 ' Octava 4» Blockfltite 4 ’ Gedact 4' 282

Superoctava 2 ' Rohrfltite 4' Quinta 3' Salcional 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Quinta 6 ’ Mixtura Nasat 3' Trommete 8 ' Mixtura VI Scharf III Rückpositiv Trommete 1 6 » Trommete 8 » Principal 8 ' Gedact 8 ' Rückpositiv Quintadena 8 > Spielflüte 4' Principal 8 » Kleinefltite 4' Quintadena 1 6 » Octava 2 ' Quintadena 8 » Raus ch-Quinta 3' Spitzfltite 8 ' Sexta 2 ' Octava 4» Mixtura Quinta 3' Queer-Pfeiffe 4' Octava 2 ' Dulcian l6 ' Decima 4» Regai 8 ' Mixtura IV Cimbel II Pedal Trommete 8 »

Untersatz 1 6 ' Brust Octava 8 ’ Quintadena 8 ’ Gedact 8 » Octava 4' Octava 4» Superoctava 2 ' Gedact 4» Bauer-Pfeiffe 1 ' Octava 2 » Mixtura Gemshorn 2 » Posaune l6 ' Wald-Fltite 1 » Trommete 8 ' Sesquialtera II Regai 4' Scharff III Cornet 2 ' Dulcian 8 » Schallmey 4' Eight bellows; Tremulant; Cimbel; Paucken Pedal

Principal Specification 62 Principal Octava 8 » Cathedral, Upsala Octava 4' Octava 2 » Werk Untersatz 1 6 » Quinta 6 » Principal l6 ' Rauschpfeiffe II Bordun 1 6 ’ Mixtura IV Octava 8 ' Gedact 8 » Octava 4' Posaune 32’ Gedact 8 ' Posaune 1 6 » Superoctava 1 ' Trommete 8 » 2 8 3 Schallmey 4' Pedal Cornet 2 ' Principal 1 6 ' Twelve bellows Octava 8 ' Wald-Fl5te 8 ' Nachthorn 4' Specification 63 Mixtura VI Posaune 1 6 ' Stiftskirchej Wiirtzen Trommete 8 ' Schallmey 4' Oberwerk Six bellows Principal 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ’ Octava 4' Spitzfl8te 2 ' Rausch-Pfeiffe III Mixtura VI Gemshorn 8 ' Hohlflüte 8 ' Krurahorn 2 ' Rilckpositiv

Principal 8 ' Octava 4' Super-Octava 2 ' Quinta 1/2 ' Tertian II Mixtura IV Gedact 8 ' Blockflfite . 4' Waldfltite 2 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Brust

Principal 1 6 ' Gedact 8 ' Quintadena 4' Cimbel III Jungfern-Regal 8 ' APPENDIX III

ORGAN SPECIFICATIONS PROM BIERMANN’S ORGANOGRAPHIA HILDESIENSIS SPECIALIS

Specification 1 Quinta 3 ’ Octava 2 ' The Cathedral Church, Tertian Hildesheim Nachthorn 2 ' Scharff III Manual Cymhel II Mixtur IV Praestant 8 ' Hautboe 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ’ Fagotto 1 6 ' Plockfltit . 8 ' Gemshorn 8 ' Pedal Viola dl Gamba 8 ’ Octava 4' Praestant 1 6 ' Waldflttt 4 ’ Perduna 1 6 ' Quinta 6 ' Octava 8 ' Flachfltit 2 ’ Quinta 6 ' Sesquialtera II Octava 4' Mixtur VI Neue Posaune 1 6 ’ Trompet 1 6 ' Trompet 8 : Trompet 8 > Cornet Vox humana 8 ’ Eight bellows3 Tremulant3 Brustwerk double Cymbelstern3 spring chests, except Brustwerk Gedacht 8 ' Gedacht, Cammerton 8 ' Fltite 4' Specification 2 Octava 2 ' Sesquialtera II St. Godehard Mixtur IV Liehlich Regal 8 > Manual and Pedal Coupler Principal, doubled 1 6 ’ Riickpositiv Octava 8 ' Octava 4' Praestant 4> Quinta, doubled 3' Quintadena 8 > Mixtur VI'-XII Spitzflôt 4' Perduna 1 6 *

