Universal Dependencies

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Corpus Linguistics The a database is, the Treebanks & Dependencies it becomes The the clay content, the more the Nathan Schneider soil The the [email protected] soot, the it needed Amir Zeldes the the number, the [email protected] the protection

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1 Taking Stock

Thus far in this course:

• Why Corpora?

‣ Issues in assembling corpora

• Markup, tokenization, metadata

• Searching, frequency, collocations

• Annotation: POS

2 Coming Attractions

• Syntactic Treebanks

‣ Annotation: Universal Dependencies

• Computational Lexical Semantics

‣ Annotation: Entity Types

‣ WordNet, Frame Semantics, Distributional Vectors

3 POS Tags Aren’t Everything

• A POS tag helps narrow down what grammatical constructions a word may participate in.

‣ The main challenge in: “Will Trey Gowdy Benghazi Trump with inquiries?”

‣ But tag doesn’t exactly specify how the token relates to other tokens in the sentence.

• We want to be able to search corpora for words in certain syntactic contexts. Helps us answer questions like:

‣ When does adverbial home tend to precede vs. follow the object? (Fillmore 1992, p. 48: take home the leftovers vs. take the leftovers home)

‣ What kinds of nouns prefer to be subjects vs. objects?

‣ Which verbs can take inﬁnitival complements?

4 Ambiguity beyond POS

• Lots of constructions = lots of ambiguity! Sometimes humans even notice it:

‣ PP attachment: “Illinois Sends Bill Allowing Gay Marriage to Governor”

‣ Adjective attachment: “Police Shoot Dead Suspect Inside L.A. Emergency Room”

‣ Verb argument attachment: “Attorneys for Afghan family detained by immigration ofﬁcials in Los Angeles obtain restraining order” (Who was detained?)

‣ Verb argument function (depends on VVD vs. VVN): “Top U.N. Climate Ofﬁcial Denied Meeting with U.S. Secretary of State”

• We also want to be able to resolve ambiguity automatically for natural language understanding.

‣ Foreshadowing future lectures: We’ll need additional representations for sense ambiguity, e.g. in “Campaign manager for Donald Trump is charged with battery”

Credit: Dirk Hovy and Jonathan May for pointing out some of these headlines 5 Treebanks

• A treebank is a corpus of sentences with syntactic trees, for

‣ Corpus-based studies involving syntax

‣ Evaluating syntactic parsers

‣ Training statistical syntactic parsers

• Gold standard trees: human-annotated from scratch or manually corrected parser output

‣ Silver trees: uncorrected parser output, will contain many errors

6 Types of Syntax Trees

• Phrase structure or constituency trees

‣ Nested bracketing of the sentence, usually with constituent labels like S (sentence), VP (verb phrase), etc., down to POS tags for individual tokens

• Dependency trees

‣ Edges (often labeled) connect words directly

• Other formalisms: CCG, LFG, HPSG, construction grammar, etc. have other kinds of structure such as nested feature structures

7 Constuency Treebanks

• English

‣ Penn Treebank (PTB; Marcus et al., 1993): English; primarily, trees for 1M words of Wall Street Journal news articles in 1989.

‣ OntoNotes (Hovy et al., 2006; Pradhan et al., 2013): extends PTB with more genres (broadcast news, web, …), two additional languages (Arabic, Chinese), and semantic annotations (word senses, named entities, coreference, PropBank predicate-argument structures). OntoNotes 5.0 has 3M words—50% English, 40% Chinese, 10% Arabic.

‣ English Web Treebank (Bies et al., 2012): PTB-style trees, 5 genres—blogs, email, newsgroups, reviews, questions-answers. 250K words.

• French Treebank, TIGER (German), …

• Other formalisms: CCGBank (converted from PTB); Redwoods (HPSG), …

8 Dependency Treebanks

• Prague School dependency syntax

‣ Czech–English Dependency Treebank: WSJ sentences and their Czech translations, in a rich multilayer formalism

• Universal Dependencies (UD) corpora in several dozen languages and various genres

‣ including a manually-corrected conversion of the English Web Treebank

• Twitter: e.g., Tweebank (Kong et al. 2014)

9 Cost & Licensing

• Creating a high-quality treebank is expensive

‣ Need to hire linguists (often linguistics grad students)

‣ Training, guidelines development

‣ Speed of annotation

‣ Quality control

• PTB and many other corpora licensed through the Linguistic Data Consortium (LDC) and similar entities

10 Constuency Trees

11 F331 Encourage the creation of local marketing cooperatives and for small woodland growers. sion of the corpus into a standardised knowledge-representation language, or , held on computer

A standard generative tree for German

Though since 0 days 0 thick clouds t t the sky t cover, tells the weather-report t t t t t fore, that towards 0 evening the sun t t tshines

20/33 12 F331 Encourage the creation of local marketing cooperatives and for small woodland growers. sion of the corpus into a standardised knowledge-representation language, or , held on computer

A computational parse equivalent (PTB style)

Penn Treebank

Though since days thick clouds the sky cover, tells the current weather-report fore, that towards evening the sun shines

21/33 13 Pierre Vinken , 61 years old , will join the board as a nonexecutive director Nov. 29 .

(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NNP Pierre) (NNP Vinken)) (, ,) (ADJP (NP (CD 61) (NNS years)) (JJ old)) (, ,)) (VP (MD will) The ﬁrst sentence of the Penn Treebank (VP (Wall Street Journal) (VB join) (NP (DT the) (NN board)) (PP-CLR (IN as) (NP (DT a) (JJ nonexecutive) (NN director))) (NP-TMP (NNP Nov.) (CD 29))))

(. .)) 14 Pierre Vinken , 61 years old , will join the board as a nonexecutive director Nov. 29 .

(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NNP Pierre) (NNP Vinken)) (, ,) (ADJP (NP (CD 61) (NNS years)) (JJ old)) (, ,)) (VP (MD will) POS tags (preterminals) / tokens (VP (VB join) (NP (DT the) (NN board)) (PP-CLR (IN as) (NP (DT a) (JJ nonexecutive) (NN director))) (NP-TMP (NNP Nov.) (CD 29))))

(. .)) 15 Pierre Vinken , 61 years old , will join the board as a nonexecutive director Nov. 29 .

(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NNP Pierre) (NNP Vinken)) (, ,) (ADJP (NP (CD 61) (NNS years)) (JJ old)) (, ,)) (VP (MD will) constituents (nonterminals) (VP POS tags (preterminals) / tokens (VB join) (NP (DT the) (NN board)) (PP-CLR (IN as) (NP (DT a) (JJ nonexecutive) (NN director))) (NP-TMP (NNP Nov.) (CD 29))))

(. .)) 16 Pierre Vinken , 61 years old , will join the board as a nonexecutive director Nov. 29 .

(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NNP Pierre) (NNP Vinken)) (, ,) (ADJP (NP (CD 61) (NNS years)) (JJ old)) (, ,)) (VP (MD will) nonbinary branching (VP (VB join) (NP (DT the) (NN board)) (PP-CLR (IN as) (NP (DT a) (JJ nonexecutive) (NN director))) (NP-TMP (NNP Nov.) (CD 29))))

(. .)) 17 Pierre Vinken , 61 years old , will join the board as a nonexecutive director Nov. 29 .

(S (NP-SBJ (NP (NNP Pierre) (NNP Vinken)) (, ,) (ADJP (NP (CD 61) (NNS years)) (JJ old)) (, ,)) (VP (MD will) some constituents have function tags (VP (subject, temporal, (VB join) PP-CLR = “closely related” PP) (NP (DT the) (NN board)) (PP-CLR (IN as) (NP (DT a) (JJ nonexecutive) (NN director))) (NP-TMP (NNP Nov.) (CD 29))))

(. .)) 18 kids saw birds with ﬁsh Lexicalized Constituency ParseLexicalized Constituency Parse

S-sawS S-saw H HH HH H H HH HH H H HH HH H H H NP-kidsNP VP-sawVP NP-kids VP-saw H HH H H HH HH H H HH HH H kids H kids H V-sawV NP-birdsNP V-saw NP-birds H HH H H HH HH H H HH saw HH saw H NP-birdsNP PP-fishPP NP-birds PP-fish H H H HH HH H H H birds P-withP NP-fishNP birds P-with NP-fish

with ﬁsh with ﬁsh

It is sometimes useful to create a lexicalized NathanSchneider ENLPLecture18NathanSchneiderconstituency 5 ENLPLecture18parse, where each nonterminal 5 label includes the phrasal head.

(How would you determine this?)

19 Head Rules • A set 20of headCHAPTER rules11 systematizesFORMAL theGRAMMARS selection OF ofE NGLISHa lexical head for each constituent so it can be done automatically. • Parent Direction Priority List ADJP Left NNS QP NN $ ADVP JJ VBN VBG ADJP JJR NP JJS DT FW RBR RBS SBAR RB ADVP Right RB RBR RBS FW ADVP TO CD JJR JJ IN NP JJS NN PRN Left PRT Right RP QP Left $ IN NNS NN JJ RB DT CD NCD QP JJR JJS S Left TO IN VP S SBAR ADJP UCP NP SBAR Left WHNP WHPP WHADVP WHADJP IN DT S SQ SINV SBAR FRAG VP Left TO VBD VBN MD VBZ VB VBG VBP VP ADJP NN NNS NP Figure 11.12 Selected head rules from Collins (1999). The set of head rules is often called a head percola- tion table. Jurafsky & Martin: SLP3 online draft, ch. 11 ‣ Traverse11.5 the Grammartree bottom-up. The Equivalence last row says how and to choose Normal a head for Form a VP constituent: ✴ First scan its daughters from left to right until a TO node is encountered; if it is, copy its head (the word it is the tag for). A formal language is deﬁned as a (possibly inﬁnite) set of strings of words. This ✴ Otherwise, scansuggests its daughters that we could from ask left if to two right grammars until a VBD are equivalent node is encountered; by asking if theyif it is, gener- copy its head. ate the same set of strings. In fact, it is possible to have two distinct context-free grammars generate the same language. ✴ … We usually distinguish two kinds of grammar equivalence: weak equivalence and strong equivalence. Two grammars are strongly equivalent if they generate the • Different headednesssame conventions set of strings (e.g.,and if for they PPs—the assign the P same or the phrase N?) structurerequire todifferent each sentence head rules. (allowing merely for renaming of the non-terminal symbols). Two grammars are 20 weakly equivalent if they generate the same set of strings but do not assign the same phrase structure to each sentence. Normal form It is sometimes useful to have a normal form for grammars, in which each of the productions takes a particular form. For example, a context-free grammar is in Chomsky normal form Chomsky normal form (CNF) (Chomsky, 1963) if it is e-free and if in addition each production is either of the form A BCor A a. That is, the right-hand side ! ! of each rule either has two non-terminal symbols or one terminal symbol. Chomsky Binary branching normal form grammars are binary branching, that is they have binary trees (down to the prelexical nodes). We make use of this binary branching property in the CKY parsing algorithm in Chapter 12. Any context-free grammar can be converted into a weakly equivalent Chomsky normal form grammar. For example, a rule of the form

A BCD ! can be converted into the following two CNF rules (Exercise 11.8 asks the reader to formulate the complete algorithm):

A BX ! X CD ! Sometimes using binary branching can actually produce smaller grammars. For example, the sentences that might be characterized as VP -> VBD NP PP* are represented in the Penn Treebank by this series of rules: VP VBD NP PP ! VP VBD NP PP PP ! Head Rules • A set 20of headCHAPTER rules11 systematizesFORMAL theGRAMMARS selection OF ofE NGLISHa lexical head for each constituent so it can be done automatically. • Parent Direction Priority List ADJP Left NNS QP NN $ ADVP JJ VBN VBG ADJP JJR NP JJS DT FW RBR RBS SBAR RB ADVP Right RB RBR RBS FW ADVP TO CD JJR JJ IN NP JJS NN PRN Left PRT Right RP QP Left $ IN NNS NN JJ RB DT CD NCD QP JJR JJS S Left TO IN VP S SBAR ADJP UCP NP SBAR Left WHNP WHPP WHADVP WHADJP IN DT S SQ SINV SBAR FRAG VP Left TO VBD VBN MD VBZ VB VBG VBP VP ADJP NN NNS NP Figure 11.12 Selected head rules from Collins (1999). The set of head rules is often called a head percola- tion table. Jurafsky & Martin: SLP3 online draft, ch. 11 ‣ The11.5 last row Grammarsays how to choose Equivalence a head for a VP constituent: and Normal Form ✴ First scan its daughters from left to right until -___a TO node is encountered; if it is, copy its head (the word it is the tag for). A formal language is deﬁned as a (possibly inﬁnite)-___ set of strings of words. This ✴ Otherwise, scansuggests its daughters that we could from ask left if to two right grammars until a VBD are equivalent node is encountered; by asking if theyif it is, gener- copy its head. ate the same set of strings. In fact, it is possible to have two distinct context-free P grammars generate the same language. ✴ … We usually distinguish two kinds of grammar equivalence: weak equivalence and strong equivalence. Two grammars are strongly equivalent if they generate the • Different headednesssame conventions set of strings (e.g.,and if for they PPs—the assign the P same or the phrase N?) structurerequire todifferent each sentence head rules. (allowing merely for renaming of the non-terminal symbols). Two grammars are 21 weakly equivalent if they generate the same set of strings but do not assign the same phrase structure to each sentence. Normal form It is sometimes useful to have a normal form for grammars, in which each of the productions takes a particular form. For example, a context-free grammar is in Chomsky normal form Chomsky normal form (CNF) (Chomsky, 1963) if it is e-free and if in addition each production is either of the form A BCor A a. That is, the right-hand side ! ! of each rule either has two non-terminal symbols or one terminal symbol. Chomsky Binary branching normal form grammars are binary branching, that is they have binary trees (down to the prelexical nodes). We make use of this binary branching property in the CKY parsing algorithm in Chapter 12. Any context-free grammar can be converted into a weakly equivalent Chomsky normal form grammar. For example, a rule of the form

A BCD ! can be converted into the following two CNF rules (Exercise 11.8 asks the reader to formulate the complete algorithm):

A BX ! X CD ! Sometimes using binary branching can actually produce smaller grammars. For example, the sentences that might be characterized as VP -> VBD NP PP* are represented in the Penn Treebank by this series of rules: VP VBD NP PP ! VP VBD NP PP PP ! Head Rules • A set 20of headCHAPTER rules11 systematizesFORMAL theGRAMMARS selection OF ofE NGLISHa lexical head for each constituent so it can be done automatically. • Parent Direction Priority List ADJP Left NNS QP NN $ ADVP JJ VBN VBG ADJP JJR NP JJS DT FW RBR RBS SBAR RB ADVP Right RB RBR RBS FW ADVP TO CD JJR JJ IN NP JJS NN PRN Left PRT Right RP QP Left $ IN NNS NN JJ RB DT CD NCD QP JJR JJS S Left TO IN VP S SBAR ADJP UCP NP SBAR Left WHNP WHPP WHADVP WHADJP IN DT S SQ SINV SBAR FRAG VP Left TO VBD VBN MD VBZ VB VBG VBP VP ADJP NN NNS NP Figure 11.12 Selected head rules from Collins (1999). The set of head rules is often called a head percola- tion table. Jurafsky & Martin: SLP3 online draft, ch. 11 ‣ The11.5 last row Grammarsays how to choose Equivalence a head for a VP constituent: and Normal Form ✴ First scan its daughters from left to right until -___a TO node is encountered; if it is, copy its head (the word it is the tag for). A formal language is deﬁned as a (possibly inﬁnite)-join set of strings of words. This ✴ Otherwise, scansuggests its daughters that we could from ask left if to two right grammars until a VBD are equivalent node is encountered; by asking if theyif it is, gener- copy its head. ate the same set of strings. In fact, it is possible to have two distinct context-free P grammars generate the same language. ✴ … We usually distinguish two kinds of grammar equivalence: weak equivalence and strong equivalence. Two grammars are strongly equivalent if they generate the • Different headednesssame conventions set of strings (e.g.,and if for they PPs—the assign the P same or the phrase N?) structurerequire todifferent each sentence head rules. (allowing merely for renaming of the non-terminal symbols). Two grammars are 22 weakly equivalent if they generate the same set of strings but do not assign the same phrase structure to each sentence. Normal form It is sometimes useful to have a normal form for grammars, in which each of the productions takes a particular form. For example, a context-free grammar is in Chomsky normal form Chomsky normal form (CNF) (Chomsky, 1963) if it is e-free and if in addition each production is either of the form A BCor A a. That is, the right-hand side ! ! of each rule either has two non-terminal symbols or one terminal symbol. Chomsky Binary branching normal form grammars are binary branching, that is they have binary trees (down to the prelexical nodes). We make use of this binary branching property in the CKY parsing algorithm in Chapter 12. Any context-free grammar can be converted into a weakly equivalent Chomsky normal form grammar. For example, a rule of the form

A BCD ! can be converted into the following two CNF rules (Exercise 11.8 asks the reader to formulate the complete algorithm):

