Brenda Milner: One Hundred Years of Brilliance 11 Potential Misdiagnosis of Alixe Ménard Psychosis: What We Have Learned in the Past Decade

4 When 6 Cannibalism Kills: A Story of Table Why a Meal of Tuberculosis Human Meat May Vaccines & Be One of Your Diabetes Last of Luka Vukovic Hailey McTaggart Contents 7 Emerging Nanotechnology: 8 Nanoparticles as a Drug Delivery Breakthrough Starshot: The Next Platform Giant Leap for Mankind?

Emil-Al Kadi Mathieu Levesque

10 Dear Darwin

9 Sijyl Fasih Brenda Milner: One Hundred Years of Brilliance 11 Potential Misdiagnosis of Alixe Ménard Psychosis: What We Have Learned in the Past Decade

Dominique Yelle 15 The Eastern Hognose Snake: The “Cobra” of 12 13 Canada How Artificial To Whom to Give Alysha Riquier Intelligence Can One’s Heart: Issues Help Us in Medical Concerning Organ 15 Diagnostics Donation Why are Branched Chain An Duong Simon Reilley Amino Acids Important While Exercising? Marie-Pier Millette 16 Rust Fungi: Protecting our Cultivars from Crop Disease

Salman Ahmadi

Editor-in-Chief TheWebsite ManagerTeam Editors Sanmeet Chahal Michael Leung, Kelly Xu Shobhitha Balasubramaniam, Setti Logisitics Coordinator Belhouari, Skyra Cheng, Natalia Rédactrice en chef Naiema Zaman Forero, Princia Gangnon, Colin Setti Belhouari Author Coordinators Griffiths, Divine Kankenga, Emily Kelly Xu, Simon Yves Reilley Lam, Navpreet Langa, Ann Lee, Production Manager Authors Karan Mediratta, Megan Miaro, Jasmine Bhatti Salman Ahmadi, An Duong, Sijyl Alexandra Phan, Ivana Radonjic, Fasih, Emil-Al Kadi, Mathieu Angeli Reyes, Shreya Sarmah, Art Director Levesque, Hailey McTaggart, Alixe Michelle Vandeloo Elsie Lebedev Ménard, Marie-Pier Millette, Simon Translators Reilley, Alysha Riquier, Luka Setti Belhouari, Vicky Dupont, Deputy Editor-in-Chief Vukovic, Dominque Yelle Sarah Miller, Dara O' Connor, Hailey McTaggart Illustrators and Photographers Alysha Riquier, Aria Slippert, John Evans, Myriam Hamza, Miléna Sokolowski, Media Manager Evan Nanni, Angeli Reyes, Sophie Suatac, Mihaela Tudorache, Saania Tariq Alysha Riquier, Yzabelle Bisa Michelle Vandeloo BIZARRE SCIENCE When Cannibalism Kills Why a Meal of Human Meat May be One of Your Last Hailey McTaggart, 3rd Year BPS