284 2 8 5

Hollflôt 8 ' Quinta 1 1/2 ' Coppelfltit 4' Mixtur IV Gemshorn 2 ' Krumhorn 8 ’ Fagotto l6 ' Schalmey 8 ’ Trompet 8 ’ Pedal Rückposltiv Praestant 8 ’ Principalj doubled 8 ' Perduna 1 6 ' Hollflôt 8 » Nachthorn 1 ’ Quintadena 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Querfltit 4' Trompet 8 ’ Oetav 2' Nasat 1 1/2’ Four bellows ; spring chests Cymbel II Krumhorn 8 ’ Built in 1662; Praetorian Cornet 4 ’ temperament

Five bellows Specification 4 Built in 1612 by Hermann Danhausen St. Andreas

Manual Specification 3 Praestant 1 6 ’ Collegiate Church of Quintadena 1 6 ' the Holy Cross Octava 8 ’ Hollfloit 8 ’ Manual Quinta 6 ' Octava 4 ’ Praestant 8 ’ Dulcefltit 4> Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 2 ' Hollfltit 8 ’ Gemshorn 2 ’ Viola di Gamba 8 ’ Sesquialtera Octava 4 ’ Cymbel III Gemshorn 2 ' Mixtur VI Cymbel III Starcker Dulcian 1 6 ' Sesquialtera Neue Vox humana 8 ’ Mixtur VI Trompet 8 ’ Oberposltiv Vox humana 8 ’ Praestant 8 ' RÜckpositiv Viola di Gamba 8 ’ Echo 4 ’ Praestant 4 ’ Tertian, doubled Quintadena 8 ’ Superoctava 2 ’ Gedacht 4 ’ Cymbel Octava 2 ’ Trompet 8 ’ Waldfltit 2 ’ Gemshorn 2 ’ 286

Pedal Fagotto 1 6 ' Trompet 8 > Principal 1 6 ' Perduna 1 6 ’ Oberpositiv Octava 8 ’ Quinta 6 ’ Principal 4' Bauerfltit 1 ' Rhorflôt 8 ' Mixtur VI Quintadena 8 ’ Posaune 1 6 ' Dulceflôt 4' Trompet 8 ' Quinta 3' Cornet 4' Waldflôt 2 ' Cornet 2 ' Octava 2 ' Tertian II Ruckpositiv Quinta 1/2 ' Mixtur VI Principal 8 ' Hautboe 8 ' Gedacht 8 ' Vox humana 8 ' Quintadena 8 ' Octava 4' Brustwerk Plockfltit 4' Spitzfltit 4> Principal 4' Quinta 3 ’ Gedacht 8 ' Superoctava 2 ' Flôte 4' Cymhel Gemshorn 2 ' Sesquialtera Octava 2 ' Mixtur Sesquialtera II Schalmey 8 ' Quinta 1/2 ' Scharff III Four bellows; spring chests; Trechtregal 8 ' two Tremulants; three Cymbelstern; manual coupler Pedal

Principal 1 6 ' Specification 5 Offener Subbass 1 6 ' Octava 8 ' St. Lamberti Quinta 6 ' Rhorflôt 8 ' Manual Octava 4' Nachthorn 2 ' Principal 8 > Mixtur V Quintadena 1 6 ’ Posaune 1 6 ' Violadigamba 8 ' Dulcian 1 6 ' Spitzflôt 8 ' Trompet 8 ' Quinta 6 ' Trompet 4' Octava 4' Nachthorn 4' Six bellows; couplers to Flachflôt 2 ' B¥ and M; three Cymbelstern Octava 2 ' Sesquialtera II Built in 1715 by Herr Mixtur VI Bronckhorst Cymbel III 2 8 7