A BX ! X CD ! Sometimes using binary branching can actually produce smaller grammars. For example, the sentences that might be characterized as VP -> VBD NP PP* are represented in the Penn Treebank by this series of rules: VP VBD NP PP ! VP VBD NP PP PP ! Head Rules • A set 20of headCHAPTER rules11 systematizesFORMAL theGRAMMARS selection OF ofE NGLISHa lexical head for each constituent so it can be done automatically. • Parent Direction Priority List ADJP Left NNS QP NN $ ADVP JJ VBN VBG ADJP JJR NP JJS DT FW RBR RBS SBAR RB ADVP Right RB RBR RBS FW ADVP TO CD JJR JJ IN NP JJS NN PRN Left PRT Right RP QP Left $ IN NNS NN JJ RB DT CD NCD QP JJR JJS S Left TO IN VP S SBAR ADJP UCP NP SBAR Left WHNP WHPP WHADVP WHADJP IN DT S SQ SINV SBAR FRAG VP Left TO VBD VBN MD VBZ VB VBG VBP VP ADJP NN NNS NP Figure 11.12 Selected head rules from Collins (1999). The set of head rules is often called a head percola- tion table. Jurafsky & Martin: SLP3 online draft, ch. 11 ‣ The11.5 last row Grammarsays how to choose Equivalence a head for a VP constituent: and Normal Form ✴ First scan its daughters from left to right until -willa TO node is encountered; if it is, copy its head (the word it is the tag for). A formal language is deﬁned as a (possibly inﬁnite)-join set of strings of words. This ✴ Otherwise, scansuggests its daughters that we could from ask left if to two right grammars until a VBD are equivalent node is encountered; by asking if theyif it is, gener- copy its head. ate the same set of strings. In fact, it is possible to have two distinct context-free P grammars generate the same language. ✴ … We usually distinguish two kinds of grammar equivalence: weak equivalence and strong equivalence. Two grammars are strongly equivalent if they generate the • Different headednesssame conventions set of strings (e.g.,and if for they PPs—the assign the P same or the phrase N?) structurerequire todifferent each sentence head rules. (allowing merely for renaming of the non-terminal symbols). Two grammars are 23 weakly equivalent if they generate the same set of strings but do not assign the same phrase structure to each sentence. Normal form It is sometimes useful to have a normal form for grammars, in which each of the productions takes a particular form. For example, a context-free grammar is in Chomsky normal form Chomsky normal form (CNF) (Chomsky, 1963) if it is e-free and if in addition each production is either of the form A BCor A a. That is, the right-hand side ! ! of each rule either has two non-terminal symbols or one terminal symbol. Chomsky Binary branching normal form grammars are binary branching, that is they have binary trees (down to the prelexical nodes). We make use of this binary branching property in the CKY parsing algorithm in Chapter 12. Any context-free grammar can be converted into a weakly equivalent Chomsky normal form grammar. For example, a rule of the form

A BCD ! can be converted into the following two CNF rules (Exercise 11.8 asks the reader to formulate the complete algorithm):

24 Dependency Parse saw saw H HH H HH HH H HH H HH kids birds H kids birds binoculars fish with with Dependency Parse Equivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): saw saw ! H HH H HH HH H HH H HH kids birds H = kids birds binoculars Edge Labels fish kids saw birds with fish with It is often useful to distinguish di↵erent kinds of head modifierwith head → modifier ! Becauserelations it, by is a labeling tree, every edges: word has exactly oneEquivalently, parent. Bilexical but showingdependencies word order (head modifier): ROOTroot connect pairs of tokens (no ! edge labels or types empty or abstract nodes!). The Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18edges may be labeled 15 or POBJnmod unlabeled.

nsubjSBJ DOBJobj PREPcase For the parse to be a tree, every tokenkids has exactlysaw 1 birds with fish parent, and the main kids saw birds with fish predicate’s parent is the special Because it is aroot tree, symbol. every word has exactly one parent. Important relations for English include subject25 , direct object, determiner, adjective modifier, adverbial modifierNathan Schneider,etc.(Di↵erent ENLP Lecture 18 15 treebanks use somewhat di↵erent label sets.)

How would you identify the subject in a constituency parse? •

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 17 Lexicalized Constituency Parse Dependency Parse S-saw saw saw HH HH H H H H HH H HH H H H HH HH H H kids birds HH NP-kids VP-saw H HH H kids birds binoculars HH H HH fish kids H V-saw NP-birds with HH H HH H with saw HH NP-birds PP-fishEquivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): HH HH H ! birds P-with NP-fish

with ﬁsh

It is easy to convert a lexicalized kids saw birds with ﬁsh NathanSchneider ENLPLecture18constituency parse into a dependency parse. 5

26Because it is a tree, every word has exactly one parent.

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 15 . . . remove the phrasal categories. . . Dependency Parse saw saw saw HH H H H HH H HH H HH H H H HH H HH kids saw kids birds H H HH H kids birds binoculars HH kids saw birds fish HH HH with HH saw birds fish with H HH H Equivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): birds with fish !

with ﬁsh

It is easy to convert a lexicalized kids saw birds with ﬁsh constituency parse into a dependency parse.

NathanSchneider ENLPLecture18 6 27Because it is a tree, every word has exactly one parent.

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 15 . . . remove the (duplicated) terminals. . . Dependency Parse saw saw saw HH H H H HH H HH H HH H H H HH H HH kids saw kids birds H HH HH kids birds binoculars HH saw birds fish HH H with HH H birds fish with HH HH Equivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): with fish !

It is easy to convert a lexicalized kids saw birds with ﬁsh constituency parse into a dependency parse.

NathanSchneider ENLPLecture18 7 28Because it is a tree, every word has exactly one parent.

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 15 . . . and collapse chains of duplicates. . . Dependency Parse saw saw saw HH HH HH H H H HH H HH H H HH H HH kids saw kids birds H HH HH kids birds binoculars HH saw birds fish HH H HH with H birds fish with HH HH Equivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): with fish !

It is easy to convert a lexicalized kids saw birds with ﬁsh constituency parse into a dependency parse.

NathanSchneider ENLPLecture1829Because it is 8 a tree, every word has exactly one parent.

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 15 . . . and collapse chains of duplicates. . . Dependency Parse saw saw saw HH H H H HH H HH H HH H H HH H HH kids saw kids birds H HH H HH kids birds binoculars H saw birds fish HH with HH birds fish with Equivalently, but showing word order (head modifier): with !

It is easy to convert a lexicalized kids saw birds with ﬁsh constituency parse into a dependency parse.

30Because it is a tree, every word has exactly one parent. NathanSchneider ENLPLecture18 9 Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 15 Why Dependencies?

• Dependency Grammar theories are based on the observation that many syntactic relationships can be characterized as asymmetric, binary relations between head and modiﬁer words. (Tesnière 1959, Sgall et al. 1986, …)

‣ If you learned sentence diagramming in grade school (Reed & Kellogg 1877), that is a form of dependency grammar!

‣ Not all constructions ﬁt cleanly (coordination, relative clauses, …); different theories have different solutions. Labeling the dependencies can clarify the nature of the relationship.

• While constituency grammars work well for “well-behaved” languages like English, Turkish and other languages introduce complications.

• Because dependency parses are structurally simpler, they are computationally easier to produce. (Faster parsers!)

• Syntactic dependencies are not too far from semantic dependencies, useful for many applications. 31 Universal Dependencies

• PTB is a de facto standard for constituency syntax, at least for English.

• But despite the popularity of dependencies, conventions/label sets abound.

‣ Different sets of head rules for converting from PTB trees

‣ Different edge labels for dependency treebanks

• Universal Dependencies (UD) are a recent (≈2014–2016) attempt to agree on cross-linguistic conventions.

‣ Evolved from Stanford Typed Dependencies → Universal Stanford Dependencies

‣ Headedness conventions and types designed for uniformity across languages

‣ Guidelines and corpora from dozens of languages freely available at http://universaldependencies.org/

32 as of March 2017 Manning’s Law

From http://universaldependencies.org/introduction.html: Chris Manning

The secret to understanding the design and current success of UD is to realize that the design is a very subtle compromise between approximately 6 things: 1. UD needs to be satisfactory on linguistic analysis grounds for individual languages. 2. UD needs to be good for linguistic typology, i.e., providing a suitable basis for bringing out cross-linguistic parallelism across languages and language families. 3. UD must be suitable for rapid, consistent annotation by a human annotator. 4. UD must be suitable for computer parsing with high accuracy. 5. UD must be easily comprehended and used by a non-linguist, whether a language learner or an engineer with prosaic needs for language processing. We refer to this as seeking a habitable design, and it leads us to favor traditional grammar notions and terminology. 6. UD must support well downstream language understanding tasks (relation extraction, reading comprehension, machine translation, …). It’s easy to come up with a proposal that improves UD on one of these dimensions. The interesting and difﬁcult part is to improve UD while remaining sensitive to all these dimensions. 34 Universal Dependencies http://universaldependencies.org/introduction.html

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This page pertains to UD version 2.

Introduction

Universal Dependencies (UD) is a project that is developing cross-linguistically consistent treebank annotation for many languages, with the goal of facilitating multilingual parser development, cross-lingual learning, and parsing research from a language typology perspective. The annotation scheme is based on an evolution of (universal) Stanford dependencies (de Marne!e et al., 2006, 2008, 2014), Google universal part- of-speech tags (Petrov et al., 2012), and the Interset interlingua for morphosyntactic tagsets (Zeman, 2008). The general philosophy is to provide a universal inventory of categories and guidelines to facilitate consistent annotation of similar constructions across languages, while allowing Cross-linguisclanguage-specific extensions when necessary. Parallelism Examples fromThis ishttp://universaldependencies.org/introduction.html illustrated in the following parallel examples from English, Bulgarian, Czech: and Swedish, where the main grammatical relations involving a passive verb, a nominal subject and an oblique agent are the same, but where the concrete grammatical realization varies.

punct obl nsubj:pass case English det aux:pass det DET# NOUN# AUX# VERB# ADP DET# NOUN# PUNCT 1 The dog was chased by the cat .

punct nsubj:pass obl expl:pass case Bulgarian NOUN# PRON# VERB# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 2 Кучето се преследваше от котката .

nsubj:pass punct aux:pass obl Czech NOUN# AUX# VERB# NOUN# PUNCT 3 Pes byl honěn kočkou .

punct obl nsubj:pass case Swedish NOUN# VERB# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 4 Hunden jagades av katten .

35 What is needed for UD to be successful?

The secret to understanding the design and current success of UD is to realize that the design is a very subtle compromise between approximately 6 things:

1. UD needs to be satisfactory on linguistic analysis grounds for individual languages. 2. UD needs to be good for linguistic typology, i.e., providing a suitable basis for bringing out cross-linguistic parallelism across languages and language families. 3. UD must be suitable for rapid, consistent annotation by a human annotator. 4. UD must be suitable for computer parsing with high accuracy. 5. UD must be easily comprehended and used by a non-linguist, whether a language learner or an engineer with prosaic needs for language processing. We refer to this as seeking a habitable design, and it leads us to favor traditional grammar notions and terminology. 6. UD must support well downstream language understanding tasks (relation extraction, reading comprehension, machine translation, …).

It’s easy to come up with a proposal that improves UD on one of these dimensions. The interesting and di!icult part is to improve UD while remaining sensitive to all these dimensions.

History

The Stanford dependencies were originally developed in 2005 as a backend to the Stanford parser to help in Recognizing Textual Entailment systems, then eventually emerged as the de facto standard for dependency analysis of English, and have since been adapted to a number of di!erent languages (Chang et al., 2009, Bosco et al., 2013, Haverinen et al., 2013, Seraji et al., 2013, Tsarfaty, 2013, Lipenkova and Souček 2014). The Google universal tag set grew out of the cross-linguistic error analysis based on the CoNLL-X shared task data by McDonald and Nivre (2007), was initially used for unsupervised part-of-speech tagging by Das and Petrov (2011), and has since been adopted as a widely used standard for mapping diverse tagsets to a common standard. The Interset (Zeman, 2008) started as a tool for conversion between morphosyntactic tagsets of multiple languages. It dates back to 2006 when it was used in the first experiments with cross-lingual delexicalized parser adaptation (Zeman and Resnik, 2008). It was later employed as the morphological layer in HamleDT (Zeman et al., 2014) – a project that brings treebanks of many

1 of 3 7/16/17, 10:23 PM Content vs. Funconal Heads

• Between two related content words, deciding which is the head (the direction of the arrow) is usually easy: e.g., catch → ﬁsh and cute ← puppies. Content vs. Functional Heads • Function wordsContent like auxiliaries, vs. copulas, Functional and adpositions Heads are trickier. Some treebanks prefer content heads: • Some Sometreebanks treebanks prefer prefer contentcontent heads heads (UD :adopts this policy):

Little kids were always watching birds with ﬁsh Others prefer functional heads: • OthersOthers prefer prefer functionalfunctional heads heads: :

Little kids were always watching birds with ﬁsh Little kids were always watching birds with ﬁsh 36

Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 16 Nathan Schneider ENLP Lecture 18 16 UD Annotaon for English: A Crash Course

Adapted from the v2 Universal guidelines at http://universaldependencies.org/ with additional examples from the main English UD treebank; refer to the website for many, many additional details

37 root http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/root.html punct http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/punct.html

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ThisRoot, page pertains toPunctuaon UD version 2. This page pertains to UD version 2. root the only word not headed by any other; usually the main predicate Can be drawn as an unlabeled edge coming from above the sentence, root: rootor coming from a dummy ROOT node. punct any punctuation token, attached to thepunct head of its: punctuation nearest containing phrase (often the head of the clause) The root grammatical relation points to the root of the sentence. A fake node ROOT is used as the governor. The ROOT node is indexed with 0, since the indexing of real wordsThis in the is sentenceused for any starts piece at 1. of (The punctuation ROOT node in a isclause, not represented if punctuation explicitly is being in CoNLL-U.)retained in the typed dependencies.

root punct

1 ROOT I love French fries . 1 Go home !

New from v2: There should be just oneTokens node with with the the root relation dependency punct always relation attach in every to content tree. If wordsthe main (except predicate in cases is not of presentellipsis) (dueand can to never have dependents. Since punct

ellipsis) and there are multiple orphanedis not dependents, a normal dependencyone of these relation,38is promoted the tousual the criteriahead (root) for determining position and the the head other word orphans do not are apply. Instead, we use the following principles: attached to it. (This rule has in practice been followed since release v1.2 but was not explicitly stated in the original v1 guidelines.) 1. A punctuation mark separating coordinated units is attached to the following conjunct.

punct 2. A punctuation mark preceding or following a dependent unit is attached to that unit. orphan root det 3. Within the relevant unit, a punctuation mark is attached at the highest possible node that preserves projectivity. cc amod 4. Paired punctuation marks (e.g. quotes and brackets, sometimes also dashes, commas and other) should be attached to the same 2 ROOT And Robert the fourth place . word unless that would create non-projectivity. This word is usually the head of the phrase enclosed in the paired punctuation.

root in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [conjel] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] conj [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [ptconj] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] punct[sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] obj punct punct cc [yue] [zh] 2 We have apples , pears , oranges , and bananas .

punct punct punct

3 Der Mann , den Sie gestern kennengelernt haben , kam wieder .

4 A.K.A. , AKA , or a/k/a may refer to : “ Also known as ” , used to introduce pseudonyms , aliases , etc. (

punct punct punct punct punct

Compare f.k.a. for “ formerly known as ” . )

See also examples at parataxis .

punct in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] [yue] [zh]

1 of 1 7/19/17, 6:46 PM 1 of 1 7/19/17, 6:48 PM Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

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home edit page issue tracker Custom Search This page pertains to UD version 2.

ThisSimple page pertains Clauses to UD version 2.

The UD annotation assumes the clause as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A simple clause minimally Simpleconsists of a predicate Clauses together with its core argument dependents, but may be extended with oblique modifiers. Core arguments are typically nominals, while oblique modifiers are either (oblique) nominals or adverbial modifiers. (In complex clauses, both core arguments Theand UDoblique annotation modifiers assumes can also the be clause realized as one as subordinate of the basic clauses.)structures Finally, that we the expect predicate to find may in allbe languages.associated Awith simple function clause words minimally that consistsexpress diof! aerent predicate types together of grammatical with its information core argument such dependents, as tense, mood, but may aspect, be extended voice, evidentiality, with oblique or modifiers. type of subordination. Core arguments are typically nominals, while oblique modifiers are either (oblique) nominals or adverbial modifiers. (In complex clauses, both core arguments and obliqueIntransitive modifiers and can transitive also be clauses realized as subordinate clauses.) Finally, the predicate may be associated with function words that expressNonverbal di!erent types clauses of grammatical information such as tense, mood, aspect, voice, evidentiality, or type of subordination. Non-core dependents IntransitiveFunction word and dependents transitive clauses Nonverbal clauses Non-core dependents Function word dependents Intransitive and Transitive Clauses

IntransitiveIn most clauses, the and predicate Transitive takes the form Clauses of a verb, which may be intransitive or transitive.

nsubj In most clauses, the predicate takes the form of a verb, which may be intransitive or transitive. 1 she left

nsubj obj nsubj 1 she left 2 she left a note obj nsubj An intransitive verb takes a single argument (usually referred to as S in the literature on linguistic typology) with the nsubj relation. A transitive2 she verbleft in aaddition note takes an argument with the obj relation. When deciding which relation to use with which argument in a transitive clause, the nsubj relation should be used with the argument that most resembles the proto-agent (o"en called A in linguistic An intransitive verb takes a single argument (usually referred to as S in the literature on linguistic typology) with the nsubj relation. A typology) and that satisfies additional language-internal criteria for subjecthood based on case-marking, agreement and/or linear position transitive verb in addition takes an argument with the obj relation. When deciding which relation to use with which argument in a with respect to the predicate. The obj relation should be used for the argument that most resembles the proto-patient (o"en called O or P transitive clause, the nsubj relation should be used with the argument that most resembles the proto-agent (o"en called A in linguistic in linguistic typology) and that satisfies relevant language-internal criteria. Note that, while case-marking (whether morphological or typology)analytic) can and provide that satisfies important additional evidence language-internal in specific languages, criteria case for subjecthood alignment should based not on case-marking,be used to decide agreement the assignment and/or linear of core position withargument respect roles. to the Thus, predicate. in ergative The languages, obj relation the should patient-like be used argument for the argumentof a transitive that verb most (O/P) resembles will take the the proto-patient the obj relation (o"en despitecalled O the or P infact linguistic that it carries typology) the sameand that case satisfies marking relevant as the language-internalnsubj argument criteria.(S) of an Note intranstive that, while verb. case-marking (whether morphological or analytic) can provide important evidence in specific languages, case alignment should not be used to decide the assignment of core argumentSome languages roles. Thus, allow in extended ergative transitivelanguages, clauses, the patient-like where more argument than two of adependents transitive verb are realized(O/P) will as take core the arguments. the obj Therelation additional despite core the factarguments that it carries then receive the same the caseiobj marking relation as (for the “indirect nsubj argumentobject”), while (S) of the an intranstiveobj relation verb. is reserved for the argument most patient-like non- subject argument. The criterion for deciding whether an additional dependent is a core argument is whether it has the typical encoding of a Somecore argument languages with allow respect extended to case-marking, transitive clauses, agreement where and more word than order. two dependentsFor example, are the realized English as double core arguments. object construction The additional qualifies core as an argumentsextended transitive then receive clause the because iobj relation all three (for nominals “indirect appear object”), without while prepositions: the obj relation is reserved for the argument most patient-like non- subject argument. The criterion for deciding whether an additional dependent is a core argument is whether it has the typical encoding of a core argument with respect to case-marking, agreement and word order. For example, the English double object construction qualifies as an obj nsubj iobj Subject,extended Object, transitive clause because Oblique all three nominals appear without prepositions: Simple Clauses 3 she left him a note http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html obj nsubj iobj By contrast, the alternative construction where the recipient role is realized by a prepositional phrase is not an extended transitive by our criteria,3 she and theleft thirdhim participant a note should therefore be annotated as oblique in this case. Valency-Changing Operations By contrast, the alternative construction where the recipient role is realized by a prepositional phrase is not an extended transitive by our obl If criteria,passivization and theinvolves thirdobj the participant promotion should of an argumenttherefore tobe subject annotated position, as oblique then this in argumentthis case. can be annotated with a special subtype nsubj nsubj:pass to indicate that promotion has taken place. The subtype obl:agent can be used to annotated the demoted subject (if

present).4 she left a noteobl to him obj nsubj It follows that the semantic role cannot (by itself) be used to determine whether a dependent is core or not, nor can its status as an obl obligatory4 she dependent.leftobj a note UD to doeshim not make a distinction between (obligatory) arguments and (optional) adjuncts, and oblique dependents nsubj can be either arguments or adjuncts. It5 followsshe thatleft thea note semantic on the roletable cannot (by itself) be used to determine whether a dependent is core or not, nor can its status as an obligatoryNote, finally, dependent. that not all UD languages does not allowmake extendeda distinction transitives39 between (and (obligatory) some do argumentsonly in connection and (optional) with special adjuncts, valency-changing and oblique dependents nsubj:pass obl can be either arguments or adjuncts. operationssuch as applicatives). Hence, the iobj relation will not be used in all languages. 6 a note was left on the table Note, finally, that not all languages allow extended transitives (and some do only in connection with special valency-changing

operationssuch as applicatives).obl Hence, the iobj relation will not be used in all languages. 1 of 12 nsubj:pass obl:agent 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