According to a 2017 article from the British national is a major factor in the biology of many species and may newspaper, The Sunday Times, “Cannibalism is our last ta- influence population, life history, competition for mates and boo (Sunday Times, p.40)”. In a time when people are ex- resources, and behaviour” (Polis, p.225). posed to more cultural systems and beliefs than ever, canni- For humans, however, cannibalism may have detri- balism is among the few practices that continue to fascinate mental consequences on the health of the consumer in the and horrify in equal turns. Within most social groups, it is form of disease. The prion disease Kuru, for example, is of understood that anyone who engages in anthropophagy, much interest to scientists who explore the effects of canni- or the consumption of human flesh, will become a pariah balism within human populations. This disease is brought whose values jeopardize the moral and ethical constructs of about by prions, which are the misfolded forms of prion the community to which they belong. However, does canni- proteins that have the capability to incorrectly fold other balism pose as much of a threat to human health as it does proteins, spreading the disease (Prion Alliance, 2013). These to the welfare of society? prions will spread across a person’s brain, killing neurons Society’s virtually unanimous commitment to the re- and causing a swift cognitive decline, resulting in death (Pri- jection of cannibalism is a fairly recent one. According to on Alliance, 2013). Bess Lovejoy of Lapham’s Quarterly (2016), Europe has a In the early 20th century, members of the Fore tribe rich history of medicinal cannibalism. She states that hu- of Papua New Guinea began to present with Kuru and, by man blood was consumed by individuals with epilepsy the 1950s, up to two percent of the tribe’s population were during the ancient Roman times and was a favourite health dying of the disease every year (Rettner, 2015). This epidem- tonic during the Renaissance. In addition, the use of mum- ic presented strange to scientists, since usually every year mies by apothecaries began as early as the Renaissance and only one or two people out of a million die of a prion dis- became extremely popular throughout the 18th Century as ease (Prion Alliance, 2013). Upon further investigation, re- an ingredient in treatments for bleeding, joint pain and poi- searchers determined that Kuru had spread throughout the sonous bites. Lovejoy also notes that cannibalistic practices tribe through group necrophagy, or the group consumption have been associated with several ancient tribes. For exam- of remains (Rudolf & Antonovics, 2007). At this time, the ple, members of tribes from Brazil, Peru, Paraguay and Ven- Fore people practiced a funerary ritual involving the mass ezuela were known to practice funerary cannibalism. or the consumption of the brain of a dead loved one (Rettner, consumption of the remains of a loved one, with the goal 2015). It is investigations like these that have led scientists to of, “incorporating the dead into the future life of the tribe” conclude that endemic disease may result from cannibalistic (Lovejoy, 2016). practices within populations of social organisms that share While the majority considers anthropophagy to be ab- their prey (Rudolf & Antonovics, 2007). normal in modern times, it would be incorrect to state that In conclusion, it appears that abstaining from anthro- the act of cannibalism is unnatural, in general. A 1981 re- pophagy serves to protect both society and the collective hu- view of literature pertaining to intraspecific predation in a man biology, as a serving of human meat might come with a total of about 1300 species found that, “[cannibalism] complimentary side of disease for a human consumer. 4 Image Source: Alysha Riquier, 2nd Year BIO 5 A Story of Tuberculosis Vaccines & Diabetes Luka Vukovic, 3rd Year BIM Image Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is defined transplant of islets (Lee, Gan, & Calne, Source: as the absolute loss of insulin-produc- 2012).” ShutterStock ing beta cells in the pancreas. To be Scientists are working on encap- clear, genetic predispositions and envi- sulating these stem cells in semi-per- ronmental triggers can cause the loss of meable membranes so that they are these cells at any age. Without insulin, protected from the immune system; Image Source: the body cannot move glucose across although research, “has not yet been VectorStock cell membranes from the blood and meaningfully translated into clinical into tissues, where cells must use it to islet transplantation (Krishnan et al., ing insulin, how were their 1HbA1c’s generate energy. As a result, the body 2014).” being lowered? is starved while excess glucose builds This is where the Bacillus It might simply be that there is up in the blood. Without any insulin Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine, a live more glucose usage around the body. to use up the glucose, the cells in our attenuated tuberculosis (TB) vaccine BCG appeared to cause a “systemic shift bodies are forced to catabolize fats and employed worldwide since the early in glucose utilization, shifting from pri- proteins for energy, while high glucose 1900s, comes in. Not only is it a cheap marily oxidative phosphorylation to concentrations damage the endothelial and accessible vaccine, it has also been aerobic glycolysis (Kühtreiber et al., linings of small capillaries such as those used as a “potential treatment for can- 2018).” By putting the body in a high- in the eyes, kidneys, reproductive or- cer (Wang & Lin, 2008). How has such er state of glucose utilization, hyper- gans, and the peripheries. a common vaccine managed to “signifi- glycemia could be better treated via an Knowing that most cases of T1D cantly reduce the blood glucose levels,” altered metabolic state. This change in are the result of autoimmune dysfunc- measured as the 1HbA1c levels of dia- metabolism may be related to the epi- tion (this wipes out the insulin-produc- betics (Faustman, 2017)? The BCG vac- genetic changes that come with the vac- ing beta cells), how have we tried curing cine is known to increase the levels of a cine. Certain genes were being upregu- T1D? To understand potential cures, we certain cytokine, a tumor necrosis fac- lated (turned on) via demethylation of need to comprehend that it is the mem- tor (TNF) (Faustman et al., 2012). This DNA, resulting in the reprogramming ory cells that recall and recognize beta cytokine can induce, “significant chang- of cells to promote aerobic glycolysis cell- specific surface proteins. Upon es in gene expression which ultimately (Kühtreiber et al., 2018). Whether this recognition, they release antibodies help to increase regulatory T-cells while metabolomic shift takes place through- that mark them for destruction. As a re- removing self-reactive memory cells out the body or only in specific regions sult, they cannot naturally regenerate to (Faustman, 2017)”, those which cause is yet to be understood. restore the body to a pre-diabetic state. the autoimmune dysfunction. Note that Sometimes, science is a lot of So why not use stem cells to regen- regulatory T-cells help to prevent the shooting in the dark. Who knew that erate beta-cells? Regrettably, extracting immune system from instigating in- a TB vaccine could have potential sig- stem cells from bone marrow is deep- flammation, thus allowing beta cells to nificance for T1D treatment? Stranger ly invasive, implants may cause cancer, regenerate and restore insulin produc- still, even frontline researchers cannot and the beta cells are wiped out again tion. There have been promising results yet figure out how the molecular biolo- only a few months after implantation. to support this hypothesis, as seen by gy comes together. Nevertheless, this is 1 “While the early results were promis- the significant lowering of HbA1c lev- an area of work that can shine light on ing, with some 70% of the patients re- els of diabetic trial subjects (Kühtreiber novel medical insights. This is how a TB quiring no insulin injections after two et al., 2018). However, after failing to vaccine and diabetes may live happily years, at five years, most of these pa- show that beta cells could permanently ever after. tients had deteriorated and required in- be restored (Kühtreiber et al., 2018), a sulin supplements, despite some second hypothesis had to be adopted. If 1HbA1c: Glycalated hemoglobin is an index of long term (2-3 6 having received more than one T1 diabetics did not continue produc- month) average blood glucose concentrations. Emerging Nanotechnology: Nanoparticles as a Drug Delivery Platform Emil-Al Kadi, 4rd Year BIM

