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Supporting Information Finarelli and Flynn 10.1073/pnas.0901780106 SI Text comparisons to extant taxa appreciably lower the power of Phylogeny of the Carnivora. Valid statistical analysis of compara- statistical analyses. tive data in biological systems always requires information on the The still imprecise understanding of the evolutionary rela- phylogenetic relationships of the organisms being analyzed to tionships among fossil and extant musteloid taxa (7–11) presents account for the statistical nonindependence of observed char- further challenges in reconstructing character transformations acter values for closely related taxa (1, 2). We constructed a across this clade. We partitioned both nonfelid feliforms and composite cladogram of the Carnivora based on frameworks musteloids into ‘‘archaic’’ and ‘‘modern’’ groups based on first provided by several recent molecular phylogenies of the Car- appearances of taxa in the fossil record. It should be noted that nivora and further augmented by clade-specific phylogenies both of these cutoffs are necessarily arbitrary, and the groupings derived from DNA and morphological data. Recent phyloge- they produce are both highly paraphyletic. Therefore, in contrast netic analyses of the Carnivora using DNA sequence data have to the preceding use of paraphyletic groups, for which observed greatly improved our understanding of the interrelationships change in the allometries can be mapped to a single branch of the among the traditional family-level clades within this clade. In phylogeny, changes between archaic and modern feliforms or addition, morphological and ‘‘total evidence’’ phylogenies, in- musteloids only represent differences between early and late cluding fossil taxa, provide the means to incorporate extinct appearing members of each group. This approach is similar to carnivoran lineages within a molecular framework encompassing previous attempts to document change in relative brain size modern clades. All phylogenetic hypotheses used in this analysis, within a group through time, by partitioning taxa into early/late and references to supporting analyses, are given in Fig. S3. or extant/fossil partitions, and then assessing change in the We identify 2 paraphyletic groups (‘‘Stem Canidae’’ and residual values across these partitions (see, for example, refs. 12, ‘‘Nandinia/Basal Feliforms’’; Fig. S3) that are incorporated as 13, and 14). Although it is always preferable to map evolutionary stem outgroups to 2 monophyletic clades to facilitate the recon- transformations directly onto branches of a phylogeny, given struction of evolutionary transformations between these clades both ambiguity in the fossil record and the phylogeny for these and inferred plesiomorphic conditions of the stem outgroups. groups, the approach presented here represents a conservative Using this approach, a previous analysis of caniforms found analysis and the best potential hypothesis given the presently evidence for a change in the encephalization allometry between available data. a paraphyletic stem canid group and the crown radiation of To determine the cutoffs between archaic and modern taxon Canidae (wolves, foxes, jackals, etc.) (3). In a similar manner, in partitions within Musteloidea and nonfelid Feliformia, we as- this analysis several fossil taxa comprising a paraphyletic stem sessed the residuals for fossil taxa in each clade relative to the group lying just outside crown-clade Feliformia (e.g., Stenogale) brain volume/body mass regression for the extant taxa in each (4–6) were clustered with Nandinia (Asian palm civet) into a respective clade. If a transformation in the encephalization group of stem feliforms. Due to low sample size, this group was allometry between archaic and modern sets of taxa for either further combined with the extinct clade Nimravidae (‘‘false group is to be preferred over a hypothesis proposing one sabretooths’’) into a paraphyletic stem group, ‘‘Basal Feli- allometry for all taxa within the group, then it is most likely to formia’’ (see Fig. S3) (4, 5). be supported if the partition corresponds to a dramatic change Two additional paraphyletic groups were also considered (Fig. in the distribution of observed residuals. Plotting the distribution S3). With the exception of Felidae (cats) and Nimravidae, of residuals against time (12) for each group reveals sharp sample sizes of brain volume estimates for fossil feliforms are increases in both maximum and median residual values for both small, and within the caniforms a similar situation is encountered groups (at 12 Ma for feliforms and 10 Ma for musteloids). We for the Musteloidea (skunks, red panda, weasels, raccoons, and therefore used these values as temporal cutoffs for archaic and allied taxa). The limited sample sizes of fossil taxa available for modern taxon partitions for the 2 groups. 1. Felsenstein J (1985) Phylogenies and the comparative method. Am Nat 125:1–15. 12. Finarelli JA, Flynn JJ (2007) The evolution of encephalization in caniform carnivorans. 2. Garland T, Ives AR (2000) Using the past to predict the present: Confidence intervals for Evolution 61:1758–1772. regression equations in phylogenetic comparative methods. Am Nat 155:346–364. 13. Radinsky L (1978) Evolution of brain size in carnivores and ungulates. Am Nat 112:815– 3. Finarelli JA (2008) Testing hypotheses of the evolution of brain-body size scaling in the 831. Canidae (Carnivora, Mammalia). Paleobiology 34:35–45. 14. Jerison H (1973) Evolution of the Brain and Intelligence (Academic, New York). 4. Wesley-Hunt GD, Flynn JJ (2005) Phylogeny of the Carnivora: Basal relationships 15. Finarelli JA (2006) Estimation of endocranial volume through the use of external skull among the carnivoramorphans, and assessment of the position of ‘‘Miacoidea’’ rela- measures in the Carnivora (Mammalia). J Mammal 87:1027–1036. tive to crown-clade Carnivora. J Syst Palaeo 3:1–28. 16. Smith FA, et al. (2003) Body mass of late Quaternary mammals. Ecology 84:3403. 5. Wesley-Hunt GD, Werdelin L (2005) Basicranial morphology and phylogenetic position 17. Gittleman JL (1986) Carnivore brain size, behavioral ecology, and phylogeny. J Mam- of the upper Eocene carnivoramorphan Quercygale. Acta Palaeontol Pol 50:837–846. mal 67:23–36. 6. Polly PD, Wesley-Hunt GD, Heinrich RE, Davis G, Houde P (2006) Earliest known 18. 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Bone Valley Formation of Florida. J Vert Paleo 57:122–125. 9. Wang XM, McKenna M, Dashzeveg D (2005) Amphicticeps and Amphicynodon (Arc- 22. Radinsky L (1980) Endocasts of amphicyonid carnivorans. Am Mus Nov 2694:1–11. toidea, Carnivora) from Hsanda Gol Formation, Central Mongolia and Phylogeny of 23. Gustafson EP (1986) Carnivorous mammals of the late Eocene and early Oligocene of Basal Arctoids with Comments on Zoogeography. Am Mus Nov 3483:1–57. Trans-Pecos Texas USA. Bull Tex Mem Mus 33:1–66. 10. Wang XM, Whistler DP, Takeuchi GT (2005) A new basal skunk Martinogale (Carnivora, 24. Ginsburg L (1966) Amphicyonids from the Quercy Phosphorites. Ann Pale´ ontol (Vert) Mephitinae) from late Miocene Dove Spring Formation, California, and origin of New 52:21–64 (in French). World mephitines. J Vert Paleo 25:936–949. 25. Radinsky L (1977) Brains of early carnivores. Paleobiology 3:333–349. 11. Finarelli JA (2008) A total evidence phylogeny of the Arctoidea (Carnivora: Mammalia): 26. 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    Person, J.J. 2012. Saber Teeth. Geo News 39(2)