7 a note was left by her on the table 1 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Similar subtyping can be used for other valency-changing operations. With causatives, for example, subtypes like obj:caus and iobj:caus can be used to indicate that an object is a demoted subject in relation to the non-causative form of the verb.

nsubj

8 Hasan koştu

Hasan ran

obj:caus

9 (ben) Hasanı koşturdum

I Hasan made-run

obj

10 Hasan kitabı okudu

Hasan book read

iobj:caus obj

11 (ben) Hasana kitabı okuttum

I I Hasan book made-read

Nonverbal Clauses

A nonverbal predicate (nominal or adjective) takes a single argument with the nsubj relation. The core argument relation is the same regardless of whether there is an overt copula linking the predicate to the subject or not.

nsubj

12 she is my mother

nsubj

13 она моя мать

nsubj

she my mother

nsubj

14 she is nice

2 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

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This page pertains to UD version 2.

Simple Clauses home edit page issue tracker Custom Search The UD annotation assumes the clause as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A simple clause minimally consists of a predicate together with its core argument dependents, but may be extended with oblique modifiers. Core arguments are This page pertains to UD versiontypically 2. nominals, while oblique modifiers are either (oblique) nominals or adverbial modifiers. (In complex clauses, both core arguments and oblique modifiers can also be realized as subordinate clauses.) Finally, the predicate may be associated with function words that Simple Clausesexpress di!erent types of grammatical information such as tense, mood, aspect, voice, evidentiality, or type of subordination. Intransitive and transitive clauses The UD annotation assumes the clauseNonverbal as one of theclauses basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A simple clause minimally consists of a predicate together with itsNon-core core argument dependents dependents, but may be extended with oblique modifiers. Core arguments are typically nominals, while oblique modifiersFunction are eitherword dependents (oblique) nominals or adverbial modifiers. (In complex clauses, both core arguments and oblique modifiers can also be realized as subordinate clauses.) Finally, the predicate may be associated with function words that express di!erent types of grammatical information such as tense, mood, aspect, voice, evidentiality, or type of subordination.

Intransitive and transitiveIntransitive clauses and Transitive Clauses Nonverbal clauses Non-core dependents In most clauses, the predicate takes the form of a verb, which may be intransitive or transitive. Function word dependents nsubj

1 she left

Intransitive and Transitive Clausesobj nsubj

In most clauses, the predicate takes2 she the formleft of aa verb, note which may be intransitive or transitive.

An intransitive verb takes a single argument (usually referred to as S in the literature on linguistic typology) with the nsubj relation. A nsubj transitive verb in addition takes an argument with the obj relation. When deciding which relation to use with which argument in a 1 she left transitive clause, the nsubj relation should be used with the argument that most resembles the proto-agent (o"en called A in linguistic

obj typology) and that satisfies additional language-internal criteria for subjecthood based on case-marking, agreement and/or linear position nsubj with respect to the predicate. The obj relation should be used for the argument that most resembles the proto-patient (o"en called O or P 2 she left a note in linguistic typology) and that satisfies relevant language-internal criteria. Note that, while case-marking (whether morphological or analytic) can provide important evidence in specific languages, case alignment should not be used to decide the assignment of core An intransitive verb takes a singleargument argument roles. (usually Thus, referred in ergative to as languages, S in the literature the patient-like on linguistic argument typology) of a transitive with the verbnsubj (O/P) relation. will take A the the obj relation despite the transitiveSubject, verb in addition takesfact an argumentthat Object, it carries with the the same obj case relation. marking Oblique When as decidingthe nsubj which argument relation (S) to of use an with intranstive which argument verb. in a transitive clause, the nsubj relation should be used with the argument that most resembles the proto-agent (o"en called A in linguistic typology) and thatsubjects satisfies additionalSome languages language-internalobjects allow extended criteria transitive for subjecthoodobliques clauses, based where on more case-marking, than two dependents agreement areand/or realized linear as position core arguments. The additional core with respect to the predicate. Thearguments obj relation then receiveshould thebe used iobj for relation the argument (for “indirect that most object”), resembles while thethe proto-patientobj relation (ois "reserveden called for O theor P argument most patient-like non- in linguisticnsubj typology) nominal and that subject satisfiessubject argument. relevantobj direct language-internal The object criterion forobl decidingcriteria. case-marked Note whether that, nounan while additional case-marking dependent (whether is a core morphological argument is orwhether it has the typical encoding of a analytic) can provide importantcore evidence argument inSimple specific with respectClauses languages, to case-marking, case alignment agreement should not and be word used order. to decide For example, the assignment the English of core double objecthttp://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html construction qualifies as an extended transitive clause because all three nominals appear without prepositions: argument roles. Thus, in ergative languages,iobj indirect the patient-like object argument of a transitive verb (O/P) will take the the obj relation despite the fact that it carries the same case marking as the nsubj argument (S) of an intranstive verb. obj nsubj iobj Some languages allow extended transitive clauses, where more Valency-Changing than two dependents Operations are realized as core arguments. The additional core arguments then receive the iobj3 relationshe (forleft “indirect him a object”), note while the obj relation is reserved for the argument most patient-like non- If passivization involves the promotion of an argument to subject position, then this argument can be annotated with a special subtype subject argument. The criterion for deciding whether an additional dependent is a core argument is whether it has the typical encoding of a By contrast, the alternative constructionnsubj:pass where to the indicate recipient that role promotion is realized has by taken a prepositional place. The subtypephrase is obl:agent not an extended can transitive be used to by annotated our the demoted subject (if core argument with respect to case-marking, agreement and word order. For example, the English double object construction qualifies as an criteria, and the third participantpresent). should therefore be annotated as oblique in this case. extended transitive clause because all three nominals appear without prepositions:

obl obl obj obj obj nsubj iobj nsubj nsubj

3 she left him a note 4 she left a note to him 5 she left a note on the table 40 By contrast, the alternative constructionIt follows wherethat the the semantic recipient role role cannot is realized (bynsubj:pass itself) by a prepositionalbe usedobl to determine phrase is whether not an extended a dependent transitive is core by or our not, nor can its status as an criteria, and the third participantobligatory should therefore dependent. be annotatedUD does not as makeoblique a distinction in this case. between (obligatory) arguments and (optional) adjuncts, and oblique dependents can be either arguments or adjuncts.6 a note was left on the table

obl obj Note, finally, that not all languages allow extended transitives (andobl some do only in connection with special valency-changing nsubj nsubj:pass obl:agent

operationssuch as applicatives). Hence, the iobj relation will not be used in all languages. 4 she left a note to him 7 a note was left by her on the table

It follows that the semantic role cannot (by itself) be used to determineSimilar subtyping whether can a dependent be used for is othercore or valency-changing not, nor can its status operations. as an With causatives, for example, subtypes like obj:caus and obligatory dependent.1 of 12 UD does not make a distinction betweeniobj:caus (obligatory) canarguments be used and to indicate (optional) that adjuncts, an object and is a oblique demoted dependents subject in relation to the non-causative form7/16/17, of the verb. 10:56 PM can be either arguments or adjuncts.

nsubj Note, finally, that not all languages allow extended transitives (and some do only in connection with special valency-changing operationssuch as applicatives). Hence, the iobj relation will not8 Hasan be used koin şalltu languages.

Hasan ran 1 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM obj:caus

9 (ben) Hasanı koşturdum

I Hasan made-run

obj

10 Hasan kitabı okudu

Hasan book read

iobj:caus obj

11 (ben) Hasana kitabı okuttum

I I Hasan book made-read

Nonverbal Clauses

nsubj

12 she is my mother

nsubj

13 она моя мать

nsubj

she my mother

nsubj

14 she is nice

2 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

obl nsubj

54 Mutfakta yemek var .

obl nsubj

Kitchen-in food existing . Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

Non-Core Dependents

obl nsubj In addition to the core arguments, a predicate may have additional dependents whose grammatical encoding di!ers from that of core 54 Mutfakta yemek var . arguments with respect to case marking, agreement and/or linear position in the clause. All such dependents are said to be oblique,

obl regardless of whether they can be considered as arguments in the semantic sense. The obl relation is used for oblique nominals, and the nsubj advmod relation is used for adverbial modifiers. Kitchen-in food existing .

obl obj nsubj

Non-Core Dependents 55 she left a note on the table

In addition to the core arguments, a predicate may have additionalobl dependents whose grammatical encoding di!ers from that of core obj nsubj arguments with respect to case marking, agreement and/or linear position in the clause. All such dependents are said to be oblique, regardless of whether they can be considered as arguments in the semantic sense. The obl relation is used for oblique nominals, and the 56 she left a note in the morning advmod relation is used for adverbial modifiers. obl nsubj obl obj nsubj 57 she left from home

55 she left a note on the table nsubj advmod

obl 58 she left suddenly obj nsubj In addition to the general obl relation, there are three special relations that are used for non-core dependents of a predicate: expl , 56 she left a note in the morning dislocated , and vocative .

obl nsubj

Expletives 57 she left from home

nsubj advmod The expl relation captures expletive or pleonastic nominals. These are nominals that appear in an argument position of a predicate but

58 she left suddenly which do not themselves satisfy any of the semantic roles of the predicate. The main predicate of the clause (the verb or predicate adjective or noun) is the governor. In English, this is the case for some uses of it and there: the existential there, and it when used in extraposition In addition to the general obl relation,constructions. there are three (Note special that bothrelations it and that there are alsoused have for non-core non-expletive dependents uses.) of a predicate: expl , dislocated , and vocative . Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html expl

Expletives 59 There is a ghost in the room

The expl relation captures expletiveValency-Changing or pleonasticexpl nominals. Operations These are nominals that appear in an argument position of a predicate but which do not themselves satisfy any of the semantic roles of the predicate. The main predicate of the clause (the verb or predicate adjective or noun) is the governor. In English,If passivization this60 isIt the is caseinvolvesclear for that some the we promotion uses should of it decline and of an there argument . : the existential to subject there position,, and itthen when this used argument in extraposition can be annotated with a special subtype constructions. (Note that both itnsubj:pass and there also tohave indicate non-expletive that promotion uses.) has taken place. The subtype obl:agent can be used to annotated the demoted subject (if present).Some languages do not have expletives of the English sort, including most languages with free pro-drop (the ability to use zero anaphora Subject, Object,rather than overt Obliquepronouns). In languages with expletives of this sort, they can be positioned where normally a core argument appears: the expl

subject and directobl object (and even indirect object) slots, as in the examples below. Note that in the analysis of these examples, we treat the 59 There subjectsis a ghost in the roomobjects obj obliques postposednsubj subject or clausal argument as a regular core argument, and mark the expletive with expl .

nsubjexpl nominal subject obj5 shedirect objectleft a noteobl on case-marked the table noun obl nsubj:pass nominal obl:agentnsubj passive by 60 It is clear that we should iobjdecline indirect . nsubj:pass objectexpl obl subject of passive argument

advmod61 modifyingThere isobl:tmod a ghost temporal in the nounroom Some languagescsubj clausal do not subject have expletives6 a note of thewas English left sort,on the including table most languages with free pro-drop (the ability to use zero anaphora adverb (adverbial or case-marked) rather than overt pronouns). In languages with expletives of this sort, they can be positioned where normally a core argument appears: the csubj:pass clausal obl subject and direct object (and even indirect object) slots,xcomp as in theobl examplesnsubj below. Note that in the analysis of these examples, we treat the subject of passive nsubj:passnsubj explobl:agent

postposed subject or clausal argument as a regular core argument, and mark the expletive with expl . 62 I believe there to be a ghost in the room expl expletive subject 7 a note was left by her on the table obl nsubj expl csubj expl Similar subtyping can be used for other valency-changing operations. With causatives, for example, subtypes like obj:caus and

iobj:caus can be used to indicate that an object is a demoted subject in relation to the non-causative form of the verb. 61 There is a ghost in the room63 It is clear that we should decline . 41

obl nsubj xcomp nsubj nsubj expl 8 Hasan ko ştu 62 I believe there to be a ghost in the room

Hasan ran expl 9 of 12csubj 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

obj:caus 63 It is clear that we should decline . 9 (ben) Hasanı koşturdum

I Hasan made-run

obj 9 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM 10 Hasan kitabı okudu

Hasan book read

iobj:caus obj

11 (ben) Hasana kitabı okuttum

I I Hasan book made-read

Nonverbal Clauses

nsubj

12 she is my mother

nsubj

13 она моя мать

nsubj

she my mother

nsubj

14 she is nice

2 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

dislocated

70 to jani ton kserume poli kala

the John-Acc him know-1pl very well Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html However, it would not be used for a topic-marked noun that is also the subject of the sentence; this would be an nsubj .

It is also used for postposed elements. The dislocated elements attach to the same governor as the dependent that they double for. Right nsubj dislocated elements are frequent in spoken languages. French and Greek examples follow. 15 она милая dislocated obj nsubj

71 Il faut pas la manger , lashe plasticine nice

dislocated obj In order to achieve a consistent treatment of nonverbal predication in v2, we first define six categories of nonverbal predication that can be found cross-linguistically (with or without a copula): It must not it eat , the playdough 1. Equation (aka identification): “she is my mother” dislocated 2. Attribution: “she is nice”

3. Location: “she is in the bathroom” 72 ton kserume oli mas edho poli kala, to jani 4. Possession: “the book is hers” 5. Benefaction: “the book is for her” Simple ClausesVocatives 6. Existence: “there is food (in the kitchen)” http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

The vocative relation isWe used then to give mark the a dialoguefollowing participant guidelines foraddressed the analysis in a textof these (common constructions: in conversations, dialogue, emails, newsgroup postings, etc.). The relation links the addressee’s name to its host sentence. A vocative commonly co-occurs with a null subject, as in the first If there is no overt linking word (or if such a word can be omitted at least in some persons or tenses), then the predicative nominal is example below. If the nominal is clearly vocative in intent, the preference is to use the vocative relation. treated as the head of the clause regardless of which of the six categories it falls in. In languages with fixed SVO order (like English), nsubj cop the final nominal is the predicate and the first nominal is the subject. In free-word-order languages it is possible that the first nominal vocative case is the predicate, and distinguishing the subject from the predicate is based on language-specific criteria. If there is an overt linking word used in equational constructions (category 1), then that word is treated as a copula and marked with 73 Guys , take it easy! 19 she is in the kitchenthe cop dependency, and is not the head of the clause. Exception: If the predicative element in the equation is a clause, then the

vocative copula verb is treated as the head of the clause, with the following clause as a ccomp (to prevent that the head of the smaller clause (4) gets two subjects). Note that in some languages it may be instead possible to analyze the clause as the subject ( csubj ), retaining 74 Marie , comment vas - tu ?the cop relation for the copula verb. If there is an overt word used in existential constructions (category 6), which is di!erent from the copula in equational constructions nsubj (either a di!erent lemma or with di!erent syntax), then it should be regarded as the head of existential clauses, taking a subject (and cop o"en a locative obl ). Function20 Wordit is Dependentshers All other cases of putative copula constructions (categories 2-5) should be assimilated to the equational and existential cases as seems to make most sense according to the inherent logic of the language concerned. In addition to core and non-core dependents, the predicate of a clause may be modified by function words: (5) A language should normally have at most one copula, but exceptions can be made in case of defective paradigms or if there are two verbs alternating in categories 1-5 (but not in 6) and where any meaning di!erence reflect at most TAME categories. 1. An aux modifies a verbal predicate by adding information relating to tense, aspect, mood, voice, or evidentiality.

2. A cop links a nonverbalnsubjTo illustrate predicate how to these its subject guidelines and mayapply add to diinformation!erent languages, relating we to nowtense, given aspect, parallel mood, examples voice, or from evidentiality. English, Irish, Swedish, Czech, Russian 3. A mark indicatescop that the predicate heads a (specific type of) subordinate clause. caseand Turkish. Auxiliaries, Copulas, Case nsubj21 it is for her Remember: theseaux are functionEnglish words, so they modify content words!