Specification 6 Starcke Posaune l6 Trompet 8 St. Maria Magdalene Cloister Cornet 2

Principal 8 ' Four bellows; Tremulant; Gedacht 8 ' Cymbelstern; slider chests; Querflôt 4' Vogel-Geschrey Octava 4' Gemshorn 2 ' ZifflÔt 1 1/2 ' Specification 8 Sesquialtera, halved III Mixtur IV Cloister, Ringelheim Trompeta, halved 8 ' Manual

Specification 7 Principal 8 ' Quintadena 1 6 ' Collegiate Church Viola di Gamba 8 ' St. Mauritii Rohrfl5t 8 ' Octava 4' Manual Flôte douce 4' Quinta 3 ’ Principal 8 > Octava 2 ' Quintadena l6 * Mixtur VI Gemshorn 8 ' Trompet 8 ' Viola di Gamba 8 ’ Vox humana 8 ' Octava 4' Quinta 3' Riickpositiv Octava 2 ' Ziffltit 1 ' Principal 4' Mixtur IV Gedacht 8 ' Trompet 8 ' Spitzflôt 4' Quinta 3' Riickpositiv Octava 2 ' Quinta 1/2 ' Principal 4' Sesquialtera II Starck Gedacht 8 ' Mixtur V Quinta 3' Liebliche Hautboe 8 ' Octava 2 ' Coppel Quinta 1 1/2 ' Sesquialtera III Pedal Cymbel II Krumhorn 8 ' Subbass l6 ' Coppel Octava 8 - Octava 4' Pedal Nachthorn 2 ' Mixtur VI Principal 8 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Starcker Subbass l6 ' Trompet 8 ' Octava 4' Cornet 2 ' 'Nachthorn 1 ' 288

Four ‘bellows; Tremulant; Nasatfloit 2 » Cymbelstern Nachthorn 1 » Mixtur V Posaune 1 6 » Specification 9 Trompet 8 » Cornet 2 » Stiftskirche, Lambspring Subbass 1 6 » Fagotto 1 6 » Oberwerk Rhorfloit 8 » Flachfloit 4» Praestant 8 ' Perduna 1 6 » Six bellows; spring chests; Viola di Gamba 8 » Cymbelstern; Pauck; Gedacht 8 » Tremulant Quinta 6 » Octava 4» Built in 1696 by Querfloit 4» Andreas Schweim Rohrfloit 4» Superoctava 2 » Tertian I Specification 10 Sesquialtera III Mixtur VII Stiftskirche B. M. Virg., Zinck 8 » Riechenberg Trompet 8 » Oberwerk Brustwerk Principal 1 6 » Praestant 4» Octava 8 » Waldflôt 4» Viola di Gamba 8 » Praestant Choral, through Quintadena 8 » half the keyboard, Spitzfloit 8 » doubled 8 » Quinta 6 » Quintadena 8 » Octava 4» Gedacht 8 » Superoctava 2 » FIeute douce 4» Rauschpfeiff III Quinta 3' Mixtur VI Spitzflôt 2 » Trompet 1 6 » Octava 2 » Vox humana 8 » Tertian 1 1/4» Quintflôt 1 3/4» Brustwerk Mixtur V Krumhorn 8 » Principal 8 » Hautbois 8 » Gedacht 8 » Coppel Waldflôt 4» Octava 4» Pedal Fleute douce 4» Quinta 3' Principal 1 6 » Octava 2 » Gross Perduna 32» Quinta 1 1/2 » Octava 8 » Tertian Octava 4» Mixtur V 289