Nanoparticles have played a crucial role in researchers’ as a NP ligand to demonstrate tumor targeting, through processes of overcoming previous limitations and further- overexpressed hyaluronic acid receptors within the cancer ing advancements. In fact, many have resorted to the use of cells (Choi et al., 2010). In addition, the shell can be labeled drug encapsulating nanoparticles to target certain tissues, as with a non-invasive near-infrared (NIR) dye, that allows for well as counter multidrug resistance in chemotherapy. But real-time biodistribution fluorescence imaging. one must ask: what exactly are these nanoparticles, and how Many previous drug treatment limitations have been do they complement existing technologies to surpass mod- solved with the use of NPs, one of which is combination ern research obstacles? chemotherapy. This tumor eradicating treatment relies on the use of multiple drugs that function by different mechanisms, which prevent the development of drug resistant cancer cells. Common limitations of such treatment are drug toxicity, and different accumulation sites of drugs. This problem is easily resolved when multiple drugs are encapsu- lated within NPs. As the drugs stay unreleased from the NPs until they reach their target site, the risk of drug toxicity is significantly reduced. Ligand based NPs also allow for active targeting, rather than the traditional passive targeting method of free-drugs. Thus, once introduced through intra- Image Source: venous injection, drug loaded NPs travel through the blood Myriam Hamza, and to their target organ without accumulating in the heart st 1 Year BIM to cause cardiotoxicity. In fact, with active targeting, the “drug quantity required to achieve a therapeutic effect may

be greatly reduced as well as the cost of therapy” (Barakat et Simply put, a nanoparticle is any particle or aggregate al., 2012). of particles, that ranges between 1 to 100 nanometers in size In previous years, nanoparticles have proven to be an (Britannica, 2017). Nanoparticles, hereafter referred to as essential part of an effective drug delivery system. Given NPs, can function as a single unit due to their surface lay- their plasticity, they continue to be engineered into the per- er properties. NPs are extremely versatile; their shell can be fect drug carriers. The future of nanoparticles and their key composed of any molecule containing hydrophilic radicals role in drug delivery is promising, as more and more nano- such as hydroxyl, carboxyl and amino groups. Surrounded pharmaceuticals receive approval for clinical use. by this shell is a hydrophobic core, usually containing lip- id-soluble molecules, such as anti-cancer drugs. Different types of NPs are used for diverse applications. Polymeric NPs for example, can be composed of natural polymers (e.g. gelatin) or synthetic polymers, (e.g. polylactides) allowing them to be bioavailable, as well as biodegradable (Barakat et al., 2012). They also offer complete drug protection, mak- ing them “[e]xcellent carrier[s] for controlled and sustained delivery of drugs” (Bhatia, 2016). In order to create a NP drug delivery platform, chemical mechanisms are used to promote the self-assembly of biocompatible polymers and desired therapeutic molecules into an amphipathic NP. The surface of NPs can also con- tain functional groups such as ligands, which allow for tis- 7 sue-specific targeting. In one study, hyaluronic acid was used Breakthrough Starshot: The next giant leap for mankind? Mathieu Levesque, 4th Year BPS The gradual increase in size and heat of our Sun re- project in particular: Breakthrough Starshot. mains an unstoppable part of its lifespan. In a billion years, Breakthrough Starshot seeks to take advantage of a it will cause Earth’s oceans to boil. While some forms of propulsion technique, using what’s known as beamed laser life may remain after that, the Earth will be uninhabit- propulsion. The basic aim is to accelerate a spacecraft using able for humanity. Ultimately, our home planet is doomed an array of either microwave or laser beams on the ground to be vaporized by the expansion of the sun into a red giant directed at a large sail, attached to a spacecraft in orbit. The (Schröder & Smith, 2008). Should humanity remain extant success of this propulsion method has been demonstrat- at this point, we’d have a major problem: where will we go in ed in laboratories (Benford, 2012). Due to the vacuum of the absence of the Earth? To some, the answer is obvious: we space, there is no resistance to acceleration of the spacecraft. must take to the stars. Therefore, it can be accelerated to tremendous speeds, the Enter the Breakthrough Initiatives. Founded in 2015 only limiting factors being the size of the sail and the power by Yuri and Julia Milner, the Breakthrough Initiatives are of the beam. Traditionally, chemically-propelled rockets are a set of projects seeking to answer several questions about limited by their own fuel, as upon launch, the rocket must the universe, such as: Where is everybody? Where can life be able to accelerate the payload as well as its own fuel. In flourish? Can we reach the stars? (Breakthrough Initiatives, fact, a hypothetical chemical rocket carrying a payload of “About”, n.d.). This latter is sought to be answered by one 15 000 kg and using an amount of fuel equivalent to the entire Earth’s mass could only accelerate up to about 237 km/s Image Source: (Fraser, 2017). That is less than 1% of the speed of light. th Evan Nanni, 5 Year BIM Using the proposed propulsion system for Breakthrough Starshot, the spacecraft could be accelerated to nearly 15% the speed of light. At this speed, it would take only 20 years to reach the nearest star to our own sun, Alpha Centauri. Rather than a large-scale spacecraft, Yuri’s proposed spacecraft are much more modest. Thousands of probes, each weighing less than one gram, would be placed into a high altitude orbit. Affixed to each probe would be a sail measuring a few metres across, and only a few hundred at- oms thick. The beam propulsion system from the ground would accelerate the spacecraft to their target speed within minutes. Requiring a laser with an energy output on the order of 100 GW, this is no small task. (Breakthrough Ini- tiatives, “Concept”, n.d.). After 20 years of flying through space, the goal is to fly close enough to the Alpha Centauri star system to be able to capture images of a planet which has been detected in the star system (Breakthrough Initia- tives, “About”, n.d.). All of these tasks carry challenges that must be over- come for this mission to have any hope of success. Before launch, many things need to be improved. For example, according to the Breakthrough Initiatives team, focusing a powerful laser beam onto a sail a few metres across at a dis- tance of millions of kilometres requires extreme precision. Therefore, a significant improvement in tracking and pointing of beams is required ( “Launch | Precision pointing for a meter-scale lightsail”, n.d.). Atmospheric effects and objects such as space debris in the path of the beam also pose 8 a problem. During the cruise phase, the potential damage incurred by space dust has to be mitigated. Finally, how does n.d.), Breakthrough Starshot has a good jumping off point information get sent back to Earth once the probe reaches to commence research. Significant challenges lie ahead for Alpha Centauri? The sail could be used as an antenna, but this project to have any chance at getting off of the ground this requires a structural change from the launch to commu- in the next few decades. If successful, however, this mission nication phase. will go down as one of humanity’s first great leaps into the Considering the $100 million dollars that have been in- interstellar realm. vested into this project, (Breakthrough Initiatives, “About”, Brenda Milner One hundred years of brilliance Alixe Ménard, 3rd Year BIM Image Source: The New York Times When deciding what to do as a profession, has anyone ever told you, “Do what you love and you will never work a his epileptic convulsions, Henry could no longer form new day in your life”? Although many people believe this saying memories (Dessen, 2018). H.M., as they called him in the to be cliché and most-likely unrealistic, Dr. Brenda Milner experimental labs, worked with Dr. Milner for 30 years, yet has proven it right. At 100 years old, Dr. Milner is still work- he never retained her name. Nonetheless, he allowed her to ing and, well, loving it. Dr. Milner obtained her bachelor's better understand the interaction between the brain’s hemi- degree and master’s degree in experimental psychology at spheres which lead to her creation of the discipline we now Cambridge University in Manchester before coming to Can- refer to as neuropsychology. ada to complete her PhD in experimental psychology for the Picture this: an era without modern technology. How- investigation of the effects of temporal lobe damage on intel- ever, with the help of curiosity, meticulous observation and lectual abilities in humans at McGill University (Summers, a pen and paper, the field of neuroscience evolved quickly 2013). Dr. Milner has dedicated her life to the exploration of and immensely. Dr. Milner developed and used tests such the brain and we are better off for it. as the ‘verbal fluency test’ which assessed the patient’s pro- The brain is by far the most important organ. This mere duction of words in order to better evaluate the integrity three pound structure dictates our entire existence and all of their brain’s left hemisphere. Dr. Milner had proven that that forms who we are as humans. While we know that the the brain’s left hemisphere specializes in language, reason- brain uses 20% of our oxygen and calorie intake despite it ing, and logic while the right hemisphere regulates imagi- being only 2% of our body weight, we still don’t know ev- nation, intuition, and artistic ability (Carey, 2017). Anoth- erything about it (Burgess, 2018). Luckily, many research- er astounding discovery she made while studying patients ers dedicate their life to its exploration so that we can bet- with frontal lobe injuries, was that this area allowed the two ter understand our own existence. Dr. Brenda Milner was hemispheres to work together and compensate for each oth- the first to discover that the temporal lobe is in charge of er while injured (Carey, 2017) With these discoveries, Dr. short term memory. She was also the first to determine that Milner changed the world of memory research, and she con- different kinds of memory, be it motor, long term, or short tinues to do so today, as she works 3 days a week at the Mon- term, are formed in different parts of the brain. She came treal Neurological Institute (MNI). She largely impacted the upon this groundbreaking discovery by mistake and at the field of neuroscience and the knowledge we now have on detriment of Henry Molaison. Henry suffered from epilepsy memory formation. Thus, she will forever be remembered and received a partial lobotomy in order to put an end to for the impact she has had on both disciplines, and for his seizures. While the operation was successful in ending the contributions she continues to make today. 9 Sijyl Fasih, 2nd Year BIM