75 she has left case preposition or case clitic aux(6a) auxiliary In English,cop copula the verb “to be” is used in all of (1-6), and a copula analysis is therefore used consistently, except for equated clauses (1b) and modifying a nominal nsubj existentialsSimple (6), Clauses where the verb must be treated as the head of the clause. http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html cop aux:pass passive auxiliary expl (1a) nsubj 76 she(form is ofhappy be or get) 22 there is food nsubj nsubj nsubj aux cop cop case cop (6b) 77 she has been happy 16 she is my mother 19 she is in the kitchen

ccomp(1b) obl (4) mark case expl nsubj?

ccompnsubj 78 ( she knows ) that it is raining cop nsubj 23 there is food in the kitchencop 42 nsubj 20 it is hers advcl mark 17 the fact is that(5) she is my mother Irish 79 ( she left ) because (2)it was raining nsubj cop case Irish uses a copula verbnsubj in categories 1, 4 and 5, and a di!erent verb in categories 2, 3 and 6. Not only the verb but also the word order is cop di!erent. 21 it is for her 18 she is nice (6a) (1) 11 of 12 (3) 7/16/17, 10:56 PM expl nsubj

cop 22 there is food nsubj (6b)

24 is ise mo mháthair obl case expl nsubj

23 there is food in the kitchen 3 of 12 COP her my mother 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

(2) Irish Irish uses a copula verb in categories 1, 4 and 5, and a di!erent verb in categories 2, 3 and 6. Not only the verb but also the word order is di!erent. xcomp nsubj (1) 25 tá sí deas cop nsubj

is she nice 24 is ise mo mháthair

(3) COP her my mother

(2) xcomp nsubj xcomp nsubj

26 tá sí sa seomra folctha25 tá sí deas

is she in room bath is she nice (3) (4) xcomp nsubj

cop 26 tá sí sa seomra folctha nsubj

is she in room bath 27 is lei an leabhar (4)

cop COP with her the book nsubj

27 is lei an leabhar

4 of 12 COP with her the book 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

4 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Simple Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html

dislocated

70 to jani ton kserume poli kala

71 Il faut pas la manger , lashe plasticine nice

ccomp(1b) obl (4) mark case expl nsubj

ccompnsubj 78 ( she knows ) that it is raining cop nsubj 23 there is food in the kitchencop 43 nsubj 20 it is hers advcl mark 17 the fact is that(5) she is my mother Irish 79 ( she left ) because (2)it was raining nsubj cop case Irish uses a copula verbnsubj in categories 1, 4 and 5, and a di!erent verb in categories 2, 3 and 6. Not only the verb but also the word order is cop di!erent. 21 it is for her 18 she is nice (6a) (1) 11 of 12 (3) 7/16/17, 10:56 PM expl nsubj

cop 22 there is food nsubj (6b)

24 is ise mo mháthair obl case expl nsubj

23 there is food in the kitchen 3 of 12 COP her my mother 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

is she nice 24 is ise mo mháthair

(3) COP her my mother

(2) xcomp nsubj xcomp nsubj

26 tá sí sa seomra folctha25 tá sí deas

is she in room bath is she nice (3) (4) xcomp nsubj

cop 26 tá sí sa seomra folctha nsubj

is she in room bath 27 is lei an leabhar (4)

cop COP with her the book nsubj

27 is lei an leabhar

4 of 12 COP with her the book 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

4 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html

Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html home edit page issue tracker Custom Search home edit pageNominalsissue tracker Custom Search http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html

This page pertains to UD version 2. This page pertains to UD version 2. home edit page issue tracker Custom Search Nominals home edit page issue tracker Custom Search Nominals Thishome page pertainsedit page toissue UD trackerversion 2. Custom Search The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal minimally consists of a noun, properThis noun page or pertains pronoun. to UD version 2. minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. ThisNominals page pertains to UD version 2. obj obj Nominals 1 hon såg filmen . The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal 1 hon såg filmen . minimallyNominals consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun.

The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal she saw the-film she saw the-film minimallyThe UD annotation consistsobj of assumes a noun, theproper nominal, noun oror nounpronoun. phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal

obj minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. obj 1 hon såg filmen . obj 2 hon såg Batman 2 hon såg Batman 1 hon såg objfilmen .

she saw the-film she saw Batman 1 hon såg filmen . she saw Batman she sawobj the-film obj obj 2 honshe såg saw Batman the-film 3 hon såg den obj 3 hon såg den

2 hon såg objBatman

she saw it she saw Batman she saw it 2 hon såg Batman obj she saw Batman 3 honshe såg saw Batmanden Modifier Dependents obj Modifier Dependents obj 3 hon såg den A nominal head does not take any core argumentsshe saw it but may be associated with di!erent types of modifiers: A nominal head does not take any core arguments but may be associated with di!erent types of modifiers: 3 hon såg den 1. An nmod is a nominal phrase modifying the head of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. 1. An nmod is a nominal phrase modifyingshe saw the headit of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. 2. An appos is a nominal phrase that follows the head of another nominal phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence 2. An appos is a nominal phrase that followsshe saw the it head of another nominal phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence relation to it. Modifier Dependents relation to it. 3. An amod is an adjective modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 3. An amod is an adjective modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 4. A nummod is a numeral modifyingModifierA nominal the head Dependents ofdoes a nominal not take phrase. any core arguments but may be associated with di!erent types of modifiers: 4. A nummod is a numeral modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 5. An acl is a clause modifying the head of a nominal phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype. 5. An acl is a clause modifying theModifier head of a nominal Dependents phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype. A nominal1. An nmodhead does is a nominal not take phrase any core modifying arguments the but head may of beanother associated nominal with phrase, di!erent with types or without of modifiers: a special case marker. Adjecves,nmod A nominal 2.Determiners, An appos head does is a notnominal take anyphrase core that arguments follows thebut head may beof anotherassociated nominal with di phrase!erent and types stands of modifiers: in a co-reference or other equivalence nmod 1. Anrelation nmod to is it. a nominal phrase modifying the head of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. Treebanks may

4 the Chair 's office 3.1. optionallyAn An amodnmod is useis an a nominal nmod:possadjective phrase modifying to modifying distinguish the head the non-adpositional ofhead a nominal of another phrase. possessives. nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. 4 the Chair 's office Nominal2.4.2. AnAmodiﬁers An nummod apposappos isis is aa a nominalnumeral nominal phrase modifyingphrase that that the follows follows head theofthe a head headnominal of of anotheranother phrase. nominalnominal phrasephrase andand standsstands inin aa co-referenceco-reference oror otherother equivalence nmod nmod amod modifying nmod modifying 5.nominal relationAnrelation acl with to isto ait. it. clauseappos modifying the head of a nominal phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype.

5adjectivethe office of thecase Chair (except at the3.3. clauseAn An amodamod level) is is an anappositive adjective adjective modifying modifying the the head head of of a a nominal nominal phrase.phrase. 5 the office of the Chair nmod:poss non-adpositional4.4. A A nummodnummodnmod is is a a numeral numeral modifying modifying the the head head of of a a nominal nominal phrase.phrase. nummodappos appos possessive5.5. An An acl acl is is a a clause clause modifying modifying the the head head of of a a nominal nominal phrase, phrase, withwith thethe relativerelative clauseclause acl:relclacl:relcl asas anan importantimportant subtype.subtype. modifying 4 the Chair 's office 6numeralSam , the managernmod:tmod modifying temporal nominal in an NP 6 Sam , the manager nmodnmod nmod amod amod

7 Sam eats red meat 44thethe office Chair of 's theoffice Chair 7 Sam eats red meat 5 the office of the Chair

nummod nmod:possnmod nummod appos

8 Sam spent forty dollars 8 Sam spent forty dollars 55thethe Chair office of's the officeChair 6 Sam , the manager acl:relcl acl:relcl apposappos amod 9 Sam spent everything he had 9 Sam spent everything he had 676SamSamSam eats, , thethe red manager manager meat 44

amodamodnummod Function Word Dependents Function Word Dependents787SamSamSam eats spenteats red redforty meatmeatdollars

nummodnummodacl:relcl

1 of 2 8 Sam spent forty dollars 7/17/17, 2:41 PM 1 of 2 89 SamSam spentspent fortyeverything dollars he had 7/17/17, 2:41 PM

acl:relclacl:relcl

Function99SamSam spent spent Word everything everything Dependents he he hadhad

Function Word Dependents 1 of 2 7/17/17, 2:41 PM

1 of 2 7/19/17, 7:10 PM 1 of 2 7/17/17, 2:41 PM Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html

home edit page issue tracker Custom Search home edit pageNominalsissue tracker Custom Search http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html

This page pertains to UD version 2. This page pertains to UD version 2. Nominals Nominals home edit page issue tracker Custom Search The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. This page pertains to UD version 2. obj obj

1 hon såg filmen . 1 hon såg filmen . Nominals

she saw the-film she saw the-film The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal obj minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. obj

2 hon såg Batman 2 hon såg Batman obj

she saw Batman 1 hon såg filmen . she saw Batman

obj obj she saw the-film 3 hon såg den 3 hon såg den obj

she saw it she saw it 2 hon såg Batman nmod http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/nmod.html she saw Batman ModifierModifier Dependents Dependents obj

A nominal head does not take any core arguments but may be associated with di!erent types of modifiers: A nominal head does not take any core arguments3 hon såg but denmay be associated with di!erent types of modifiers: 1. An nmod is a nominal phrase modifying the head of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. 1. An nmod is a nominal phrase modifying the head of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. 2. An appos is a nominal phrase that followshome theu/dep head ofedit another page nominalissue tracker phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence Custom Search 2. An appos is a nominal phrase that followsshe saw the it head of another nominal phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence relation to it. relation to it. 3. An amod is an adjective modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 3. An amod is an adjectiveNominals modifying the head of a nominal phrase. http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html 4. A nummod is a numeral modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 4. A nummod is a numeral modifying theThis head page of a nominal pertains phrase. to UD version 2. 5. An acl is a clause modifying the head of a nominal phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype. 5. An acl is a clause modifying theModifier head of a nominal Dependents phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype.

Adjecves,nmod A nominal Determiners,Nominals head does may not also take contain any core the followingarguments typical but may function be associated word dependents: with di!erent types of modifiers: nmod

4 the Chair 's office 1. Annmod nmodDeterminers is: nominala nominal attach phrase modifier to themodifying head of the the head nominal of another with the nominal det relation. phrase, with or without a special case marker. 4 the Chair 's office Nominal2. modiﬁers An apposAdpositions is a nominal attach phrase to the that head follows of the the nominal head of with another the case nominal relation. phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence nmod nmod The nmod relation is used for nominal dependents of anotherclf noun or noun phrase and functionally corresponds to an attribute, or genitive amod modifying nmod modifying nominalrelation withClassifiers to it. appos attach to a numeral or possessive with the relation. det determiner 5adjectivethe office of thecase Chair (except at the3. clause Ancomplement. amod level) is anappositive adjective modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 5 the office of the Chair nmod:poss non-adpositional4. A nummod is a numeralnmod modifyingdet:predet the head of a nominal phrase. nummodappos New fromdet v2: Thecase nmod relation was previously used also for nominal dependents of verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The latter are now appos possessive5. An acl is a clause modifying predeterminer the head of a nominal phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype. modifying covered10 the byChair the new's obl office relation. 6numeralSam , the managernmod:tmod modifying temporal nominal in an NP 6 Sam , the manager nmod In conjunction withnmod the case relation, nmod provides a uniform analysis for the possessive alternation (with the option of a subtype like amod case amod nmod:possdet to distinguishdet non-adpositional case): 7 Sam eats red meat 4 the Chair 's office 7 Sam eats red meat 11 the office of the Chair nummod nmod nmod:poss nummod det case nummod 8 Sam spent forty dollars clf 8 Sam spent forty dollars 5 the office1 the of theChair Chair 's office acl:relcl 12 sān gè xuéshēng acl:relcl appos nmod

9 Sam spent everything he had case 9 Sam spent everything he had det det 6 Sam , thethree manager clf student 45 2 the office of the Chair amod Function Word Dependents Function Word Dependents7 Samnmod eats inred other meatlanguages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] nummod [yue ] [zh] . 1 of 2 7/17/17,© 2014 Universal 2:41 Dependencies PM contributors. Site powered by Annodoc and brat 1 of 2 8 Sam spent forty dollars 7/17/17, 2:41 PM

acl:relcl

9 Sam spent everything he had

1 of 2 7/17/17, 2:41 PM

1 of 1 7/19/17, 7:04 PM

2 of 2 7/17/17, 2:41 PM Other Constructions http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.html compound http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/compound.html

fixed are used to analyze fixed grammaticized MWEs like in spite of (see above) flat are used to analyze exocentric semi-fixed MWEs like Barack Obama compound are used to analyze (endocentric) compounds like noun phrase home u/dep edit pageOtherissue tracker Constructions Custom Search http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/specific-syntax.html Structures analyzed with fixed and flat are headless by definition and are consistently annotated by attaching all non-first elements to the first and onlyCompounds, allowing outgoing dependents from the first Flat element. names, This page pertains to UD version 2. fixed are used to analyze fixed grammaticized MWEs like in spite of (see above) obl case flat are used to analyze exocentric semi-fixed MWEs like Barack Obama Fixedfixed expressions fixed compound are used to analyze (endocentric) compounds like noun phrase 15 We had a nice time in spite of the rain . flat names without head-modifier compoundcompound : compound Structures analyzed with fixed and flat are headless by definition and are consistently annotated by attaching all non-first elements to structure nsubj the first and only allowing outgoing dependents from the first element. flat The compound relationOther is one Constructions of three relations for multiword expressions (MWEs) (the other two being fixed andhttp://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/specific-syntax.html flat ). It is used for flat compound:prt verb particle fixed fixed grammatical expressions obl 16 Martin Luther King had anya dream kind of. X0 compounding: noun compounds (e.g., phone book), but alsocase verb and adjective compounds that are more common in With fixed and flat, the first wordfixed heads compound:svc serialother verb languages construction (such as Persian or Japanese light verb constructions).fixed By contrast, compounds are annotated to show their modificationall otherstructure,fixed words areincluding used in tothe a analyze regular expression. fixed concept grammaticized of head: MWEs like in spite of (see above) 15flatWe had are useda nice to timeanalyze in exocentricspite of semi-fixed the rain . MWEs like Barack Obama compound obj compound are used to analyze (endocentric) compounds like noun phrase det nsubj 1 Phonecompound book flat nsubj compound compound flat Structures analyzed with fixed and flat are headless by definition and are consistently annotated by attaching all non-first elements to 17 I bought a computerfor disk particle verbsdrive (with theenclosure subtypethe .compound:prt first16 andMartin only Luther allowing): King outgoing had a dependentsdream . from the first element.

compound:prt By contrast, compoundsobl are annotated to show their modification structure, including a regular concept of head: case fixed 2 put up fixed Comparatives obj det 15 We had a nice time in spite compoundof the rain . for serial verbs (with the subtype compound:svcnsubj ): compound compound The syntax of comparative constructions poses various challenges for linguistic theory. For English, many of these are discussed in Bresnan nsubj 46 (1973) and Huddleston and Pullum (2002, chapter 13). We give a discussion17 I flat ofbought equality a computercomparisons disk ( That cardrive is as big asenclosure mine) and . obj flat inequality scalar comparisons nsubj(Sue is tallercompound:svc than Jim).

16 Martin Luther King had a dream . In constructions of the form3 Musa as X as Ybé or the same X aslá Yèbi, X and Y can be of a range of syntactic types, leading to surface forms such as those By contrast, compounds are annotated to show their modification structure, including a regular concept of head: exemplified below: Comparatives Musa came took knife Commitment is as important as a player’s talent. obj The syntax of comparative constructionsdet poses various challenges for linguistic theory. For English, many of these are discussed in Bresnan Get the cash to him compoundas soon as possible. compound The relation (nor any subtype thereof)(1973)nsubj and is not Huddleston used to link and an Pullum inherentlycompound (2002, reflexivecompound chapter verb 13). with We givethe reflexive a discussion morpheme, of equality despite comparisons the (That car is as big as mine) and

I put in as muchsimilarity flour as theof this recipe construction called for. to particle verbs.inequality The current scalar UD comparisons guideline is (toSue use is antaller appropriate than Jim). subtype of the expl relation. 17 I bought a computer disk drive enclosure . We note that the head of the whole construction appears to be theIn head constructions of the X phrase. of the We form can as simply X as Y orsay: the same X as Y, X and Y can be of a range of syntactic types, leading to surface forms such as those compound in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] exemplified below: Commitment is[hi important.] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] Comparatives Get the cash to[ vihim] [yue soon.] [zh] Commitment is as important as a player’s talent. I put in flour. Get the cash to him as soon as possible. The syntax of comparative constructions poses various challenges for linguistic theory. For English, many of these are discussed in Bresnan I put in as much flour as the recipe called for. We then say that the first as is an independent modifier in the(1973) comparative, and Huddleston modifying and something Pullum (2002, in the chapter X phrase, 13). in We part give because a discussion the of equality comparisons (That car is as big as mine) and following as Y is fairly optional: inequalityWe note scalar that comparisons the head of (theSue whole is taller construction than Jim). appears to be the head of the X phrase. We can simply say: Commitment is (just) as important. In constructions of the form as X as Y or the same X as Y, X and Y can be of a range of syntactic types, leading to surface forms such as those . Commitment is important. exemplified below: © 2014 Universal Dependencies contributors. Site powered by Annodoc and brat ?Get the cash to him (just) as soon. Get the cash to him soon. I put in (just) as much flour. CommitmentI put in flour. is as important as a player’s talent. Get the cash to him as soon as possible. advmod However, this first as may not modify the head of X, it may modify Wean existingthen say modifier that the of first the as head is an of independent X. Its role is adverbialmodifier in ( the comparative,) modifying something in the X phrase, in part because the I put in as much flour as the recipe called for. consistent with other kinds of degree modification: following as Y is fairly optional: We note that the head of the whole construction appears to be the head of the X phrase. We can simply say: advmod Commitment is (just) as important.

