SHORT COMMUNICATION

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINING AROUND , DISTRICT,

J.V. NATANI1 and K.S. RAGHAV2 147, Printers Nagar II, Sitabari, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302 Oil 2228, Shree Jee Nagar, Durgapura, Tonk Road, Jaipur - 302 011

Conventional and unscientific mining poses severe level. Groundwater from the mines is released into open threat to life, public property and continuation of mining lands and agricultural fields. in the area. Incompatible land uses, huge waste dumps Makrana marble deposits belongs to the and large scale land transformation have resulted in land Formation of Kumbhalgarh Group of the Delhi Supergroup degradation, ponding, flooding, water contamination (Pareek, 1984; GSI, 1997). According to Sinha Roy et al. and health hazards in Makrana mining area. (1998) Makrana marble is northeastern extension of the Ras Segregation of dumps, compatible land use and research marble and its stratigraphic position is debatable. The Alwar and development activity for use of marble slurry are Group of rocks towards east are overlain by the Ajmer suggested measures for reclamation and restoration of Formation (Ajabgarh Group) comprising of medium to the degraded land. coarse grained, cherty, ferruginous and/or micaceous quartzite (Fig.l). The Ras Formation of the Kumbhalgarh Group, considered coeval with the Ajmer Formation, INTRODUCTION comprises greyish white to pink marble and dolomitic marble Makrana (Lat. 27o02'25,, N; Long. 74°43'44" E) is and is exposed west of Makrana. Marble occurs as thin situated at eastern margin of the and has an parallel bands associated with calc-silicate rocks and ancient marble mining history. The Makrana marble has calcareous quartzite having NNE-SSW strike and steep made a perceptible dent in marble industry because of its easterly dips. The rocks of Bombolai Formation of Punagarh blockability, whiteness, (high CaO 50-56 %, low MgO 0.90- Group are the youngest rocks of the Dellii Supergroup in 1.77 %), good polishing character and lustre. It is fine the area. These consist of biotite gneiss, quartz mica schist, grained and exhibits stable, well distributed colours, pleasing actionolite-tremolite schist, phyllite, ferruginous quartzite, and attractive designs and patterns. The transluscent varieties grey impure marble and calc silicate rock. The exact of Makrana marble are preferred over other for interrelationship of these rocks is not known due to paucity monumental and sculptural work (IBM, 1993). of outcrops. Rocks of the Delhi Supergroup have been intruded by the Erinpura Igneous suite comprising porphyritic granite, biotite granite, pink granite, leucogranite GEOMORPHOLOGICAL AND GEOLOGICAL SET-UP and pegmatite. Geomorphologically, the area is represented by strike Five prominent marble bands occur in the area west of ridges, sand sheets, anthropogenic overburden mounds, Makrana. From east to west these are known as: (1) Devi- slurry dumps and deep pits. Drainage in the mining area is range, (2) Dungri range, (3) Pink range, mostly internal. Major part of the area is covered by mobile (4) Makrana Kumhari range, and (5) Borawar Kumhari range to semi stable, NNW-SSE to NE-SW trending sand dunes with band I and U (Natani, 2001). The different marble which overlie calcareous sand, pseudo-conglomerate, bands have formed due to tight isoclinal folding. The mining kankar or gypsite beds of Quaternary period. Marble is ranges are known by different names in different blocks exposed on surface in the central part, whereas overburden (Fig. 2). At present mines extend from Matabhar in the varies upto 15 m in the northern and the southern part of north to Bilu-Mored in the south (approximately 13 km) the area. along the strike and from Gunawati in the east to Borawar General slope in the mining area is towards west and in the west (about 1.6 km) across the strike. Matabhar, northwest. Mining at present is below the water table in old Kalanada, Kolhadungri and Bilu-Mored are new mining mines. Water table in the area is 30-40 m below ground areas.