Dear Darwin, Is time travel scientifically possible, or am I just watching too many science fiction movies? ~ DeLorean DMC-12

Dear DeLorean DMC-12, Technically, you’re travelling in time right now - we all are. Time is a fourth dimension in which we move in the forward direction, so in the last second you travelled forward in time by 1 second. The question is, can we manipulate this unidirec- tional motion in time to move slower or faster, or even back to the future?! Well, perhaps Albert Einstein’s theory of special relativity came close to answering this question. Basically, as an object travels through a composite dimension known as space-time, particularly when its relative speed reaches close to that of light, time dilates/moves more slowly for it. So, if you hopped on a spaceship with a speed infinitesimally close to that of light and left behind a friend on Earth as the “observer”, your friend would have aged considerably more than you by the time you got back. Moreover, Einstein’s theory of general relativity explains the effect of gravitational fields on space-time; time passes more slowly for objects in gravitational fields. So, you can imagine that for an object travelling near a black hole, which has immense gravitational pull, the passage of time would be very slow (Rayman, 2018). To answer your question more succinctly, we have not been able to build a DeLorean DMC-12 that transports us back to 1955, but Einstein’s theories of special and general relativity demonstrate that slowing time down for an object is surely possible. In fact, this has been demonstrated using twin atom- ic clocks. Moreover, scientists are considering phenomena such as space-time wormholes as a basis for time machines that transport objects to the future, but this would require gargantuan amounts of energy (Rayman, 2018)! Keep up the inquiry! Image Source: John Evans, Physics ‘18 Darwin

Dear Darwin, I’ve always been told our appendix is a vestigial feature, but I cannot help but think that it contributes to our well-being in some way. Can you provide some input? ~ #curious