Commitment?Get the iscash important. to him (just) as soon. 18 Commitment is as important as a player ’s talent . Get theI put cash in (just)to him as soon. much flour. advmod amod I put in flour. However, this first as may not modify the head of X, it may modify an existing modifier of the head of X. Its role is adverbial ( advmod ) 19 I put in as much flour as the recipe called for . We thenconsistent say that with the otherfirst as kinds is an independentof degree modification: modifier in the comparative, modifying something in the X phrase, in part because the following as Y is fairly optional: We then take the complement of the comparative as an oblique dependent of the first part. It is clear that the material in the complement as advmod Y can be clausal. It is also usually optional, as indicated above. For thatCommitment reason, we is usually (just) as make important. the complement an advcl , with the second as analyzed as a mark. That gives us: 18?GetCommitment the cash to himis as (just) asimportant soon. as a player ’s talent . I put in (just) as much flour. advmod amod punct advmod However,advcl this first as may not modify the head of X, it may modify an existing modifier of the head of X. Its role is adverbial ( advmod ) nsubj obl mark19 I put in as much flour as the recipe called for . aux case nsubj obl advmod det advmod consistentadvmod with other kindscase of degree modification:

We then take the complement of the comparative as an oblique dependent of the first part. It is clear that the material in the complement as 20 I do n't hear from my brother as often as I previously heard from him . advmod Y can be clausal. It is also usually optional, as indicated above. For that reason, we usually make the complement an advcl , with the 18 Commitmentsecond as analyzed is as asimportant a mark. That as a givesplayer us: ’s talent .

advmod amod 3 of 6 punct 7/17/17, 2:42 PM advmod advcl 19 I put in as nsubj much flourobl as the recipe called for . mark 1 of 1 aux case nsubj obl 7/17/17, 3:15 PM advmod det advmod advmod case We then take the complement of the comparative as an oblique dependent of the first part. It is clear that the material in the complement as Y can 20be clausal.I do n't It is alsohear usually from optional, my brother as indicated as above.often For as that I previously reason, we usuallyheard frommake thehim complement . an advcl , with the second as analyzed as a mark. That gives us:

punct 3 of 6 advmod advcl 7/17/17, 2:42 PM nsubj obl mark aux case nsubj obl advmod det advmod advmod case

20 I do n't hear from my brother as often as I previously heard from him .

3 of 6 7/17/17, 2:42 PM TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >parataxis (...

punct parataxis parataxis conj conj cc advmod nsubj cop discourse nmod advmod discourse obj case nmod:poss nsubj det nummod case INTJ INTJ PRON# VERB# DET# NOUN# ADP NUM# NOUN# CCONJ ADV PRON# AUX# ADV PROPN# PART NOUN# 296 ok well i have a crush on 2 guys but unforchunitly it is almost valentine s day afnd i ju

punct parataxis parataxis conj

conj conj cc cc nmod nsubj obl nsubj case acl:relcl advmod compound:prt case aux obj det nsubj VERB# ADP ADP PRON# CCONJ PRON# AUX# VERB# NUM# ADP DET# NOUN# PRON# VERB# broke up with my and i have dated one of the guys i like and one

punct parataxis parataxis

conj parataxis obl nsubj cc case vocative obj cop nummod nsubj nmod:poss nsubj nmod:poss det NOUN# VERB# ADP PRON# NOUN# NOUN# PRON# VERB# PRON# NOUN# PRON# AUX# DET# guy lives in my naborhood guy i need your help i am a girl but i

punct parataxis Example conj obj obj cc nmod:poss aux nsubj det case nsubj VERB# DET# NOUN# PART NOUN# PRON# AUX# PRON# VERB# PUNCT need a guy s help what shoul i do ? [context] [conllu]

punct nmod case nmod nsubj nummod? case cop amod compound PROPN# AUX# NUM# ADP NUM# ADJ# NOUN# ADP PROPN# PROPN# PUNCT 297 Hancocks is one of four fabric stores in Fort Smith . [context] [conllu]

punct nmod case nsubj nmod:poss acl obl cop amod mark case PRON# AUX# NUM# ADP PRON# ADJ# NOUN# PART VERB# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 298 This is one of my favorite places to eat for lunch . [context] [conllu]

punct advcl obl obl mark obl xcomp case nsubj:pass 47 case nsubj mark det aux:pass det case PRON# VERB# PART VERB# ADP DET# NOUN# SCONJ PRON# AUX# VERB# ADP DET# NOUN# ADP NUM# ADP 299 I used to tan down the street before I was referred to this place by one of my

punct

PUNCT . [context] [conllu]

punct

nsubj nmod nmod:poss case nmod nmod case compound det case aux obj case PROPN# PART NOUN# NOUN# ADP DET# NOUN# ADP PROPN# AUX# VERB# NOUN# ADP NUM# ADP 300 Elena 's motorcycle tour through the region around Chernobyl has revived interest in one of the most se

punct nmod nmod case det amod amod case ADJ# NOUN# ADP NOUN# PUNCT nuclear disasters in history . [context] [conllu]

2 of 9 7/19/17, 12:11 PM TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >parataxis (...

punct parataxis parataxis conj

punct parataxis parataxis

punct parataxis Example conj obj obj cc nmod:poss aux nsubj det case nsubj VERB# DET# NOUN# PART NOUN# PRON# AUX# PRON# VERB# PUNCT need a guy s help what shoul i do ? [context] [conllu]

punct nmod case nmod nsubj nummod case cop amod compound PROPN# AUX# NUM# ADP NUM# ADJ# NOUN# ADP PROPN# PROPN# PUNCT 297 Hancocks is one of four fabric stores in Fort Smith . [context] [conllu]

punct nmod case nsubj nmod:poss acl obl cop amod mark case PRON# AUX# NUM# ADP PRON# ADJ# NOUN# PART VERB# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 298 This is one of my favorite places to eat for lunch . [context] [conllu]

punct advcl obl obl mark obl xcomp case nsubj:pass 48 case nsubj mark det aux:pass det case PRON# VERB# PART VERB# ADP DET# NOUN# SCONJ PRON# AUX# VERB# ADP DET# NOUN# ADP NUM# ADP 299 I used to tan down the street before I was referred to this place by one of my

punct

PUNCT . [context] [conllu]

punct

punct nmod nmod case det amod amod case ADJ# NOUN# ADP NOUN# PUNCT nuclear disasters in history . [context] [conllu]

2 of 9 7/19/17, 12:11 PM TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >obl:agent...

punct acl:relcl nsubj obl nsubj:pass cop conj case aux cc:preconj cc amod advmod amod aux:pass amod aux:pass PRON# AUX# CCONJ ADJ# NOUN# CCONJ AUX# VERB# ADP ADJ# ADJ# NOUN# PRON# AUX# ADV AUX# VERB# 487 This is either gross incompetence or was done with dark ulterior motives that can scarcely be guessed at . [context] [conllu]

punct ccomp mark nsubj conj nsubj cc:preconj cc cop PRON# VERB# SCONJ CCONJ PROPN# CCONJ PROPN# AUX# ADV PUNCT 488 you know that both o'neal and matt are out ? [context] [conllu]

advmod punct nsubj nmod punct case obl amod advcl case det amod advmod mark ﬁxed amod ADV PUNCT DET# NOUN# ADP ADJ# ADJ# NOUN# VERB# PART SCONJ VERB# ADP ADP ADJ# NOUN# 489 However , the result from Ordinary Least Squares was not as expected due to different sign for both

punct nmod case conj cc:preconj cc NOUN# CCONJ NOUN# PUNCT slope & intercept . [context] [conllu]

advmod punct punct conj nsubj obj cop cc:preconj case acl nmod:poss Other Constructionsadvmod det mark http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.htmlamod compound ADV ADV PUNCT PRON# AUX# ADP DET# NOUN# SCONJ VERB# CCONJ PRON# ADJ# NOUN# NOUN# CCONJ PRON# 490 Right now , we are in the process of evaluating both our new hire needs and our summer

punct conj

cc obl nmod aux obj case case aux det det det CCONJhomeAUXedit# pageAUX# issue trackerVERB# DET# NOUN# ADP DET# NOUN# ADP CustomDET# SearchNOUN# PUNCT and will be making those decisions after the first of the year . [context] [conllu] This page pertains to UD version 2.

ccomp obl advcl case obl det Othernsubj Constructionscase obj conj compound aux amod mark cc:preconj cc compound PROPN# AUX# VERB# ADP ADJ# NOUN# PART VERB# CCONJ NOUN# CCONJ NOUN# ADP DET# PROPN# PROPN# 491 NASAThis sectionis containslooking detailed to discussionprivate of companiesparticular linguistic to constructionslaunch both that fall outsidesupplies (or cut across)and theastronauts main categories to the of simpleInternational Space Station ,

clause,ccomp complex clauses, and nominal phrases.

punct punct Coordination obl:tmod nsubj det PRON# EllipsisVERB# DET# NOUN# PUNCT it Multiwordannounced expressions this week . Comparative constructions [context] [conllu] Paratactic constructions Punctuation punct Coordinaon ccomp mark nsubj:pass nsubj nmod:poss aux:pass conj advmod aux case cc:preconj cc ADV NOUN# AUX# VERB# SCONJ PROPN# PART NOUN# AUX# CCONJ VERB# CCONJ VERB# PUNCT Coordination cc coordinating conjunction 492 Onlyconj non-initialtime conjunctwill reveal whether Griffin 's expectations are either exceeded or confirmed . (attaches to successive conjunct) [context]As [conllu]discussed in the section on complex clauses, we treat coordinate structures asymmetrically by attaching all non-first conjuncts to the first conjunct via the conj relation. Coordinating conjunctions and punctuation delimiting the conjuncts are attached to the immediately following conjunct using the cc and punctcc:preconj relations respectively. preconjunction This analysis is applied to all cases of coordinationpunct at the clause, phrase conj punct or word level. cc cc:preconj nsubj cop advmod nsubj conj aux obj advmod det conj advmod cc advmod det ADV ADV AUXconj# DET# NOUN# ADV cc ADJ# CCONJ ADJ# PUNCT CCONJ PRON# ADV AUX# PART VERB# DET# punct 493 Not only are these people completely inefficient and ineffective , but they just do n't give a darn . 1 He came home , took a shower and immediately went to bed . [context] [conllu] conj cc nsubj conj cc:preconj cc cop punct CCONJ2 He read the newspaperPROPN# CCONJ and a goodPROPN book# . AUX# ADJ# PUNCT 494 Both Tina and Vicky are excellent . conj cc [context] [conllu] 49 3 He read one or two books .

Ellipsis

The UD approach to ellipsis can be summarized as follows:

1. If the elided element has no overt dependents, we do nothing. 2. If the elided element has overt dependents, we promote one of these to take the role of the head. 3. If the elided element is a predicate and the promoted element a core argument, we use the orphan relation when attaching other non-functional dependents to the promoted head.

Ellipsis in Nominals

If the head nominal is elided, we promote dependents in the following order: amod > nummod > det > nmod > case .

Examples:

2 of 17 conj 7/17/17, 10:02 PM obj det obj nsubj amod nsubj det

4 Er kauft sich ein grünes Auto und sie kauft sich ein rotes .

He buys himself a green car and she buys herself a red .

1 of 6 7/17/17, 2:42 PM Basic Dependencies: ComplexBasic Dependencies: Clauses Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.htmlhttp://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html

conj conj nsubj obj cc orphannsubj obj cc orphan

7 I like tea and you7 I coffeelike . tea and you coffee .

conj conj xcomp obj orphanxcomp obj orphan nsubj nsubj

8 Mary wants to buy a book8 Mary and Jennywants a toCD buy . a book and Jenny a CD .

conj conj nsubj obj orphannsubj obj orphan

9 They had left the company ,9 manyThey hadfor goodleft the . company , many for good .

xcomp obj rootxcomp orphanobj root orphan nsubj nsubj

10 Mary wants to buy a book10 Mary . ROOT wants And Jennyto buy a bookCD .. ROOT And Jenny a CD .

Note that the orphan relationNote is only that used the orphanwhen an ordinaryrelation is relation only used would when be an misleading ordinary relation(for example, would when be misleading attaching (foran object example, to a when attaching an object to a subject). In particular, the ordinarysubject). cc Inrelation particular, should the be ordinary used for cc the relation coordinating should conjunction, be used for the which coordinating attaches to conjunction, the pseudo-constituent which attaches to the pseudo-constituent formed through the orphan dependency.formed through the orphan dependency.

Subordination Subordination

Complex clauses involving subordinationComplex clauses arise becauseinvolving a subordination core or non-core arise dependent because a is core realized or non-core as a clausal dependent structure. is realized We distinguish as a clausal four structure. We distinguish four basic types: basic types:

1. Clausal subjects ( csubj ). 1. Clausal subjects ( csubj ). 2. Clausal complements (objects),2. Clausal divided complements into those with (objects), obligatory divided control into (thosexcomp with) and obligatory those without control ( (ccompxcomp).) and those without ( ccomp ). 3. Adverbial clause modifiers (3.advcl Adverbial). clause modifiers ( advcl ). 4. Adnominal clause modifiers4. ( acl Adnominal) (with relativeclause modifiers clauses as ( aclan important) (with relative subtype clauses in many as an languages). important subtype in many languages).

In addition, we discuss secondaryIn addition, predicates we, whichdiscuss are secondary analyzed predicates as clausal, whichcomplements are analyzed or adnominal as clausal clause complements modifiers. or adnominal clause modifiers.

Clausal Subjects Clausal Subjects

A clausal subject is a clausal syntacticA clausal subject subject of is a a clause. clausal Its syntactic governor subject may be of aa verbclause. or aIts nonverbal governor maypredicate. be a verb If the or governor a nonverbal is in predicate. the If the governor is in the passive, the subtype csubj:passpassive, can the be subtype used. csubj:pass can be used.

csubj csubj

11 What she said makes sense11 What she said makes sense

csubj csubj Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html

12 What she said is interesting 12 What she said is interesting

csubj:pass csubj:pass Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html ccomp mark xcomp 13 What she said was well received 13 What she said was well received 16 The boss said to start digging Clausal Complements (Objects) Clausalxcomp Complements (Objects) ccomp mark xcomp

17 We started digging A clausal complement of a verb or adjective is a dependent clause which is a core argument. That is, it functions like an object of the verb, or A clausal complement of a verb16 orThe adjective boss saidis a dependentto start clause digging which is a core argument. That is, it functions like an object of the verb, or adjective. The keyComplement adjective.di"erence here is that, in the first sentence, whoClauses will be starting to do the digging is a question of anaphora (it may be some xcomp contextually relevant individual or group, which may or may not include the boss), while in both sentences, the person or persons who are ccomp mark subordinator, xcompccomp a predicate’s clausal (or starting to do somethingccomp are necessarily17 theWe same started people diggingmark who are digging (i.e., in the second sentence, the subject of digging can only be clausal complementizer,mark or predicate A/N) complement we). This is what distinguishes ccomp and xcomp . complement inﬁnitive marker that shares an argument with The14 keyHe disays"erence that you here like is that,to swim in the first sentence, who will be starting to do the digging is a question of anaphora (it may be some 14 He says that you like to swim the matrix predicate The controlled subject of the xcompcontextually can also be anrelevant obj –individual indeed, it or is group,usually which the obj may when or may one not is presentinclude the(Visser’s boss), generalization). while in both sentences, UD the person or persons who are starting to do somethingccomp are necessarily the same people who are digging (i.e., in the second sentence, the subject of digging can only be adoptsBasic an Dependencies: object withccomp infinitive Complex (or “raising Clauses to object”) analysismark ofxcomp such constructions (rather than thehttp://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html “small clause” or “exceptional case mark marking” analyses that are prominent we in). many This is recent what strandsdistinguishes of generative ccomp grammar). and xcomp So. UD uses analyses like the following for cases where there15 Heis obligatory says you controllike to swim between15 Hean objectsays that and you the like subject to ofswim a subordinate clause: The controlled subject of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD

Such clausal complements mayadopts beccomp finite an object orccomp nonfinite. with infinitive However, (or if “raising the subject to object”) of the clausal analysis complement of such constructions is controlled (rather (that thanis, must the be “small the clause” or “exceptional case xcomp mark xcomp same as theobj higher subjectmark or marking” object, with analyses no other that possible are prominent interpretation), in many the recent appropriate strands ofrelation generative is xcomp grammar).. So UD uses analyses like the following for cases

16 The boss saidwhere16 to He there saysstart is you obligatory digginglike to swimcontrol between an object and the subject of a subordinate clause: 18 Sue persuaded Fred to accept the job.

xcomp xcomp xcomp discourse obj obj mark 17 We started digging 2 of 6 7/20/17, 2:54 PM 2 of 5 19 Please let us know 18 Sue persuaded Fred to accept the job. 7/20/17, 2:00 PM The key di"erence here is that, in the first sentence, who will be starting50 to do the digging is a question of anaphora (it may be some Finally, ccomp is used with copulas in equational constructionsxcomp involving full clauses. contextually relevant individualdiscourse or group,obj which may or may not include the boss), while in both sentences, the person or persons who are starting to do something are necessarily the same people who are digging (i.e., in the second sentence, the subject of digging can only be 19 Please let us know we). This is ccompwhat distinguishes ccomp and xcomp . nsubj

Finally, ccomp is used with copulas in equational constructions involving full clauses. 20 The important thingThe controlledis to subjectkeep calm. of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD adopts an object with infinitive (or “raising to object”) analysis of such constructions (rather than the “small clause” or “exceptional case ccomp ccomp nsubj marking” analyses that are prominent innsubj many recent strands of generative grammar). So UD uses analyses like the following for cases

where there is obligatory control between an object and the subject of a subordinate clause: 21 The problem is that this has never20 The been important tried . thing is to keep calm.

(In these cases, the copula is treated as a headxcomp to preserve the integrityccomp of clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two obj marknsubj subjects. This is not an optimal solution given the analysis of equational constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is treated as the head, but18 itSue is the persuaded preferred21 FredThe solution problemto foraccept now.)is thethat job. this has never been tried .