Fagotto 16 • Rohrflttt 8' Hautbois 8 > Octava 4> Coppel Fleute douce5 wood 4' Quinta 3' Pedal Octava 2 » Tertian II Principal 16 Zyfflët 1 ’ Rhorflot 12 Nachthorn 2 ' Octava 8 Mixtur VI Octava 4 Klingende Cymbel III Nachthorn 2 Hautboe 8 ' Grobe Mixtur VI Vox humana 8' Posaune starck 16 Coppel Trompet 8 Trompet 4 Riickpositiv Cornet 2 Subbass 16 Principal 8 ' Rhorflët 8 Gedacht 8 ' Gemshorn 4 Quintadena 8 « Fagotto Octava 4' Fagotto 16 Spitzflôt 4' Octava 2 ' Spring chests Waldflôt 2 ' Quinta 1 1/2 ' Sesquialtera II Specification 11 Mixtur VI Fagotto 1 6 ' Zellerfeld Trechterregal 8 '

Manual Pedal

Principal 1 6 ' Principal 1 6 ' Perduna 1 6 ’ Offener Subbass 1 6 ’ Octava 8 ' Octava 8 ’ Spitzflôt 8 ' Rohrflôt 8 ' Quinta 6 ' Quinta 6 ' Nachthorn 4' Octava 4' Octava 4' Nachthorn 2 ’ Nasat -- 3' Rauschpfeiffe III Octava 2 ' Mixtur VI Flachflôt 2 ' Posaune 1 6 ' Mixtur VI Fagotto 1 6 ' Scharff III Trompet 8 ' Trompet 8 ' Trompet 4' Trompet 4' Cornet 2 '

Hinter-Manual Nine bellows

Quintadena 1 6 ' Octava 8> Viola di Gamba 8' 290

Specification 12 Violoncello 8 ’ Octava 4' Hauptkirche, Goszlar Waldfltit 2 ' Bauerfitit 1 ' Haupt-Manual Posaune l6 ' Scharff IV Principal 8 ' Basson i6 ’ Quintadena l6 ' Trompet 8 ' Gemshorn 8' Schalmey 4' Violadigamba 8 ' Cornet a Bouquin 2 ' Quinta 6 ' Octava 4' Vogelgesang; Cymbelstern; Superoctava 2 ' Tremulant; Manual Coppel Repet-Ditonus 3 ’ Peldfltite 1 ' Scharff V Specification 13 Fagotto 1 6 ' Trompet 8 ' St. Jacobi, Goszlar

Ober-Manual Principal 8' Quintadena l6 ' Principal 8 ' Gedacht 8 ' Bordun l6 ' Octava 4' Traversiere 4' Gedacht 4' Octava 4' Quinta 3 ’ Quinta 3' Plockfltit 3' Superoctava 2 ' Superoctava 2 ' Waldfltit 2 ' Tertian II Ditonus 1 ' Mixtur VI Scharff IV Cymbel II Cornette di Gaccia 8 ' Hautboe 8' Riickpositiv Riickpositiv Principal 4> Quintadena 8 ' Principal 4' Spitzfltit 4' Gedacht 8 > Octava 2 ' Quintadena 8' Sesquialtera II Flaute douce 4' Mixtur IV Hassat 3 ’ Krumhorn 8' Quinta 3 ’ Superoctav 2 ’ Pedal Ditonus 3 ’ Scharff III Subbass l6 ' Vox humana 8' Octava 8 ’ Bauerfltit 1 ' Pedal Mixtur VI Posaune l6' Principal 1 6 ’ Trompet 8 ' Subbass l6 > Cornet 2 ' Quinta 1 2 ' Tremulant; four bellows 291 Specification l4 Specification l6