Dear #curious, You are certainly on to something. Research has shown the appendix plays important roles in both the developing fetus and adults. En- docrine cells appear in the fetal appendix halfway into its development; these cells secrete various biogenic hormones that assist the fetus with homeostatic mechanisms as it develops. Moreover, lymphoid tissue appears within the appendix following birth and accumulates well into ones 20s and 30s. Thus, in early development, the appendix is thought to be a functional lymphoid organ, considering it is a site of maturation for various white blood cell types and antibodies (Martin, n.d.). So, you can certainly (partially) thank your appendix for all those times you didn’t catch a cold! Great question! Image Source: 10 rd Darwin Angeli Gabrielle Reyes, 3 Year BIM Potential Misdiagnosis of Psychosis:

What We HaveDominique Learned Yelle, 4th Year in HSS the Past Decade

As we all know, the human brain is an incredibly com- Madness”, as well as publishing the New York Times best- plex organ that is still actively examined by researchers seller, “Brain on Fire”, which depicts her entire journey from today. Characterized as a severe mental disorder in which her first symptoms to her last moments of recovery. Cahalan emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external went through multiple psychotic episodes. Her psychologist reality, psychosis is a common psychiatric disorder that has initially thought her behavioural changes were due to exces- occurred for as long as we can remember (Psychosis, 2018). sive drinking and drug abuse, and thus diagnosed her with While the diagnosis of psychosis remains both vague and mania and depression (Cahalan, 2012). However, her symp- linked to a number of psychiatric diseases, a recent discov- toms worsened, causing her to be hospitalized, where she ery has pointed to a possible cause, which has researchers was consequently rediagnosed a number of times until Dr. questioning whether past diagnoses were indeed accurate. Souhel Najjar took on her case. Dr. Najjar, who was familiar In 2007, Dr. Josep Dalmau at the University of Pennsyl- with Dr. Dalmau’s research on anti-NMDARE, decided to vania discovered the anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) go through the procedures to see whether or not Cahalan receptor encephalitis (anti-NMDARE), a kind of autoim- had the autoimmune disorder. Once the results came back mune encephalitis. In this disease, antibodies attack the positive, she was successfully put on a treatment regimen, NMDA-type glutamate receptors in the central nervous sys- which cured the illness. Although Susannah’s story ended tem, which is believed to disrupt receptor function (Rosch et on a positive note, not everyone is as fortunate; some never al., 2017). The NMDA receptor is known to have an impact fully recover, their old selves lost forever. in memory and other cognitive processes (Malhotra, 1996) Anti-NMDARE was only discovered 11 years ago. and its decreased function is therefore related to memory Hearing stories like Cahalan’s makes you wonder how many and learning impairments, psychosis, and other brain inju- individuals had this illness before it was discovered. How ries (Newcomer, Farber & Olney, 2000). many people have been institutionalized and diagnosed with Anti-NMDARE has a number of symptoms, including psychosis, when in reality they were affected by this rare and a broad variety of psychiatric manifestations such as anxi- cruel autoimmune disorder? Looking at scientific evidence, ety/fear, agitation, paranoid ideation, mood disorders and it is evident that multitudes of individuals have gone misdi- bizarre behaviours with personality change (Kayser & Dal- agnosed. As disorders of varying natures are being discov- mau, 2011). At first the illness was believed to affect main- ered on a constant basis, one cannot help but wonder how ly women who were harbouring ovarian teratomas (Kayser many people are unfortunately being misdiagnosed today. & Dalmau, 2011) but as years passed, scientists discovered anyone could be diagnosed with this illness, regardless of age (Staley et al., 2018). Unfortunately, it is a challenging disease to diagnose since initial laboratory and radiographic results are typically nonspecific and manifestations of the illness differ from patient to patient (Staley et al. 2018). The disease commonly begins and ends with psychiatric disturbances in adults, but mainly manifests itself with manic symptoms in the paediatric population (Florance et al., 2009). Although it remains a disease that is difficult to diagnose, it seems to be more common than initially thought. A study found that approximately 1% of all ICU admissions of patients between the ages of 18-35 had this autoimmune encephalitis, pointing to a possible source of misdiagnosis for cases of psychosis pre-dating 2007 (Prüss et al., 2010). One of the most famous cases of anti-NMDARE is that of New York Post journalist Susannah Cahalan. She was Image Source: Myriam Hamza, 1st Year BIM diagnosed in 2009 with the disorder, and helped spread its awareness through an article she wrote titled, “My Month of 11 to this is inherent in the way by which AI learns. Modelled after the brain, the computer functions as a neural network, which receives input signals, such as imaging data from a CT scan. It translates and integrates these signals and then relays the results to a set of output neurons (Castelvecchi, 2016). Between the input and output layer are interneurons that communicate with each other, also known as the hidden layer. Given specific diagnostic images and their ac- companying labels, the computer can adjust the strength of each neuronal connection within the hidden layer until the How Artiﬁcial output matches the correct answer (Wilczek, 2011). Just like our brains, memories are stored within these interneuro- nal connections, rather than in specific sequences of code. Intelligence Therefore, going back and seeing how the AI reached a certain conclusion is not as easy as going through the script and Can Help Us in retracing its steps (Castelvecchi, 2016). So how do these questions affect our harnessing of Medical Diagnostics this technology? Does it matter if we know how it works, so An Duong, 4th Year BIO long as it works? According to Andrea Vedaldi, a computer The ability to non-invasively see inside a patient’s body scientist at the University of Oxford, if the software learned is one of the most useful tools in a doctor’s arsenal. Howev- to recognize disease markers beyond our current medical er, these advances in digital imaging come with increased knowledge and “the machine could not explain how it knew, demands that are becoming harder and harder to meet. For it would present physicians and their patients with serious several fields, the number of clinical specialists available to dilemmas.” (Castelvecchi, 