(In thesexcomp cases, the copula is treated as a head to preserve the integrity of clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two discourse obj Adverbial Clause Modifiers subjects. This is not an optimal solution given the analysis of equational constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is 19 Please treatedlet asus the know head, but it is the preferred solution for now.) An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. This includes things suchFinally, as accomp temporal is used clause, with consequence, copulas in equational conditional constructions clause, purpose involving clause, full etc. clauses. The dependent must be clausal (or else it is an advmod ) and the dependentAdverbial is the main Clause predicate Modifiers of the clause. ccomp nsubj An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. advcl This includes things such as a temporal clause, consequence, conditional clause, purpose clause, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or 20 The important thing is to keep calm. else it is an advmod ) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause. 22 The accident happened as night was falling ccomp nsubj

advcl advcl 21 The problem is that this has never been tried . 23 If you know who did it, you should22 tellThe the accident teacher happened as night was falling (In these cases, the copula is treated as a head to preserve the integrity of clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two

subjects.advcl This is not an optimal solution givenadvcl the analysis of equational constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is treated as the head, but it is the preferred solution for now.) 24 He talked to him in order to secure23 theIf youaccount know who did it, you should tell the teacher

Adverbialadvcl Clause Modifiers advcl

25 He was upset whenAn adverbial I talked clauseto him24 modifierHe talked is to a clausehim in whichorder to modifies secure athe verb account or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. This includes things such as a temporal clause, consequence, conditional clause, purpose clause, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or else it is an advmod ) and the dependentadvcl is the main predicate of the clause. Adnominal Clause Modifiers 25 He was upset when I talked to him An adnominal clause modifier is a clause which modifiesadvcl a nominal.

22 The accidentAdnominal happened as Clause night was Modifiers falling acl

An adnominaladvcl clause modifier is a clause which modifies a nominal. 26 the issues as he sees them 23 If you know who did it, you should tell the teacher acl

advcl 3 of 5 26 the issues as he sees them 7/20/17, 2:00 PM 24 He talked to him in order to secure the account

advcl 3 of 5 7/20/17, 2:00 PM 25 He was upset when I talked to him

Adnominal Clause Modifiers

An adnominal clause modifier is a clause which modifies a nominal.

acl

26 the issues as he sees them

3 of 5 7/20/17, 2:00 PM Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html

ccomp mark xcomp

16 The boss said to start digging

xcomp

Nominals 17 We started digging http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html

The key di"erence here is that, in the first sentence, who will be starting to do the digging is a question of anaphora (it may be some contextually relevant individual or group, which may or may not include the boss), while in both sentences, the person or persons who are starting to do something are necessarily the same people who are digging (i.e., in the second sentence, the subject of digging can only be we). This is what distinguishes ccomp and xcomp . home edit page issue tracker Custom Search The controlled subject of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD adopts an object with infinitive (or “raising to object”) analysis of such constructions (rather than the “small clause” or “exceptional case Thismarking” page pertains analyses to that UD are version prominent 2. in many recent strands of generative grammar). So UD uses analyses like the following for cases Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses where there is obligatory controlhttp://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html between an object and the subject of a subordinate clause: Nominals xcomp obj mark

ccomp The UD annotation assumes the nominal, or noun phrase, as one of the basic structures that we expect to find in all languages. A nominal mark xcomp 18 Sue persuaded Fred to accept the job. ccomp minimally consists of a noun, proper noun or pronoun. Basic Dependencies: Complex Clausesmark xcomp http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html 16 The boss said to start digging xcomp discourse obj 16 The boss said to start digging obj xcomp

191 honPlease såg filmenlet . us know 17 We startedxcomp digging ccomp mark xcomp 17 We started digging Finally, ccomp is used with copulas in equational constructions involving full clauses. The key di"erence here is that, in the first sentence, who will be starting to do the digging is a question of anaphora (it may be some 16 The boss said to start digging she saw the-film contextuallyThe key di" erencerelevant here individual is that, or in group, the first which sentence, may or who may willnot includebe starting the boss),to do thewhile digging in both is sentences, a question the of personanaphora or persons (it may whobe some are starting to do something are necessarily the same people who are diggingobj (i.e., in the secondccomp sentence, the subject of digging can only be contextuallyxcomp relevant individual or group, which may or may not include the nsubjboss), while in both sentences, the person or persons who are ccomp xcomp we). This is what distinguishes and . 2 hon såg Batman 17startingWe started to do somethingdigging are necessarily the same people20 The who important are digging thing (i.e., in theis secondto keep sentence, calm. the subject of digging can only be we). This is what distinguishes ccomp and xcomp . The controlled subject of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD The key di"erence here is that, in the first sentence, who will be starting to do the digging ccompis a question of anaphora (it may be some adopts an object with infinitive (or “raising to object”) analysisshe of sawsuch Batman constructionsnsubj (rather than the “small clause” or “exceptional case The controlled subject of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD contextuallymarking” analyses relevant that individual are prominent or group, in many which recent may or strands may not of generative include the grammar). boss), while So UDin both uses sentences,analyses like the the person following or persons for cases who are adopts an object with infinitive (or “raising to object”)21 analysisThe problem ofobj such constructionsis that this has (rather never than been the tried “small . clause” or “exceptional case startingwhere thereto do issomething obligatory are control necessarily between the an same object people and the who subject are digging of a subordinate (i.e., in the clause: second sentence, the subject of digging can only be wemarking”). This is whatanalyses distinguishes that are prominent ccomp and in manyxcomp recent. strands3 hon såg of generativeden grammar). So UD uses analyses like the following for cases (In these cases, the copula is treated as a head to preserve the integrity of clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two where there is obligatoryxcomp control between an object and the subject of a subordinate clause: obj mark subjects. This is not an optimal solution given the analysis of equational constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is The controlled subject of the xcomp can also be an obj – indeed, it is usually the obj when one is present (Visser’s generalization). UD treatedshe as saw the it head, but it is the preferred solution for now.) adopts18 Sue an persuadedobject with Fred infinitivexcomp to (oraccept “raising the job. to object”) analysis of such constructions (rather than the “small clause” or “exceptional case obj mark marking” analyses that are prominent in many recent strands of generative grammar). So UD uses analyses like the following for cases xcomp where18 Sue there persuadeddiscourse is obligatory objFred control to betweenaccept the an job.object andAdverbial the subject Clause of a subordinate Modifiers clause: Modifier Dependents 19 Please let xcompus know discourse xcompobj An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. obj mark Finally, ccomp is used with copulas in equational constructionsAThis nominal includes involving head things does full suchnot clauses. take as a any temporal core arguments clause, consequence, but may be associated conditional with clause, di!erent purpose types ofclause, modifiers: etc. The dependent must be clausal (or 19 Please let us know 18 Sue persuaded Fred to accept the job. else it is an advmod ) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause. 1. An nmod is a nominal phrase modifying the head of another nominal phrase, with or without a special case marker. Treebanks may Finally, ccomp is used with copulasccomp in equational constructions involving full clauses. xcompnsubj optionally use nmod:poss to distinguish non-adpositional possessives. discourse obj advcl 2. An appos is a nominal phrase that follows the head of another nominal phrase and stands in a co-reference or other equivalence 20 The important thing is to keep calm. 19 Please let us know ccomp relation to it. nsubj 22 The accident happened as night was falling ccomp 3. An amod is an adjective modifying the head of a nominal phrase. nsubj Finally,20 The ccomp important is used thing with copulas is to in equationalkeep calm. constructions involving full clauses. 4. A nummod is a numeraladvcl modifying the head of a nominal phrase. 21 The problem is that this has never been tried . 5. An acl is a clause modifying the head of a nominal phrase, with the relative clause acl:relcl as an important subtype. ccomp ccomp nsubj nsubj 23 If you know who did it, you should tell the teacher (In these cases, the copula is treated as a head to preserve the integrity of clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two subjects.21 The Thisproblem is not anis optimal that this solution has never given been the analysis tried . of equationalnmod constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is 20 The important thing is to keep calm. advcl treated as the head, but it is the preferred solution for now.)

(In these cases, the copula is treatedccomp as a head to preserve4 the the office integrity of the of Chair clause boundaries and prevent one predicate to be assigned two nsubj 24 He talked to him in order to secure the account subjects. This is not an optimal solution given the analysis of equational constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is Adverbial Clause Modifiers nmod:poss 21treatedThe problem as the head, is butthat it this is the has preferred never been solution tried .for now.) advcl 5 the Chair 's office (InAn these adverbial cases, clause the copula modifier is treated is a clause as awhich head modifiesto preserve a verb the or integrity other predicate of clause (adjective, boundaries etc.), and as prevent a modifier one not predicate as a core to complement. be assigned two ThisAdverbial includes Clause thingsModiﬁer such Modifiers as a temporal clause, consequence, Clauses25 He conditional was upset clause, when purposeI talked clause, to him etc. The dependent must be clausal (or subjects. This is not an optimal solution given the analysis of equationalappos constructions involving nominals, where one of the nominals is else it is an advmod ) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause. treated as the head, but it is the preferred solution for now.) An adverbialadvcl clause adverbial modifier clause is a (e.g.clause which modifiesaclAdnominal 6adjectival aSam verb ,or the other clauseClause manager predicate Modifiers (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. This includesexpressing things such time, as purpose, a advcltemporal clause, consequence, conditional clause, purpose clause, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or Adverbial Clause Modifiers amod else it is an reason,advmod condition…)) and the dependent is the mainacl:relclAn predicate adnominal relative of the clauseclause clause. modifier is a clause which modifies a nominal. 22 The accident happened as night was falling 7 Sam eats red meat An adverbial clause modifier is a clause which modifies a verb or other predicate (adjective, etc.), as a modifier not as a core complement. advcl advcl acl This includes things such as a temporal clause, consequence, conditional clause,nummod purpose clause, etc. The dependent must be clausal (or

else it is an advmod ) and the dependent is the main predicate of the clause. 2322 IfThe you accident know who happened did it, you as should night tellwas the falling teacher 268 Samthe issues spent fortyas he seesdollars them Nominals http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/nominal-syntax.html advcl advcl advcl acl:relcl

24 He talked to him in order to secure the account 9 Sam spent everything he had 2223TheIf youaccident know happened who did it, as you night should3 wasof 5 fallingtell the teacher 7/20/17, 2:00 PM advcl acl:relcl advcladvcl obj

25 He was upset when I talked to him 2324If Heyou talked know towho him did in it,order you toshould secure tell thethe accountteacher10 Sam spent everything that he had

51 Adnominal Clauseadvcl advclModifiers 1 of 2 7/20/17, 6:06 PM 24An25 HeadnominalHe talked was upsetto clause him whenin modifier order I talkedto is secure a clause to him the which account modifiesFunction a nominal. Word Dependents

advcl Nominals may also contain the following typical function word dependents: Adnominal Clauseacl Modifiers

25 He was upset when I talked to him Determiners attach to the head of the nominal with the det relation. 26 the issues as he sees them An adnominal clause modifier is a clause which modifies Adpositionsa nominal. attach to the head of the nominal with the case relation. Adnominal Clause Modifiers Classifiers attach to a numeral or possessive with the clf relation. acl

nmod 3 of 5 An adnominal clause modifier is a clause which modifies a nominal.det case 7/20/17, 2:00 PM 26 the issues as he sees them 11 the Chair 's office acl

nmod case 26 the issues as he sees them det det 3 of 5 7/20/17, 2:00 PM 12 the office of the Chair

nummod clf 3 of 5 7/20/17, 2:00 PM 13 sān gè xuéshēng

three clf student

2 of 2 7/20/17, 6:06 PM Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html

acl

27 Cette affaire à suivre

This case to follow Basic Dependencies: Complex Clauses http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.html This relation is also used for optional depictives. The adjective is taken to modify the nominal of which it provides a secondary predication.

acl

xcomp obj 28 Shensubj entered the room nsubjsad

acl 33 She declared the cake beautiful . 29 He painted the model naked A Czech example: A relative clause is a special type of adnominal clause, characterized by finiteness and usually omission of the modified noun in the embedded clause.xcomp Some languages use a language-particular subtype for the traditional class of relative clauses. obj

34 jmenovat někoho generálemacl

30 I saw the man you love to-appoint someone as-a-general Some languages allow finite clausal complements for nouns with a subset of nouns like fact or report. These look roughly like relative The relation xcomp is used for core arguments of clausal predicates, so it will not be used for some other instances of secondary clauses, but do not have any omitted role in the dependent clause. This is the class of “content clauses” in Huddleston and Pullum 2002). predication.These are alsoOptional analyzed depictives as acl are. analyzed as adjuncts, and made the acl of the nominal that they semantically modify (if one is present).

acl For instance, in She entered the room sad we also have a double predication (she entered the room; she was sad). But sad is not a core

argument of enter: leaving it out will neither a"ect grammaticality nor significantly alter the meaning of the verb. On the other hand, leaving 31 the fact that nobody cares out beautiful in She declared the cake beautiful will either render the sentence ungrammatical or lead to a di"erent interpretation of xcomp declared. http://universaldependencies.org/docs/u/dep/xcomp.html TheSecondary result is that in PredicatesShe entered the room sad, sad will depend on She and the relation will be acl instead of xcomp :

A clause can containacl a secondary predication or predicative. The most common case is with adjectives, although the same e"ect can obj sometimeshome be achievedu/dep with aedit predicative page nounissue or tracker preposition-marked phrase.

35 She enteredShe declared the room the cake sad beautiful . . She declared the cake a success. obj She entered the roomacl sad.

xcompShe hammered: open the metal clausal flat. complement 36 He painted the model naked . There are two predicates in such sentences, the main predicate and an additional one, such as the cake being beatiful or She being sad. If the nominalAn open head clausal is missing, complement the secondary ( xcomp predicate) of a verb must or bean attachedadjective as is aadvcl predicative of the or verbal clausal predicate, complement even though without it itsis an own adjective subject., The Basic Dependencies:notHuddleston an adverbreference Complex. andThere ofPullum theis a secondsubjectClauses (2002) “The predicationis necessarily Cambridge and determined Grammar the adjective of by the headsan English argument the Language”, predication external chapter (just http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/complex-syntax.htmlto the like4 sectionxcomp in She 5.3,(normally is sad divide) and predicativesby in the this object case into there of obligatorythe are next simply higher clause, if no andother optionalthere words is predicatives,expressing one, or else this which by second the can subject bepredication: either of the depictives next higher or resultatives, clause). This and is which o!en can referred appear to in as an obligatory intransitive control or transitive. These clause, complements giving are always eight possibilities:non-finite, and they are complements (arguments of the higher verb or adjective) rather than adjuncts/modifiers, such as a purpose clause.

The nameadvcl xcomp is borrowed from Lexical-Functional Grammar. He looked fantastic. [obligatory, depictive, intransitive host] acl She kept Kim warm. [obligatory, depictive, transitive host] 37 Vstoupila do místnosti smutná . The boss became angry. [obligatory,xcomp resultative, intransitive host] 27 Cette affaire à suivre This made advcl me furious . [obligatory, resultative, transitive host] 1 He says that you like to swim He died young . [optional, depictive, intransitive host] She-entered to room sad . Depicves, Resultaves,HeThis ate thecase steak to followalmost raw . [optional, depictive, transitive host] xcomp The pond froze solid. [optional, resultative, intransitive host] The remaining, most subtle case is optional resultatives. For these, we uniformly use xcomp : ThisHe relation painted is the also house used blue for. [optional,optional depictives. resultative, Thetransitive adjective host] is taken to modify the nominal of which it provides a secondary predication. Secondary Predicates2 Sue asked George to respond to her offer In UD, obligatoryxcomp predicatives are always treated as an xcomp : The secondary predicate is attached as an xcomp of the main predicate. In obj xcompacl most cases, as well as an adjective depictive, you can use a verbal or nominal predicate in the same position (e.g., He looked [an idiot]; This

Depictive, not a dependent of verb made me3 [seetheYou look with anger]great). 38 He 28paintedShe enteredthe house the blue room . sad

xcomp xcomp acl Even though the resultative is optional here, one may argue that it is still a complement (an argument) of the higher verb (he is painting obj nsubj something blue), in a way that is not true of depictives. Such an analysis of optional resultatives as core arguments is adopted for English by Obligatory argument of verb which is 29 4HeI paintedstarted theto workmodel there naked yesterday Huddleston32 She anddeclared Pullum the (p. cake 262). beautiful In LFG terms,. we would say that the verb has acquired a new subcategorization frame by application of a understood as predicating one of the xcomp lexical Arule, relative and thatclause this isxcomp framea special includes type of an adnominal additional clause, characterized argument. Such by finitenessan analysis and is buttressed usually omission by the factof the that modified normally noun in the In the enhanced representation, there is an additional subject link showing the secondary predication, which is obligatorily a particular role verb’s nominal arguments intransitiveembedded verbs likeclause. to bark Some can languages also form use similar a language-particular resultatives by gaining subtype a new for subcategorization the traditional class which of relative adds both clauses. a obj and an xcomp , in the higher clause: as in the example5 I consider below. him a fool acl Resultative, predicate indicating an xcompxcomp 30 I saw the manobj you love

outcome of the verbal4 eventof 5 on one 6 I consider him honest 7/20/17, 2:00 PM of its nominal arguments 39 TheSome dog languagesbarked the allow neighbors finite awakeclausal .complements for nouns with a subset of nouns like fact or report. These look roughly like relative clauses, but do not xcomphave any omitted role52 in the dependent clause. This is the class of “content clauses” in Huddleston and Pullum 2002). These are also analyzed as acl . 7 We expect them to change their minds

acl Note that the above condition “without its own subject” does not mean that a clause is an xcomp just because its subject is not overt. The

. 31subjectthe fact must that be nobody necessarily cares inherited from a fixed position in the higher clause. That© 2014 is, Universal there Dependencies should becontributors no available. Site powered interpretation by Annodoc and brat where the subject of the lower clause may be distinct from the specified role of the upper clause. In cases where the missing subject may or must be distinct from a fixed role in the higher clause, ccomp should be used instead, as below. This includes cases of arbitrary subjects and anaphoric control. Secondary Predicates

5 of 5 ccomp 7/20/17, 2:00 PM A clause can contain a secondary predication or predicative. The most common case is with adjectives, although the same e"ect can sometimes8 The boss be achieved said to with start a predicativedigging noun or preposition-marked phrase.

Pro-dropShe declared languages the have cake clauses beautiful where. the subject is not present as a separate word, yet it is inherently present (and o!en deducible from the formShe declaredof the verb) the andcake it a does success not. depend on arguments from a higher clause. Thus in neither of the following two Czech examples is thereShe any entered overt subject, the room yet sad only. the second example contains an xcomp . She hammered the metal flat.