JOUR.GEOL SOC., VOL.62, SEPT 2003 SHORT COMMUNICATION

74" 1 40' @ 74" 1 45' 2- N

Jakhli Q Jusri

3

SCALE 01- 2 3 4km

-270 Sabalpur 4 0' a

74" 1 40' Source: GSI, 1997 LEGEND Aeolian mobile sand intermixed 1with calcareous clay or silt with Quaternary polymictic conglomerate and grit 1 Biotite granite, Pegmatite Erinpura Igneous Upper Amphibolite Suite IProterozoic Phyllite, impure , Bombolai Punagarh 1ca~c-silicate rock Lower to Middle Makrana marble and Dolomitic limestone / Quartzite at places Cherty micaceous and ferruginous

@ Well section

Fig.1. Geological map of area around Makrana, , Rajasthan.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,VOL.62, SEPT.2003 SHORT COMMUNICATION 371

MINING RELATED ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT the period 1970-1998. Marble production has also increased ON ENVIRONMENT from 200 thousand tonnes in 1986 to 581 thousand tonnes Open cast mining, marble processing, solid waste in 1999-2000. Comparison of 1967 aerial photographs and generation and its disposal, trading and transport of marble IRS 1C Geo-coded data product of 20th February, 1998 for blocks, slabs and irregular marble pieces (khandas), and art the area reveals large scale land transformation in the area. and craft work are important activities in Makrana mining Quarries and associated dump area has increased from area. Quarrying is by conventional rope and bucket method 1.875 km2 in 1967 to 11.21 km2 in 1998, whereas the built- and the quarries run along the strike and dip of marble bands. up area around Makrana has increased from 1.10 km2 to Large scale land transformation, unscientific mining, 5.00 km2 during the same period. Built up area of Makrana unsegregated waste dumps, incompatible land uses and Borawar, Gunawati and Bidiyad towns and surrounding improper waste disposal have caused land degradation, villages and industrial land and waste dumps have increased ponding and flooding of water, visual impact, loss of manifold to accommodate increased mining and related aesthetics, pollution, health and safety hazards. activities in the area. Mine pits, waste dumps and abandoned pits dot the area throughout. Safety Hazards and Loss of Public Property The huge excavation around Makrana has resulted in Blasting of rocks mass is done to detach blocks of marble large anthropogenic mounds and deep trenches. The entire and remove hanging wall strata. Undercutting, side cutting landscape has been degraded and turned into derelict and removal of safety pillars thus make the hanging wall land, as there is no planned reclamation and restoration of strata unstable. Dewatering of mine pits and under cutting quarried landscape. Natural ground slope has been of loose aeolian sand by water released from processing obliterated causing ponding and flooding of water. plants results in failure of hanging wall strata and consequent Unscientific mining, improper waste disposal, high waste mine collapse and loss of public property. Instances of generation, lack of vegetation, suspended particulate matter unsystematic, unscientific and adhoc mining like rat hole from blasting, dried marble slurry, overburden material and mining, mining on small rent cum royalty lease holds of the unsegregated waste dumps also cause aesthetic nuisance. size 3 m x 5 m (in Bapi mines) as against the norm of a minimum 2.25 ha laid down in the marble policy (Govt, of Air and Water Quality Rajasthan, 1994), undercuts and removal of safety pillars Dried slurry from 317 marble cutting and polishing units, are quite common in the area. dust from over- burden dumps, blasting in mine pits and Casualty figures provided by Makrana Police Station marble chip making plants contributes suspended particulate and Police station reveal 20 persons died of matter (SPM) in and around Makrana mining area. The mine accidents during the period January 1999 to April, size analysis indicates that sand size particles constitute 2000. A major accident occurred in the area few years back about 90% (by weight) of the overburden dumps and about in Chuck dungri range mines near Makrana railway station. 60-70% of the slurry dumps. Silt and clay size particles are Nearly 500 m of Makrana Parbatsar broad gauge line of present in substantial amount in slurry dumps (about Western Railway collapsed in the accident resulting in 30-40 %). Large number of trucks, jeeps, water tankers and closure of 54 Chuck dungri mines for more than 3 years. mining machinery contribute to oxides of nitrogen (NOX),