2016) analyze these images and recommend referrals is not suffi- Another key issue is in retraining AI to work with dif- cient, leading to potentially harmful or irreversible deterio- ferent devices. If we cannot trace how it learns to recognize rations in health (Foot & MacEwen, 2017). Enter artificial a specific symptom, how can we efficiently tweak it to recog- intelligence (AI), deep-learning software that can analyze nize that same symptom in an image of lower quality? In a medical images and diagnose pathologies to help doctors study by De Fauw et al. in 2018, a technique is presented in take the appropriate next steps (Zharkova & Jain, 2007). which the recognition of specific tissues is decoupled from For now, this technology is most studied in the field of oph- the recognition of variants of the pathologies and diagnosis. thalmology (Ratner, 2018). IDx, a startup focusing on di- Thus, if the computer needed to be retrained to suit a dif- agnostic artificial intelligence, was granted Food and Drug ferent medical imaging device, only the former would need Administration (FDA) approval of a diagnostic software for retraining. diabetic retinopathy earlier this year (Ratner, 2018). This au- Artificial intelligence is still a few steps away from be- tonomous program can integrate data obtained from retinal ing a ubiquitous presence in our hospitals and clinics, but it imaging and submit a referral, both in an expedient man- is headed in the right direction. In the US, the FDA “is not ner and with accuracy comparable to an expert in the field just approving these tools, they are accelerating them,” says (Abràmoff et al., 2018). According to Dr. Michael Abràmoff, Eric Perakslis, former chief information officer at the FDA founder of IDx and professor of ophthalmology at the Uni- (Ratner, 2018). In the future, self-diagnosing may not just be versity of Iowa, “That is what we need to drive down the a misguided perusal of Web M.D., but rather an AI-powered price and improve the quality of healthcare.” (Ratner, 2018) app. Emergency response teams are also benefitting from this technology. Viz.ai, an AI company founded in 2016, has designed a product that can analyze CT scans and de- tect blockages in major blood vessels, alerting the medical specialist of its findings right on their smartphone. This, says the co-founder of Viz.ai, can save time by bringing specialists into the ER sooner (Simonite, 2018. Despite advances in the field of AI, the biggest obsta- cle facing developers is a lack of understanding on the way these computer systems actually learn (Castelvecchi, 2016). If they created this technology, how come they cannot 12 parse out how it works to better control it? The answer Image Source: Yzabelle Bisa, 3rd Year BIOT , To Whom to Give One s Heart: Issues Concerning Organ Donation Simon Reilley, 3rd Year BIM Over the course of this year, members of the Argen- in North America, it is difficult for the general public to tinian government have been in the process of establishing decipher the criteria followed by the Selection Committee, a law that contradicts the traditional decision concerning particularly in the context of how it discriminates against organ donation: they declared that all individuals would be certain candidates. This raises important questions concern- organ donors, unless otherwise noted on an official docu- ing which medical criteria should be used to decide who ment before the individual’s death. This is in opposition to transplants should be given to, and if there are non-medical numerous countries who still take for granted that individu- criteria which should be taken into account as well, such as als need to declare their intent to donate organs before their the individual’s contribution to society. death. The motivation behind this modification to health A system of this nature is essential in a scenario where policy may seem quite radical, but the rationale is that this the demand exceeds the available supply. In addition, this law will help avoid system must present cases where a lack of as non-discrimina- a compatible human tory to ensure that tissue results in the the public maintains death of people who confidence in it. Cer- might have other- tain different criteria wise been saved. are already used to The decision determine a person’s was made unan- eligibility and need imously by the for a transplant, such Chamber of Depu- as the stability of the ties, and thus rep- patient or the sever- resents the interests ity of the disease. and values of the However, it is very majority of the pop- difficult to deter- ulation of this South mine the social value American nation. It of a person because was named “Justina’s this characteristic Law” after Justina Lo Cane, who Image Source: Everplans is a bit like intelligence – it de- passed away at the age of 12 because of a lack of compati- pends on the point of view of the decision-maker, and their ble organ donors for the heart transplant she needed to save values and life experiences. Citizenship should not be a ma- her life (Lapresse, 2018). In establishing this law, even the jor argument for justifying this decision, as a person without parent of the deceased may not intervene if the deceased is citizenship can still have access to certain health services. an organ donor. According to the data from the National Furthermore, organ donations from non-citizens are evi- Central Coordinating Institute of Ablations and Transplants dently accepted and have medical value. Time already spent (INCUCAI), approximately 7 700 people, including 250 on the waiting list can give a person certain priority over children, are on waitlists for organ transplants in Argentina others, and the individual’s location can also be an import- (Lapresse, 2018). This is something easily forgotten if one is ant factor, as someone who lives close to the matched donor not on said waiting list. would be a better candidate in cases where the success of the Interestingly enough, organ donations from HIV-pos- transplant is conditional upon the waiting time. Therefore, itive individuals are banned in many countries, and organ the best idea for a fair and equitable health system would transplantation is often denied to them because the system be to develop an educated team with different perspectives can not bear the brunt of such a risky operation on top of and points of view who are capable of developing a consen- the already-high demand for organ transplantation. Thus, sus-based system, keeping in mind it is almost never possi- compatible organs are often directed to healthier qualified ble to please everyone in the face of a dilemma of this 13 individuals with higher estimated success rates. In contrast, magnitude. 14 Image Source: Alysha Riquier, 2nd Year BIO The Eastern,, Hognose,, Snake: the Cobra of Canada An Endangered Species of Ontario Alysha Riquier, 2nd Year BIO