There are two predicatesadvcl in such sentences, the main predicate and an additional one, such as the cake being beatiful or She being sad.

Huddleston9 Píšu ,and proto Pullumže jsem (2002) to slíbil “The .Cambridge Grammar of the English Language”, chapter 4 section 5.3, divide predicatives into obligatory

and optional predicatives,advcl which can be either depictives or resultatives, and which can appear in an intransitive or transitive clause, giving eight possibilities: I-write , because I-have it promised . He looked fantastic. [obligatory, depictive, intransitive host] She keptxcomp Kim warm. [obligatory, depictive, transitive host] The boss became angry. [obligatory, resultative, intransitive host] 10 SlíbilThis madejsem mepsát furious . . [obligatory, resultative, transitive host]

He died youngxcomp. [optional, depictive, intransitive host] He ate the steak almost raw . [optional, depictive, transitive host] ThePromised pond froze I-have solid to-write. [optional, . resultative, intransitive host] He painted the house blue. [optional, resultative, transitive host]

In UD, obligatory predicatives are always treated as an xcomp : The secondary predicate is attached as an xcomp of the main predicate. In most cases, as well as an adjective depictive, you can use a verbal or nominal predicate in the same position (e.g., He looked [an idiot]; This made me [seethe with anger]). 1 of 2 7/20/17, 2:20 PM xcomp obj nsubj

32 She declared the cake beautiful .

In the enhanced representation, there is an additional subject link showing the secondary predication, which is obligatorily a particular role in the higher clause:

4 of 5 7/20/17, 2:00 PM TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >parataxis (...

[Turku NLP Group] (http://bionlp.utu.ﬁ/)

English (UDv2.0) about

Case sensitive: Hits per page 10 [Link to this query] (query?search=about%20%3Cmark%20VERB&db=UD_English-v2& case_sensitive=True&hits_per_page=10) [Download data] (http://epsilon-it.utu.ﬁ /dep_search_webapi?search=about%20%3Cmark%20VERB&db=UD_English-v2&case=True& retmax=5000&dl) [Query Language] (http://bionlp.utu.ﬁ/searchexpressions-new.html) [context] [conllu]

obl case punct punct det nsubj advcl compound nmod mark obj nmod case mark det case det nsubj ADP DET# VERB# DET# PROPN# NOUN# ADP PROPN# PUNCT NUM# ADP DET# NOUN# VERB# SCONJ SCONJ PROPN# VERB# 51 At the Ask the President event on Friday , one of the questions was about whether Bush has any thoughts a

punct

nmod case nmod:poss PRON# NOUN# PUNCT his memoirs . [context] [conllu]

punct parataxis punct advcl parataxis advmod punct nsubj nsubj nmod punct parataxis obj aux expl det case PUNCT NOUN# VERB# PRON# PUNCT PRON# AUX# VERB# PUNCT PRON VERB# DET# NOUN# ADP NOUN# 52 " Q ExampleThank you -- I was wondering , there 's a lot of talk right n punct

advcl obl mark case nsubj:pass det aux:pass amod SCONJ NOUN# AUX# VERB# ADP DET# ADJ# PROPN# PUNCT about memoirs being written with the former President . [context] [conllu]

nsubj advmod punct aux ?advcl obj advmod mark det PRON# ADV AUX# PART VERB# SCONJ VERB# DET# NOUN# PUNCT 53 I really have n't thought about writing a book . [context] [conllu]

punct obl advcl obl det nsubj mark obj amod case case DET# NOUN# VERB# SCONJ VERB# PRON# ADJ# ADP PRON# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 54 The hymn talks about serving something greater than yourself in life . [context] [conllu] 53

punct conj conj acl obj expl nsubj mark det aux amod nsubj amod cc cc obj PRON AUX# VERB# ADJ# NOUN# SCONJ PROPN# VERB# DET# ADJ# NOUN# CCONJ SYM CCONJ VERB# PROPN# 55 There has been random speculation about Google developiong a new browser and / or acquiring Firefox . [context] [conllu]

punct conj punct cc obj nsubj acl:relcl det aux obl:tmod nsubj nsubj amod aux obj advmod PRON# VERB# DET ADJ# NOUN# PUNCT CCONJ PRON# AUX# AUX# VERB# NOUN# NOUN# PRON# ADV VERB# SCONJ 56 I have no inside information , but I have been following links today that strongly indicate that Google is d

punct

ccomp nmod mark case nsubj det cop advcl obj compound nmod advmod mark amod amod compound case ADJ# SCONJ VERB# ADJ# NOUN# ADP DET# VERB# NOUN# NOUN# NOUN# ADP PROPN# PUNCT serious about securing permanent control of the leading edge browser technology in Firefox . [context] [conllu]

nsubj punct cop obl advmod obj nmod mark det case case PRON# AUX# PART SCONJ VERB# DET# NOUN# ADP NOUN# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 57 It is n't about finding the meaning of life at work . [context] [conllu]

vocative nsubj punct obl advcl cop advcl mark case advmod mark nsubj xcomp PROPN# PRON# ADP NUM# AUX# ADV ADJ# PART VERB# SCONJ PRON# VERB# NOUN# PUNCT 58 Dan I for one was very happy to hear about your quitting smoking . [context] [conllu]

1 of 2 7/19/17, 11:32 AM TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >parataxis (...

[Turku NLP Group] (http://bionlp.utu.ﬁ/)

English (UDv2.0) about

punct

nmod case nmod:poss PRON# NOUN# PUNCT his memoirs . [context] [conllu]

advcl obl mark case nsubj:pass det aux:pass amod SCONJ NOUN# AUX# VERB# ADP DET# ADJ# PROPN# PUNCT about memoirs being written with the former President . [context] [conllu]

nsubj advmod punct aux advcl obj advmod mark det PRON# ADV AUX# PART VERB# SCONJ VERB# DET# NOUN# PUNCT 53 I really have n't thought about writing a book . [context] [conllu]

punct

nsubj punct cop obl advmod obj nmod mark det case case PRON# AUX# PART SCONJ VERB# DET# NOUN# ADP NOUN# ADP NOUN# PUNCT 57 It is n't about finding the meaning of life at work . [context] [conllu]

1 of 2 7/19/17, 11:32 AM Activity!

55 TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_ >parataxis (...

punct acl:relcl xcomp obj conj nsubj obl discourse obj det cc cop case INTJ VERB# PRON# VERB# DET# NOUN# CCONJ NOUN# PRON# AUX# ADJ# ADP PRON# PUNCT 539 Please let me know a date and time that is convenient for you . [context] [conllu]

parataxis discourse csubj nsubj cop nmod mark cc det case nsubj expl amod compound det cop CCONJ PRON# VERB# PRON# AUX# DET# ADJ# NOUN# ADP PROPN# PROPN# INTJ SCONJ DET# NOUN# AUX# 540 and it seems this is the FIRST site of ragnarok 2 hahaha since the site is new send

obj conj iobj nmod:poss cc PRON# PRON# NOUN# CCONJ NOUN# me your suggestions and comments [context] [conllu]

punct discourse punct INTJ PUNCT INTJ PUNCT 541 He - he . [context] [conllu]

conj advmod acl:relcl discourse obj nsubj xcomp cc obl ADV INTJ VERB# PRON# PRON# VERB# PART CCONJ VERB# ADP 542 So please update whatever you need to and go to [context] [conllu]

Other Constructions http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.htmlpunct

discourse parataxis punct punct amod xcomp nsubj xcomp compound nsubj compound:prt advmod aux mark INTJ PUNCT ADJ# NOUN# NOUN# VERB# ADV ADV ADJ# PUNCT PRON# AUX# VERB# PART VERB# DET# parataxis 543 lol , last news message came out kinda weird , i was trying to browse the japanese we

punct 46 Washington ( CNN ) : conj punct conj Simple Clauses advcl http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/simple-syntax.html acl:relcl mark Interjectedobj Clauses nsubj xcomp cc nsubj det aux mark advmod nsubj compound:prt SCONJ PRON# VERB# DET# NOUN# PRON# AUX# VERB# PART VERB# ADV CCONJ PRON# VERB# while i changedSingle the word or phrasetext interjections i wasare analyzedsupposed as discourse to , butput when a wholeup clause but is interjected,i we use ranthe relation parataxis.out of ti dislocated punct conj punct parataxis 70 to jani ton kserume poli kala advmod discourse conj nsubj cc advmod advmod 47 Calafia dethas great fries ( they are to die for ! ) nsubj obj expl amod aux det the John-AccADV him PRONknow-1pl veryVERB well# DET ADJ# NOUN# ADV PUNCT CCONJ PRON# AUX# VERB# DET# NOUN# ADV# INTJ PUNCT so there are no real picturesparataxis yet ... but i 'll add the links soon sry . However, it would not be used for a topic-marked noun that is also the subject of the sentence; this would be an nsubj . [context] [conllu] 48 Just to let you all know Matt has confirmed the booking for 3rd Dec is OK . It is also used for postposed elements. The dislocated elements attach to the same governor as the dependent that they double for. Right TurkuNLP dep_search http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search/query?search=_discourse >parataxis (... dislocated elements are frequent in spokenIn languages. the second French example, and we Greek treat examples the second follow. half as the head of the dependency because the first half feels like a wholeacl clause interjection, advcl mark not like the mainconj clause of the utterance. mark cop nmod cc nsubj obj compound amoddislocated case aux mark det ADJobj# NOUN# ADP PRON# CCONJ AUX# VERB# SCONJ PRON# PART VERB# DET# NOUN# PART AUX# NOUN# PUNCT [Turku NLP Group] (http://bionlp.utu.ﬁ/ ) 544 Good luck w/Tag Questionsit & will pray for you to have the willpower to be smoke - free :) 71EnglishIl faut (UDv2.0) pas la manger , la plasticine _ >dislocated _ Search [context] [conllu] Case sensitive: Hits per dislocatedpage 10 obj We also use the parataxis relation for tag questions such as isn’t it? or haven’t you?.

[Link to this query] (query?search=_%20%3Edislocated%20_&db=UD_English-v2&discourse It must not it eat , the playdough punct case_sensitive=True&hits_per_page=10) [Downloadnsubj data] (http://epsilon-it.utu.ﬁparataxis cop /dep_search_webapi?search=_%20%3Edislocated%20_&db=UD_English-v2&case=True&dislocated advmod case punct retmax=5000&dl )INTJ[Query PUNCT Language] PRON (#http://bionlp.utu.ﬁ/searchexpressions-new.html AUX 49# ItADV 's notADP me , PROPNis# it ? )PUNCT [context]72 ton [conllu]kserume545 btwoli mas edho, polithey kala, to're jani all from 4gamer . Direct and reported speech: currently described under parataxis [context] [conllu]

nsubj Vocatives Discourse Stuﬀ™punct 1 advcl nmod punct obj Feedback wordscase nmod punct punctconj mark det det case advmod punct punct The vocativePROPN# PUNCT relationSCONJ is usedVERB# to DETmark# a dialogueNOUN# ADP participantDET# addressedNOUN# ADP in a textPROPN (common# PUNCT ADV in conversations,VERB# dialogue,PUNCT emails,PUNCT newsgroup cc 41 Bush vocative, in answeringdislocated the questiondiscourse about the singleleader word ofccomp functioningPakistan as, analso said : " The new Pakista advcl postings, etc.). The relation links the addressee’sIn axcomp sentence name to starting its host with sentence. a feedback Amark vocative word commonlysuch as yes co-occurs or no and with continuing a null subject, with a mainas in theclause,mark first we take the predicateobj of the main clause to addressee topicalizeddiscourse nounobj interjection, ﬁller, or similarpunct conversationalnsubj xcomp nsubj det example below. If INTJthe nominal is clearlyVERB# vocativebe thePRON inroot intent,# of theVERBccomp the sentence# preferenceSCONJ andPRON is attach to# use the the feedback VERBvocative# word relation. ADJto #thisPUNCT predicateCCONJ withSCONJ a discoursePRON# relation:VERB# DET NOUN# PUNCT phrase dislocated marker reparandum 546 Please let nsubj:passme know if this soundspunct good , and if you have any question , please a det aux:pass advcl amod advmod punct amodvocative punctpunct aux:passdiscourse advmod det nsubj compound:prt NOUN# PUNCT PRON# AUX# ADV AUX# VERB# PUNCT ADV VERB# PUNCT DET# NOUN# VERB#

general , he 's just been elected -- not elected , this guy took over office 73 Guys , take it easy! [context] [conllu] 50 yes , we should apply for membership .

vocative PUNCT discourse However, when the feedbackpunct is expressed by a full clause instead of a feedback word, the predicate of this clause is taken as the root and the punct dislocated det . nsubj compound predicatepunct of the following clauseaux is attachedobj with a parataxis relation: 74 MarieADV , PUNCTcommentDET# vasNOUN -# tu ? NOUN# PUNCT PRON# AUX# VERB# PRON# PUNCT 42 anyways[context] , the [conllu]mezza luna : you should try it .

parataxis discourse punct obj Function Word Dependents 51 I agreenmod:poss , we should apply for membership . discourse amod INTJ VERB# PRON# VERB# NOUN# PUNCT SYM In addition to547 corePlease and non-core dependents,join our the growingpredicate of a clausefamily may !!!!be modified:-) by function words: [context] [conllu] 56 1. An aux modifies a verbal predicatePunctuation by adding information relating to tense, aspect, mood, voice, or evidentiality. 2. A cop links a nonverbal predicate to its subject and may add information relating to tense, aspect, mood, voice, or evidentiality. 3. A mark indicates that the predicateTokens heads witha (specific the relation type of) punct subordinate always clause. attach to content words (except in cases of ellipsis) and can never have dependents. Since punct is not a normal dependency relation, the usual criteria for determining the head word do not apply. Instead, we use the following principles:

nsubj aux 1. A punctuation mark separating coordinated units is attached to the immediately following conjunct.

75 she has left 2. A punctuation mark preceding or following a subordinated unit is attached to this unit. 3. Within the relevant unit, a punctuation mark is attached at the highest possible node that preserves projectivity. 4 of 5 nsubj 4. Paired punctuation marks (quotes and brackets) should be attached to the same word unless that would create7/19/17, non-projectivity. 5:13 This PM cop word is usually the head of the phrase enclosed in the paired punctuation. 76 she is happy

conj nsubj conj aux conj punct cop obj punct punct cc

77 she has been happy 52 We have apples , pears , oranges , and bananas .

ccomp mark punct punct punct

78 ( she knows ) that it is raining 53 Der Mann , den Sie gestern kennengelernt haben , kam wieder .

advcl mark

79 ( she left ) because7 of it 8was raining 7/18/17, 12:28 PM

11 of 12 7/16/17, 10:56 PM

1 of 1 7/18/17, 12:47 PM parataxis http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/parataxis.html

ccomp

6 John said that the guy left early in the morning .

ccomp parataxis http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/parataxis.html 7 John said the guy left early in the morning .

parataxis punct punct punct

8 John said : “ The guy left early in the morning . ” home u/dep edit page issue tracker Custom Search parataxis punct punct punct

9 “ The guyThis left earlypage in pertains the morning to UD ” version, John said2. .

parataxis punct

10 The guy leftparataxis early in the morning: ,parataxis John said . parataxis punct parataxis http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/parataxis.html The parataxispunct relationlist (from Greek for “place side by side”) is a relation between a word (o!en the main predicate of a sentence) and http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/list.htmlother

elements, such as a sentential parenthetical or a clause a!er a “:” or a “;”, placed side by side without any explicit coordination, 11 The guy , he said , left early in the morning . subordination, or argument relation with the head word. Parataxis is a discourse-like equivalent of coordination, and so usually obeys an An argument foriconic this analysis ordering. is thatHence in the it is cases normal analyzed for the as first embedding, part of a sentence the entire to clause be the can head be further and the embedded second part (I was to betaken the aback parataxis dependent, when John saidregardless the guy le! of early the in headedness the morning. properties), while this of is the not language. possible with But medialthings door finalget more placement complicated, of the speech such asverb cases (*I was of parentheticals, taken which appear home u/dep edit page issue tracker aback when themedially. guy le! early this morning, John said.).home u/dep edit page issue trackerCustom Search Custom Search

News article bylines parataxis

This page pertains to UD version 2. This page pertains to UD version 2. We have used the1 parataxisLet 's face relation it we to 're connect annoyed the parts of a news article byline. There does not seem to be a better relation to use.

punct parataxis parataxis punct punct punct punct parataxis Discourse: parataxis list: listStuﬀ™ 2 2 The guy , Johnparataxis said , left early in the morning http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/parataxis.html 12 Washington ( CNN ) : The parataxis relation (from Greek for “place side byThe side”) list is a relation relation is between used for chainsa word of (o comparable!en the main items. predicate In lists of with a sentence) more than and two other items, all items of the list should modify the first one. parataxis independent clauses/fragments list items that do not elements, such as a sentential parenthetical or a clauseInformal a!er and a “:” web or texta “;”, o !placeden contains side by passages side without which any are explicitmeant to coordination, be interpreted as lists but are parsed as single sentences. Email Interjectedforming clauses a larger sentence, ideally separated with form a syntactic subordination, orAn argument inventory relation with of constructionsthe head signaturesword. Parataxis o! toen containiswhich a discourse-likeccomp these parataxis structures, equivalent in has the of form beencoordination, of contact applied information:and so usually the obeys di"erent an contact information items are labeled as list ; punctuation (but no conjunction); includes sentence iconicSingle ordering. word or Hence phrase it interjections is normal for are the analyzed first part as theof discourse a key-value sentence pair to, but be relations when the head a wholeare and labeled clause the second as is apposinterjected, part . to be we the use parataxis the relation dependent, parataxis. regardless of theparentheticals, headedness properties reported of the speech, language. tag But questions things do get more complicated, such as cases of parentheticals, which appear Side-by-side sentences (“run-on sentences”)6 John said that the guy left early in the morning . medially. parataxis list punct punct list ccomp ﬂat:name appos appos The relation parataxis is used for a pair of what could have been standalone sentences, but which are being treated together as a single parataxis 13 Calafia hassentence. great fries This ( they may are happen to die because for ! ) 1 sentenceSteve segmentationJones Phone: of 555-9814the sentence Email: was [email protected] done primarily following the presence of sentence-final 7 John said the guy left early in the morning . 1 Let 's face it punctuation,we 're annoyed and these clauses are joined by punctuation such as a colon or comma, or not delimited by punctuation at all. In a spoken parataxis list corpus, it may happen because whatAnother is labeled place aswhere a sentence parataxis hasis more been commonly used is for ana sequence utterance of turn. attributes Even ifor the descriptive treebanker terms is doing used asthe the title line of a review (such as punct punctsentenceparataxis division, it may happen becauseproduct orthere restaurant seems reviews,to be puncta clear etc.: discourse relationpunct linking two clauses. Sometimes there are more than 14 Just to let you all knowpunct Matt has confirmed the booking for 3rd Dec is OK . two sentences joined in this way. In this case we make all the later sentences dependents of the first one, to maximize similarity to the 2 The guy , John said , left early in the morning8 John said : “ The guylist left early in the morning . ” In the second example,analysis we used treat for the conjunction. second half as the head of the dependencylist because the first half feels like a whole clause interjection, not like the main clause of the utterance. list parataxis parataxis punct punct punct 2 Long punctLines , Silly Rules , Rude Staff , Ok Food