Novi Operis Cloister^ St. Georgii Mart., Goszlar Grauhoff

Principal 4' Hauptwerk Gedacht 8> Rhorfl5t 4 ’ Principal 1 6 ' Quinta 3' Viola di Gamba 1 6 ' Octava 2 ' Viola di Gamba 8' Quinta 1 1/2 ' Lieblich Principal 8' Sesquialtera II Spitzflôt 8 ' Mixtur III Quinta 6 ' Krumhornj halved 8' Octava 4' Nasat 3' Pedal Rauschpfeiffe III Mixtur VI Principal 8 ' Trompet l6' Sujbass l6 ' Trompet 8' Octava 4' Floit Bass 1' Oberwerk Trompet 8 ' Principal 8' Three bellows; Tremulant Rhorflot 8' Spitzflôt 4' Octava 4' Specification 15 Quinta 3' Superoctava 2 ' St. Stephanie Goszlar Sesquialtera II Mixtur V Riickpositiv Fagotto i6 ' Vox humana 8 ' Principal 4' Gedacht 8 ' Hinterwerk Floit 4' Quinta 3' Principal 4' Octava 2 ' Gedacht 8 ' Sesquialtera II Quintadena 8' Fltite 2 ' Traversiere 4' Quinta 1/2' Waldflôt 2 ' Mixtur IV Octava 2 ' Liebliche Hautboe 8' Quinta ■ 1/2 ' Scharff III Hautbois 8'

Pedal

Principal 1 6 ' Subbass l6 ' Rhorflôt 12 ' Octava 8 ' 292

Flachfltit 8 > Viola di Gamba 8' Octava 4' Querfloit 8 > Mixtur IV Quintadena 8’ Gross Posaunen Bass 32' Octava 4' Posaune l6 ' Quinta• 3' Trompet 8 ' Octava 2 ' Schalmey 4' Sesquialtera III Mixtur VI Six bellows; Glockenspiel; Trompet 8' three valves; Tremulant; Zinck, through half Cymbelstern; manual couplers the keyboard 8'

Built in 1737 by Brustwerk N. Treutmann Principal 4' Principal 8 ' Specification 17 Gedacht 8' Waldfloit 4' Stiftskirche and Cloister, Dulcefloit 4' Woltingenrova Quinta 3' Octava 2 ' Principal 8 ' Tertian Perduna l6 ' Mixtur V Gedacht 8 ' Dulcian 8' Viola di Gamba 8 > Quintadena 8' Pedal Dulcefloit 4 ’ Octava 4' Principal 8 ' Quinta 3' Untersatz l6 ' Superoctava 2 ' Octava 4' Plasnet 2 ' Waldfloit 2 ' Sesquialtera III Mixtur V Mixtur VI Posaune l6 ' Trompet Discant 4' Trompet 8' Trompet Bass 8 ' Schalmey 4'

Three Bellows; Tremulant Four bellows; Tremulant; Cymbelstern; spring chests Cymbelstern; Coppel; spring chests; Praetorian Built by Andreas Schweim temperament Built by Andreas Schweim Specification l8

Stiftskirche and Cloister, Heiningen

Oberwerk

Principal 8' Perduna 16‘ 2 9 3 Specification 19 Four bellows; Cymbelstern; Tremulant; Coppel to RP Stiftskirche and Cloister^ and OW Dorstadt

Oherwerk Specification 20

Principal 8 * Stiftskirche and Quintadena 1 6 » Cloister; Escherde Viola di Gamba 8 » Octava 4» Principal 8 » Plockflttt 4» Quintadena 1 6 » Quinta 3 ’ Gedacht 8 » Octava 2 » Octava 4» Tertian Spitzfltit 4» Mixtur V Quinta 3' Trompet 8 » Waldfltit 2 » Octava 2 » Brustwerk Sesquialtera II Mixtur III Principal 4» Trompet; halved 8 » Sanfft Gedacht 8 » Vox humana; halved 8 » Hollflôt 4» Nasat 3 ’ Slider chests Waldfltit. 2 » Pedal

Principal; broad scale 8 »

UntersatZ; wood 1 6 » Octava 4» Gedachtfltit 4»