If you know a little bit about snakes, you have proba- conservation for the main reason that people are not well bly already heard of the cobra; a majestic venomous snake informed and mistake this snake for a dangerous species that displays a hood when in a combat position. However, because of its appearance when threatened. Living in sandy you probably have never heard of the eastern hognose snake soil, this snake often lives on beaches frequented by many (Heterodon platirhinos), a slightly venomous snake which is people. This increases the potential for the persecution. In not in the same family as the cobra. addition, this species is commonly poached due to its de- It is known as a non-venomous snake, but like its fel- mand as a pet snake (Ontario Nature, 2018). Habitat loss low Canadian ring necked snake, they have venom that is caused by the rapid expansion of housing developments and non-lethal to humans, but lethal to small prey. The length road networks is another factor contributing to population of this snake typically ranges between 51 and 84 cm (Gov- decrease. It is also a highly mobile species, which increas- ernment of Canada, 2018), while males are usually smaller es its risk of being killed when encountering roads. Sever- than females (Powell, R., Conant, R., & Collins, J.T., 2016). al other factors influence the survival of this species, such The eastern hognose snake can be found in southern and as prey availability and the availability of a suitable habitat south-central Ontario. Sandy soil with little vegetation, such during nesting (Government of Canada, 2018). as open woods and fields, is the favourable habitat for this Fortunately, given the status of this snake, there are species. In addition, the species prefers to live near a body of initiatives for its conservation. The Natural Heritage Infor- water, as this is the habitat of toads, their primary prey. The mation Center keeps track of sightings. Research has been eastern hognose snake hibernates from October to April ongoing at Wasaga Beach Provincial Park since 2001, as well in sandy soil, protecting it from frost. On the contrary to as inventories and surveys at key locations. Radio telemetry most snakes, this snake undergoes solitary hibernation as of the eastern hognose snake movement model is also being opposed to hibernation in a community. To defend itself, done. Education about this snake plays a big part in the re- this snake will display similar behaviors as a cobra, straight- covery initiatives (Seburn, D., 2009). ening itself while recoiling, flattening its head to give itself a To conclude, all kinds of interesting species live in hood, and hissing. If unsuccessful, the eastern hognose will Canada, the eastern hognose snake being one of them. To sometimes cover itself with foul-smelling excrement and help with its conservation, you can report sightings on the play dead by laying on its back and sticking its tongue out. It Ontario Reptile and Amphibian Atlas (ORAA) application, can even exude blood from its mouth to be more convincing report illegal activities and educate others about this snake. (Government of Canada, 2018). Remember, the eastern hognose snake is not a species to be According to Nature Conservancy of Canada, this spe- wary of. In fact, it needs our attention. It is important to cies of snake is designated as “Threatened” under the Cana- be diligent and always inform yourself when possible before dian Species at Risk Act (Conservation of Nature Canada, acting when dealing with a species you do not know. 2018). Persecution by humans poses a great danger to its Why are Branched Chain Amino Acids Important While Exercising? Marie-Pier Millette, 4th Year PSY Have you ever heard about people drinking a solution you understand the process behind this drink. of BCAAs before or while working out, or do you drink BCAAs are branched-chain amino acids. More spe- some yourself? If yes, have you ever wondered why? Do you cifically, they include leucine, isoleucine, and valine. 15 know how BCAAs work in your body? This text will help These are essential amino acids that are mostly used by the muscles (Buse & Reid, 1975). The human body does during sustained physical exercise (Blomstrand, 2006). not produce BCAAs naturally, so they can only be obtained Since a decrease in BCAA levels in the blood leads to through nutrition. The role of BCAAs is to promote protein an increase of 5-HT production and thus the onset of cen- synthesis and inhibit protein degradation (Shimomura et tral fatigue, it is logical to think that consuming BCAAs al., 2006). during exercise could decrease 5-HT production and delay During resting conditions, a molecule complex that de- central fatigue. This hypothesis has been explored by many stroys BCAAs is inactive. This contributes to muscle growth researchers in different ways. and protein synthesis by keeping the BCAA concentration at Eva Blomstrand (2006) reported that the intake of normal levels. However, during prolonged exercise, BCAA BCAAs during sustained physical exercise increased their concentration falls because the molecule complex that de- concentration in the blood and muscles. This‘ resulted in stroys BCAAs becomes more active during exercise. This lowered perception of mental fatigue and exertion, as well suggests that BCAA supplements may be necessary during as improved physical and cognitive performance. Similar- exercise (Shimomura et al., 2006). ly, Meeusen and his collaborators (2006) demonstrated that The ingestion of BCAAs has many benefits during both physical and mental performance were favoured in physical activity, such as lowering central fatigue. Central subjects who consumed a solution containing BCAAs be- fatigue is described as the increasing inability of the central fore exercising. nervous system to fully activate muscles during voluntary Since BCAAs are important for protein synthesis and contractions, leading to force loss (Porter & Whelan, 2009). the reduction of protein breakdown, they could play a role in There are several hypotheses that explain what causes attenuating muscle damage caused by physical activity and central fatigue. One such hypothesis involves serotonin. Se- promote recovery. This hypothesis was tested in a study by rotonin is also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and Shimomura et al (2006). They found that ingesting BCAAs its concentration in the brain has been suggested to cause before or during physical exercise leads to lower reported central fatigue. Serotonin cannot cross the barrier to access muscle soreness and fatigue during the days following an