AnTag inventory questions of constructions to which parataxis has been applied 9 “ The guy left early in the morning ” , John said . 3 Bearded dragons are sight huntersHowever, , they list need should to see not the be foodover-used. to move If a .construction can be easily analyzed using the grammatical relations of standard sentences, We also use the parataxis relation for tag questionssuch such as as when isn’t it? there or haven’t is overt you? coordination,. then it should be analyzed57 with these more standard relations, even if it is laid out as a list parataxis Side-by-side sentencesThis relation (“run-on may happen sentences”) with unitstypographically. that are smaller than sentences: punct parataxis The relation parataxispunct is used for a pair of what could have been standalone sentences, but which are being treated together as a single parataxis list in 10otherThe languages: guy left early [am] in[ar the] [bg morning] [bxr] [ca ,] [Johnckb] [saidcop] [.cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hr] sentence.15 It 's This not mayme , happenisamod because it ? sentencedet segmentation of the sentence was done primarily following the presence of sentence-final [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] [yue] punctuation, and these clauses are joined by punctuation such as a colonpunct or comma,parataxis or not delimited by punctuation at all. In a spoken 4 Divided world the CIA [zh] punct corpus,parataxis it may in other happen languages: because [am what] [ar is] [labeledbg] [bxr ]as [ca a ]sentence [ckb] [cop is] [morecs ] [cu commonly] [da ] [de ] [ anel] utterance[en] [es ] [et turn.] [eu ]Even [fa] [ fiif] the [fo ] treebanker[fr] [ga ] [gl] is[got doing] [grc the] [he] sentence[hi] [hr] division,[hu] [id] [itit ]may [ja] [happenkk] [kmr because] [ko] [la] there [lv] [mr seems] [nl] [tono11 be] [Thepl a] clear[ ptguy] [ rodiscourse ,] [ruhe] [ sasaid] relation [sk ] [sla ]linking [,sl ]left [so early]two [sr] clauses.[ svin ]the [swl morning] Sometimes [ta] [tr] [.u] [ ugthere] [uk are] [ur more] [urj ]than two[vi sentences] [yue] [zh] joinedTreatment in this way. of reportedIn this case speech we make all the later sentences dependents of the first one, to maximize similarity to the An argument for this analysis is that in the cases analyzed as embedding, the entire clause can be further embedded (I was taken aback analysis used for conjunction. For this reported speech example: when John said the guy le! early in the morning.), while this is not possible with medial or final placement of the speech verb (*I was taken aback when the guy le! early this morning, John said.). parataxis . punct parataxispunct © 2014 Universal Dependencies contributors. Site powered by Annodoc and brat punct

3 Bearded dragons5 The are guysight , huntersJohn said , they need, left to earlyNewssee thein articlethe food morning to bylinesmove . 2 of 3 7/19/17, 10:04 PM This relation maythere happen are withparaphrases units that that are convey smaller essentially thanWe sentences: have the used same the meaning parataxis but relation with a to di "connecterent syntactic the parts structure. of a news When article the byline. reported There speech does is not seem to be a better relation to use. embedded in a subordinate clause (with or without an overt complementizer that), the subordinate clause is a ccomp of the speech verb. Whenparataxis the reported speech follows the speech verb andparataxis is separated bypunct a colon, the reported speech forms a main clause that attaches to the amod det punct punct preceding main clause with a parataxis relation, hence with the speech verb as its head. However, when the speech verb occurs as a 4 Divided worldmedial the or CIAfinal parenthetical, the relation12 isWashington reversed and ( the speechCNN verb is) treated: as a parataxis of the reported speech. This analysis is not uncontroversial but follows many authorities, such as Huddleston and Pullum (2002), The Cambridge Grammar of the English Treatment of reportedLanguage (seespeech chapter 11, section 9). Interjected clauses

For this reported speech example: Single word or phrase interjections are analyzed as discourse , but when a whole clause is interjected, we use the relation parataxis.

punct parataxis 1 of 3 punct parataxis 7/19/17, 10:04 PM punct punct 5 The guy , John said , left early in the morning 13 Calafia has great fries ( they are to die for ! ) there are paraphrases that convey essentially the same meaning but with a di"erent syntactic structure. When the reported speech is embedded in a subordinate clause (with or without an overt complementizer thatparataxis), the subordinate clause is a ccomp of the speech verb. When the reported speech follows the speech verb and is separated by a colon, the reported speech forms a main clause that attaches to the preceding main clause with a parataxis relation, hence14 Justwith tothe let speech you all verb know as Mattits head. has However,confirmed when the booking the speech for 3rdverb Dec occurs is OK as a. medial or final parenthetical, the relation is reversed and the speech verb is treated as a parataxis of the reported speech. This analysis In the second example, we treat the second half as the head of the dependency because the first half feels like a whole clause interjection, is not uncontroversial but follows many authorities, such as Huddleston and Pullum (2002), The Cambridge Grammar of the English not like the main clause of the utterance. Language (see chapter 11, section 9).

Tag questions

1 of 1 We also use the parataxis relation for tag questions such as isn’t it? or haven’t you?. 7/18/17, 12:09 PM 1 of 3 7/19/17, 10:04 PM

parataxis punct

15 It 's not me , is it ?

parataxis in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] [yue] [zh]

2 of 3 7/19/17, 10:04 PM goeswith http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/goeswith.html

reparandum home u/dep edit page issue tracker http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/reparandum.htmlCustom Search

This page pertains to UD version 2.

home u/dep edit page issue tracker Custom Search Speech Errorsgoeswith and: goes with This page pertains to UD version 2. This relation links two or more parts of a word that are separated in text that is not well edited. These parts should be written together as one Overtokenizaonword according to the ortographic rules of a given language. The head is always the first part, the other parts are attached to it with the reparandum superﬂuous word or goeswith superﬂuous relation (for consistency, space similarly as in flat , fixed and conj ). Note that only the last part may be annotated with reparandumphrase, such as a: speechoverridden error disfluencybetweenSpaceAfter=No words (would. normally be written as a single word). As with

We use reparandum to indicate disfluenciesfixed overridden and flat in, thea speech first wordrepair.goeswith heads The disfluency is the dependent of the repair. all other words in the expression. 1 They come here with out legal permission obl reparandum case case goeswith det det goeswith # 1 Go to the righ- to the left . 2 never the less ,

reparandum in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [goeswithbxr] [ca] [inckb other] [cop languages:] [cs] [cu] [ [daam] []de [ar] ][ el[bg] []en [bxr] [es] []ca [et] []ckb [eu]] [[copfa] []fi []cs [fo] []cu [fr]] [[dagl]] [[gotde]] [[elgrc] []en [he] []es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hi] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [[mrhr] [hunl]] [ [noid] [plit]] [ [japt]] [ [kkro]] [[kmrru] []sa [ko] []sk [la] []sla [lv]] [ [slmr] []so [nl] []sr [no] [sv] []pl [swl] [pt] ][ ta[ro] ][ tr[ru] []u []sa [ug] []sk [uk] [sla] [ur] []sl [urj] [so] ] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] [vi] [yue] [zh] [yue] [zh]

1 of 1 7/19/17, 6:09 PM

1 of 1 7/19/17, 6:04 PM advmod http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/advmod.html

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This page pertains to UD version 2.

Quesonsadvmod: adverbial modifier

An adverbial modifier of a word is a (non-clausal) adverb or adverbial phrase that serves to modify a predicate or a modifier word. • There are no special dependency types for questions (or, for that matter, imperatives, which simply lack an overtNote subject). that in some grammatical traditions, the term adverbial modifier covers constituents that function like adverbs regardless whether they are realized by adverbs, adpositional phrases, or nouns in particular morphological cases. We di!erentiate adverbials realized as adverbs • For yes/no questions, try rephrasing as(advmod) a conﬁrmation and adverbials question. realized The by noun phrases or adpositional phrases ( obl ). However, we do not di!erentiate between modifiers of dependencies will be the same. predicates (adverbials in a narrow sense) and modifiers of other modifier words like adjectives or adverbs (sometime called qualifiers). These functions are all subsumed under advmod . ‣ Do you like my hat? ⇒ You do like my hat?

advmod

‣ Is this a hat? ⇒ This is a hat? 1 Genetically modified food

advmod • For WH-questions, rephrase with an in situ WH-word. 2 less often ‣ Why do you like my hat? ⇒ You do like my hat why? advmod advmod ADV AUX PRON VERB ADP VERB ADV PUNCT ‣ What did you eat? ⇒ You did eat what? 3 Where do you want to go later ?

‣ Who do you think wants my hat? ⇒ You do think (that)advmod who wants my hat?

4 About 200 people came to the party 59 advmod in other languages: [am] [ar] [bg] [bxr] [ca] [ckb] [cop] [cs] [cu] [da] [de] [el] [en] [es] [et] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fo] [fr] [ga] [gl] [got] [grc] [he] [hi] [hr] [hu] [id] [it] [ja] [kk] [kmr] [ko] [la] [lv] [mr] [nl] [no] [pl] [pt] [ro] [ru] [sa] [sk] [sla] [sl] [so] [sr] [sv] [swl] [ta] [tr] [u] [ug] [uk] [ur] [urj] [vi] [yue] [zh]

1 of 1 7/20/17, 12:59 AM Other Constructions http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.html

conj obj obj nsubj det advmod

5 She saw every animal at the zoo but he saw only some .

conj obj nsubj nummod obj

6 She saw three monkeys and he saw two .

Ellipsis in Clauses

If the main predicate is elided, we use simple promotion only if there is an aux or cop , or a mark in the case of an infinitival marker.

Example:

conj advmod nsubj obj nsubj

7 Sue likes pasta and Peter does , too .

nsubj conj advmod cop nsubj

8 Sue is hungry and Peter is , too .

nsubj advcl aux obj nsubj xcomp Ellipsis remnantFrom http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.html#ellipsis9 They will do it if they want to . http://universaldependencies.org/docs/u/dep/remnant.html: Other Constructions http://universaldependencies.org/u/overview/speciﬁc-syntax.html The UDIn approach more complicated to ellipsis cancases be where summarized a predicate as follows: is elided but no aux or cop is present, simple promotion (without orphan deprels) could lead to very unnatural and confusing relations. For example, in the following sentence, you would be the subject of co!ee, suggesting that 1. If the elided element has no overt dependents, we do nothing. the second clause contains a copular construction rather than an elided predicate. dobj conj conj nsubj cc det edit obj obj nsubj det advmod

6 John bought punctand ate an apple elided: an ←det apple 5 She saw every animal at conjthe zoo but he saw only some . 2. If the elided element has overtcc dependents, we promote one of these to take the role of the head. Innsubj VP-ellipsis,obj we keep thensubj auxiliary as the head, as shown below: _ _ conj_ _ _ _ _ obj nsubj10 I likenummod tee and you coffeeobj . elided: two ←nummod monkeys conj nsubj cc promoted 6 She In suchsaw cases, three we monkeyspromoteaux dependentsanddobj he saw in twothe nsubj following. advmod order: nsubj > obj > iobj > obl > advmod > csubj > xcomp > ccomp >

3.advclIf the andelided for element the non-promoted is a predicate dependents, and the promoted we use element the special a core relationargument, orphan we use the to signal a non-standard dependency. If it is necessary 7 John will win gold and Mary will too Ellipsis toin selectClausesorphan among relation several when attaching orphans otherof the non-functional same type (e.g. dependents there are to just the two promoted orphans head. and both are advmod ), the orphan occurring first (closer to the sentenceremnant instart) other is promoted.languages: [bg] [cs] [de] [el] [en] [es] [eu] [fa] [fi] [fr] [ga] [he] [hu] [it] [ja] [ko] [sv] [u] If the main predicate is elided, orphanwe use simple dependent promotion of only elided if there material is an aux or cop , or a mark in the case of an infinitival marker.

conj nsubj obj cc orphan Example: elided: you ←nsubj like obj→ coffee 11 I like tea and you coffee . promoted orphaned 60 conj advmod nsubj obj nsubj conj . xcomp obj orphan © 2014 Universal Dependencies contributors. Site powered by Annodoc and brat 7 Sue likes nsubjpasta and Peter does , too .

nsubj12 Mary wantsconj to buy a advmodbook and Jenny a CD . cop nsubj

conj 8 Sue is hungrynsubj and Peterobj is , tooorphan .

nsubj advcl 13 Theyaux hadobj left the companynsubj , xcompmany for good .

9 They will do it xcompif they objwant to . root orphan nsubj

In more complicated cases where a predicate is elided but no aux or cop is present, simple promotion (without orphan deprels) could 14 Mary wants to buy a book . ROOT And Jenny a CD . lead to very unnatural and confusing relations. For example, in the following sentence, you would be the subject of co!ee, suggesting that the secondNote clause that contains the orphan a copular relation construction is only used rather when than an an ordinary elided predicate. relation would be misleading (for example, when attaching an object to a subject). In particular, the ordinary cc relation should be used for the coordinating conjunction, which attaches to the pseudo-constituent edit formed through the orphan dependency. punct conj cc nsubj obj nsubj ______10 I Multiwordlike tee and Expressions you coffee . In such cases, we promote dependents in the following order: nsubj > obj > iobj > obl > advmod > csubj > xcomp > ccomp > Multiword expressions (MWEs) are combinations of words that (in some respect and to di!erent degrees) behave as lexical units rather than advcl and for the non-promoted dependents, we use the special relation orphan to signal a non-standard dependency. If it is necessary compositional syntactic phrases. The UD taxonomy contains three special relations for analyzing MWEs: to select among several orphans of the same type (e.g. there are just two orphans and both are advmod ), the orphan occurring first (closer to the sentence start) is promoted.

conj 2 of 8 nsubj obj cc orphan 7/18/17, 12:28 PM

11 I like tea and you coffee .

conj xcomp obj orphan nsubj

12 Mary wants to buy a book and Jenny a CD .

conj nsubj obj orphan

13 They had left the company , many for good .

xcomp obj root orphan nsubj

14 Mary wants to buy a book . ROOT And Jenny a CD .

Note that the orphan relation is only used when an ordinary relation would be misleading (for example, when attaching an object to a subject). In particular, the ordinary cc relation should be used for the coordinating conjunction, which attaches to the pseudo-constituent formed through the orphan dependency.

Multiword Expressions

Multiword expressions (MWEs) are combinations of words that (in some respect and to di!erent degrees) behave as lexical units rather than compositional syntactic phrases. The UD taxonomy contains three special relations for analyzing MWEs:

2 of 8 7/18/17, 12:28 PM 2 of 2 7/19/17, 10:39 PM Universal Dependency Relations http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/index.html

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Universal Dependency Relations

The following table lists the 37 universal syntactic relations used in UD v2. It is a revised version of the relations originally described in Universal Stanford Dependencies: A cross-linguistic typology (de Marne!e et al. 2014).

The upper part of the table follows the main organizing principles of the UD taxonomy such that rows correspond to functional categories in relation to the head (core arguments of clausal predicates, non-core dependents of clausal predicates, and dependents of nominals) while columns correspond to structural categories of the dependent (nominals, clauses, modifier words, function words). The lower part of the table lists relations that are not dependency relations in the narrow sense.

Nominals Clauses Modifier words Function Words

Core arguments nsubj csubj obj ccomp

iobj xcomp http://universaldependencies.org/u/dep/

Non-core obl advcl advmod * aux dependents vocative discourse cop expl mark dislocated

Nominal nmod acl amod det dependents appos clf nummod case

Coordination MWE Loose Special Other

conj fixed list orphan punct cc flat parataxis goeswith root compound reparandum dep

* The advmod relation is used for modifiers not only of predicates but also of other modifier words.

The 37 “universal” relations (omits subtypes; clf – classiﬁer not used for English) 61 Alphabetical listing

acl : clausal modifier of noun (adjectival clause) advcl : adverbial clause modifier

1 of 2 5/15/17, 2:18 PM http://bionlp-www.utu.ﬁ/dep_search UD Treebank Search

62 If you see problems in the online guidelines/data

https://github.com/UniversalDependencies/docs/issues

63 https://corpling.uis.georgetown.edu/arborator/ lirc project, same login as GitDox Arborator

64 Homework

1. For Tues.: Annotate 9 of the simple sentences in Arborator: every 4th sentence, counting from your assigned starting point.

2. For Mon.: Look at your own Reddit text and identify 3 places where you’re unsure what a word’s dependency should be. Submit a description of the 3 difﬁculties on Canvas.

3. Recommended readings:

‣ Jurafsky & Martin, Speech and Language Processing: 3rd edition draft, http://web.stanford.edu/~jurafsky/slp3/ ✴ §11.4.3 "Heads and Head Finding” ✴ Ch. 14 “Dependency Parsing” through p. 6

‣ Nivre et al. 2016, “Universal Treebanks v1: A Multilingual Treebank Collection” http://www.lrec-conf.org/proceedings/lrec2016/pdf/348_Paper.pdf ✴ Note that we are using UD v2, so a few of the dependency types will be different.