Waldfltit 1 » Mixtur V Posaune; wood 1 6 » Trompet 8» Schalmey 4» Cornet 2 » Rückpositiv

Principal 4» Grob Gedacht 8 »

Quintadena 8 » Flaute douce 4»

Octava 2 » Spitzfltit 2 » Sesquialtera II Mixtur IV

Hautbois 8» BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Adlung, Jacob. Anleitung zu der Musikallschen Gelahrthelt. Erfurt: J. D. Jungnicol^ 175^1 facsimile, Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1953. ______. Musica Mechanica Organoedi. Berlin: Birnstiel, I76Ü] facsimile, Kassel: B&renreiter, 1961.

Barbour, J. Murray. Tuning and Temperament, a Historical Survey. East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1 9 5 1 . Bendeler, Johann Philipp. Organopoeia. Frankfurt and Leipzig: Calvisii, [1590].

Biermann, Johann Hermann. Organographia Hildesieiisis special-is. Hildesheim: _ Wilhelm Schlegel, 1738; new edition by Ernest Palandt, Kassel: Baren- reiter, 1 9 3 0 .

Boxberg, Christian Ludwig. Ausführliche Beschreibung der Orgel zu St. Petri und Paul zu Gtirlitz. GÜrlitz: Johann Gottlob Laurentio, 1704.

Bukofzer, Manfred F. Music in the Baroque Era. New York: ¥. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1947.

Dâhnert, Ulrich. Die Orgeln Gottfried Silbermann. Leipzig: Koehler and Amelung, 1953.

David, Hans T., and Mendel, Arthur. The Bach Reader. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1945. de Dulicz, Michaelis Buliowski. Brevis de Emandatione Organi Musici Tractatio--Kurze Vorstellung von Verbesserung des Orgelwerkes. Argentorati: Johann Ë1 Zetzner, 1 6 8 0 .

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294 2 9 5 Fabricius, Werner. Unterrlcht wle man ein neu Orgelwerk obs gut und best&ndlg sel^ nach alien Stiicken^ In-und auswendlng examlnleren und so vlel iE5gllch probieren solI~i Frankfurt and Leipzig: 175^».

Frotscher, Gotthold. Geschlchte des Orgelsplels und der Orgelkomposition. Berlin: Verlag Merseburger, 1 9 5 9 . KlotZj Hans. Über die Orgelkunstj der GotIkj der Renaissance und des Barok. Kassel: Bârenreiter, Ï9W. Ludwig5 Johann Adam Jakob. Gedanken über die grosser Orgeln die aber deswegen keine Wunderwerke sind. Le ip zig: Breitkopf, 17^2.

______. Den Unverschâmten Entehren der Orgeln. Erlangen: Wolfgang Walther, 17^4.

______. Versuch von den Eigenschaften eines recht- schaffenen Orgelbauers. Hof: Johann Andreas Hetschelj 1759. LuneH i a Renato. Der Orgelbau in Italien in seinen Meisterwerken vom l4. Jahrhundert bis zur Gegenwart. Mainz: Rheingold Verlag, 1956.

Mattheson, Johann. Grundlage einer Ehrenpforte. Hamburg, 1740.

______. Der vollkommene Capellmeister. Hamburg: Christian Herold, 1739; facsimile, Kassel: Bâren- reiter, 1954.

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Moser, Hans Joachim. Die Evangelische Kirchenmusik in Deutschland. Berlin: Carl Merseburger, 1953. Müller, Gottfried Ephraim. Historische-Philosophisches Sendschreiben an einën hohe'n G'ttnner von Orgeln ihrem Ursprunge und Gebrauche in der alten und neuen Kirche Gottes. Dresden : George Conrad Waither, 1743. 296 Niedtj Friedrich Erhardt. Musikalischer Handleitungj Drltter Thell. Hamburg: Benjamin Schiller, 1717.