the brain, so a precursor, tryptophan, is needed to synthe- exercise trial, compared to a group who ingested a placebo. size 5-HT in the brain. However, tryptophan needs a trans- The effect of BCAAs on post-workout muscle soreness porter to access the brain, and this transporter is the same as and fatigue suggests that BCAAs can be an excellent alter- the one used by BCAAs (Blomstrand, 2006). As mentioned native for athletes who want to work out more often or for previously, BCAA levels decrease during prolonged physical a longer duration. Even though these findings are very in- exercise. This decreases the competition with tryptophan, teresting, one has to be cautious when interpreting results leading to increased tryptophan transport to the brain, and from multivariable experiments: the dosage, time of admin- thus, an increase in 5-HT production. Thus, the decrease istration, individual differences, and other protocol related in BCAA concentration and increase in serotonin concen- factors may influence the results and make it harder to com- tration favours the onset of central fatigue (Young, 1986) pare results from different studies (Meeusen et al., 2006). Rust Fungi Protecting our Cultivars from Crop Disease Salman Ahmadi, 4th Year BPS Funguses, in a word, are peculiar. These organisms, funguses, such as those which cause rust diseases, bear no which are collectively grouped into the kingdom Fungi, resemblance to the archetypal “mushroom-y” ones. were historically studied by botanists until evolutionary ev- Rust diseases have caused catastrophic yield losses idence rightfully revealed their rank alongside plants and throughout history. Since humankind’s initial encounters animals as a distinct (and enormous) taxon (Stajich, 2017). with them, they have gained a reputation of being among In the company of the surprisingly ubiquitous nematodes, the most destructive maladies that attack food crops (Fetch lizard-like tuatara, and a variety of transparent jellyfish, fun- et al., 2011). Their terror was so ominous, in fact, that an- gi are cryptic (Stergiopoulos & Gordon, 2014) and generally cient Romans attempted to appease the God of Rust, Robi- go undetected by humans, who tend to avoid what they do gus, by ritualistically sacrificing dogs during a yearly festival not notice. What we do notice, and typically consider when in hopes of protecting grain fields from disease (Schumann thinking of funguses, is a tasty addition to a stir-fry, or per- & Leonard, 2000). Rust blights are caused by funguses of the haps a psychedelic trip to the depths of one’s brain. Yet order Pucciniales, which are highly specialized and unique 16 ironically, many of the most agriculturally significant parasites. They are also biotrophic, meaning they require Image Source: Quinn Eggertson of other DNA sequences on public databases, such as NC- BI’s GenBank and the Barcode of Life Database (Hambleton et al., 2016). The Canadian National Mycological Herbarium locat- ed at Ottawa’s Central Experimental farm neighbouring the Research Branch contains over 350 000 preserved fungal specimens from across the globe and serves as an invaluable resource to mycologists (Hambleton et al., 2016). Specimens dating as far back as the early 1800s have provided insight to the genetic makeup, evolutionary history (following in- depth phylogenetic analysis), biodiversity, and distribution Figure 1: Characteristic fungal pustules surrounded by a of rust funguses from varying regions of the world. Com- region of chlorosis (atypical coloration) on an infected leaf paring past specimens to those obtained by current collaborators and field workers allows for more rigorous evaluation a living plant host for their nutrients. The characteristic of new and migrating species. symptom of infection by these funguses is the appearance of The enormity of information gathered during the mod- blister-like pustules along the dermis of plant tissue that are ern genomic age is helping conquer some of the most press- reddish-brown in colour, hence the name “rust” (Singh et ing agricultural issues, including the spread of rust fungus- al., 2008). Under epidemic conditions, rust diseases ravage es. As means of data collection improve and technology crop fields and can cause total yield losses in afflicted culti- advances, scientists strive to ensure the sustainability of our vars (McIntosh & Brown, 1997). farms in the coming years. The danger of these pathogens lies partly in their ability to cycle very rapidly on their hosts and produce numerous spores which can be transported lengthy distances by wind currents. For instance, soybean rust, originating in Africa, was first introduced to North America by hurricane winds which migrated spores across the Atlantic (Fetch et al., 2011). Rust diseases present today in Canada include stem, leaf, and stripe rust of wheat, stem rust of barley, crown and stem rust of oat, flax rust, sunflower rust, and soybean rust (Fetch et al., 2011). Major epidemics of wheat stem rust in the Canadian prairies in the 1950s caused hundreds of millions of dollars in losses due to the unrelenting spread of the disease. Significant outbreaks of other aforementioned rust diseases in Canada have also been reported consistent- ly throughout the 20th century and the last decade, as the pathogens continue to evolve and proliferate (Fetch et al., 2011). So how do fungal specialists, known as mycologists, study and combat these pestilent pathogens? Modern developments in molecular biology have provided researchers with powerful tools to identify and monitor fungal pathogens. Scientists at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada’s Re- search Branch have generated robust databases, comprising thousands of fungal genomic sequences, by grouping together amplicons of short genetic markers. This process, known as DNA barcoding, allows for the species-level identification of organisms (Hambleton et al., 2016). Obtaining accurate and informative DNA sequences is rather laborious and involves both molecular and bioinformatics procedures. DNA from samples must be extracted, purified, quantified, and then sequenced before the sequences themselves are edited in silico. Final sequences are verified through comparison Image Source: Evan Nanni, 5th Year BIM with sequences of the same species before joining millions 17 REFERENCES When Cannibalism Kills line. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/nanoparticle Lovejoy, B. (2016, November 7). A Brief History of Medical Cannibalism. Lapham’s Quarterly. Retrieved from https://www. 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