    Saber Teeth Jeff J. Person Carnivores of all kinds have always been of interest to me. Arguably Smilodon is only the last iteration of saber-teeth in the fossil it is a much more difficult lifestyle to hunt and kill another animal record. Carnivorous mammals with large sabers have appeared than it is to browse or graze on non-mobile plants. Carnivorous four times across unrelated groups of carnivorous mammals over animals have evolved to stalk and kill their prey in many, many the last 60 million years (or so) of Earth’s history. varied ways. Just think of the speed of a frog’s tongue or the speed of a cheetah, the stealth and camouflage of an octopus, Types of Saber-teeth or the intelligence of some birds. These are only a few examples Not only were there four different groups of mammals that of modern carnivores; the variety of carnivores through time is evolved saber-teeth separately, there are also two different kinds broader and even more fascinating. of saber-teeth. There are the dirk-toothed forms, and the scimitar- toothed forms. The scimitar-toothed animals tended to be more Convergent evolution is the reappearance of the same solution lightly built with coarsely serrated and somewhat elongated to a biological problem across unrelated groups of animals. This canines (fig. 1) (Martin, 1998a). The dirk-toothed animals tended has happened many times throughout Earth’s history. The similar to be more powerfully built with long, finely serrated, dagger-like body shapes of sharks, fish, ichthyosaurs (a group of swimming canines which sometimes included a large flange on the lower jaw reptiles) and dolphins is a great example of unrelated groups of (fig.
  • University of Florida Thesis Or Dissertation Formatting

    University of Florida Thesis Or Dissertation Formatting

    UNDERSTANDING CARNIVORAN ECOMORPHOLOGY THROUGH DEEP TIME, WITH A CASE STUDY DURING THE CAT-GAP OF FLORIDA By SHARON ELIZABETH HOLTE A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2018 © 2018 Sharon Elizabeth Holte To Dr. Larry, thank you ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank my family for encouraging me to pursue my interests. They have always believed in me and never doubted that I would reach my goals. I am eternally grateful to my mentors, Dr. Jim Mead and the late Dr. Larry Agenbroad, who have shaped me as a paleontologist and have provided me to the strength and knowledge to continue to grow as a scientist. I would like to thank my colleagues from the Florida Museum of Natural History who provided insight and open discussion on my research. In particular, I would like to thank Dr. Aldo Rincon for his help in researching procyonids. I am so grateful to Dr. Anne-Claire Fabre; without her understanding of R and knowledge of 3D morphometrics this project would have been an immense struggle. I would also to thank Rachel Short for the late-night work sessions and discussions. I am extremely grateful to my advisor Dr. David Steadman for his comments, feedback, and guidance through my time here at the University of Florida. I also thank my committee, Dr. Bruce MacFadden, Dr. Jon Bloch, Dr. Elizabeth Screaton, for their feedback and encouragement. I am grateful to the geosciences department at East Tennessee State University, the American Museum of Natural History, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard for the loans of specimens.