Praetorius, Michael. De Organographia, volume II of Syntagma Muslcum. Wolfenbuttel: Ellas Holweln, 1 6 1 9 j f'ac's'l'mlle, Kassel: Bârenrelter, 1958.

Preuss, Georg. Grundregeln von der Structur und den Requlsltls elner untadelhaften Orgel, vorlnnen hauptsâchllc'h gezelget wlrd was bel Erbauung einer neuen und renovlerung elner alten Orgel zu beobachten sel, auch wle eine Orgel-bel der Überlleferung müsse problert und examlnlert werden. In elnem Gesprâch entworffênl Hamburg: Christian Wilhelm Brandt, I7 2 9 . Relnholdt, Theodore Chrlstlleb. Elnlge zur Music gehttrlge Poetlsche Gedanken bel Gelegenhel't der schonen neuen In der Frauenklrche In Dresden verfertlgten Orgel. Dresden: Gottlob "Christian Hll'schern, 1736.

Schneider, Thekla. Die Namen der Orgelreglster. Kassel: Barenrelter 1 9 5 8 .

Sumner, William Leslie. The Organ, Its Evolution, Prlncl- ples of Construction and Use. London: Macdonald, T 95?: Trost, Johann Caspar. Ausführliche Beschreibung des neuen Orgelwerks auf der Augustus-Burg zu Welsenfels, worlnnen zuglelch enthalten was zu der Orgelmacher- kunst gehrire, wle nach alien Stücken elne Orgel dlsponlrt, vermlttelst des' Mio'n'ochordl gestlmmt und temperlrt, die Stlmmen auf allerhand Arten ver- wechselt und eln neu Orgelwerk probIrt werden solle. Nürnberg : Wolf gang Moritz E'ndter, 1 6 7 7 .

Werckmelster, Andreas. Erwelterte und verbesserte Orgel- Probe. Quedllnburgï Calvisii, lb9W; facsimile, Kassel: BÜrenrelter, I9 2 7 .

Wunderlich, Heinz. Die Arp Schnltger Orgel der Hauptklrche St. Jacobi Hamburg, Fesischrlft. Hamburg : Klrchen- vorstand St. Jacobi, I9 6 1 . 2 9 7 Articles

Blunij Friedrich. "Michael Praetorius und Esaias Compenius Orgeln Verdingnis," Kieler Beitrâge zur Muslh- wissenschaft. Heft 4 (193^)j pp. 1-21.

Flentrop, D. A. "The Schnjtger Organ in the Grote Kerk at ZwolleOrgan Institute Quarterly, VII, No. 2 (Summer, 1957), pp. 25-42". Heitmann, Fritz. "Erfahrungen an der Schnitger-Orgel der Charlottenburger Schlosskapelle und an anderen Orgeln," Musik und Kirche, IX (1937)j PP. 32-35. Klotz, Hans. "Zur Orgelreform von den Klassischen PrinzipalchKren," Musik und Kirche, VII (1935)j pp. 250-2 6 0 .

Mahrenholz, Christhard. "Die Wiederherstellung der Schnitger-Orgel in Norden," Musik und Kirche, II (1930), pp. 166-169. ______. "Johann Philipp Bendeler," M.G.G., Vol I. Kassel: Bârenreiter, 1949-1951. Matthei, Karl. "Johann Sebastian Bach's Orgeln," Bach- Gedenkschrift 1950, Zurich: Atlantis Verlag (195 0 ), pp. lld-1 5 0 . Schneider, Thekla. "Die Orgelbauerfamilie Compenius," Archiv ftir Musikforschung, II (1937); pp. 8 -7 6 .

Sumner, William Leslie. "Andreas Werckmeister's 'Orgel- Probe'," Organ Institute Quarterly, VI, (195 6 ), No. 3, pp. 25-30; No. 4, pp. 25-39.

Unpublished Material

Bunjes, Paul G. "The Praetorius Organ." Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Eastman School of Music, I9 6 6 ,