Thus looking at the size of operations, conventional open Carbondioxide (C02) and Sulphur dioxide (S02) emissions cast mining at 50 m to 100 m depth b.g.l., without any within the mining area. Other sources of air pollution in the benches and complete ignorance of safety norms, recurrence area are lime-kilns and brick kilns. The oxides of nitrogen

of such accidents in future cannot be ruled out. Jodhpur- and sulphur (NOX and S02) are created by the burning of Makrana road, Borawar bye pass, Devi-Gunawati mines, fossil fuels (mainly coal) being utilised in lime-kilns and Chousira mines, dungri mines and pink range mines brick kilns. Occurrence of these toxic gases and particulate are other spots vulnerable to such hazards in the area matter together have adverse effects on human health in (Fig. 2). Makrana as revealed by verbal enquiries from Chief Medical and Health Officer, Makrana Government Hospital, Land Degradation and Loss of Aesthetics mine labourers, traders and local population. Common Makrana mining area has witnessed large scale land complaints are of eye irritation and inflammation and lung transformations during last thirty years, leading to land infections. The presence of SPM can also be appreciated degradation and loss of aesthetics. The quarry area increased by seeing the white dust deposition on plant, stems, branches from less than 100 ha in 1970 to more than 350 ha during and leaves and on the face and hairs of persons moving in

JOUR.GEOL SOC INDIA, VOL 62, SEPT 2003 SHORT COMMUNICATfON

/--\ INDEX

o HANUMAN-KI-DHANI El Devi Gunawati range KNM Kala Nada mines u Ulodi mines CH Chousira mines N Nahar mines BH Bhont mines D Devi mines PK Pahad kuan mines MD Modi Dungri mines KD Kola Dungri mines BMR Bilu Mored mines 11 Dungri range MBD Mata Bhar dungri range RD Rewat dungri mines CD Chuck dungri mines 1 3 1 Pink range MBK Mata Bhar Kumhari range P Pink mines Makrana Kurnhari range I 15 15 Borawar Kurnhari range BK I Band I BK 11 Band 11 I fl Existing Rail Alignment ' Suggested Rail Alignment I Areas vulnerable to @ safety hazards

Fig.2. Marble quarries and suggested alignment of railway lines, Nagaur District, Rajasthan.

JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA,VOL.62. SEPT. 2003 SHORT COMMUNICATION 373

the area. Surface water bodies in the down wind direction Directorate of Geology and Mining Monitoring well in pink

of the mining area show high Si02 as compared to the silica range, Kalanada pond, Gangwa Talao and Manglana Talao content of natural water which is in the range of 1 to 30 ppm can be attributed to contamination of groundwater aquifer Table 1. High silica values in Gangwa Talao (140 ppm) through occasional overflows from these waste dumps and Manglana Talao (250 ppm), both in the predominant Table 1. It may be mentioned here that siliceous and down wind direction (southwest to northeast) are due to dolomitic marble from other marble producing areas like contamination of these water bodies from suspended Rajnagar, , Andhi, Banswara and Ajmer area is also particulate matter. Parbatsar Talao which is 17 km SE of processed at Makrana in large quantities and this probably mining area does not fall in the wind direction, has analysed contributes silica and magnesium in water. 40 ppm silica. Borawar Talao situated on the western periphery of mining area is in the upwind direction has Beneficial Impact

analysed 5 ppm SiOr Gunawati Talao situated in the down The only beneficial impact of Makrana marble mining wind direction has analysed 5 ppm SiO, only as it falls in is on the socio-economics of the region. Makrana marble the shadow zone due to industrial units and buildings mines contributed Rs.9.64 crores to the state exchequer in around it. the form of royalty, Rs. 15.27 crores in the form of sales tax Extension of mining and related activities has resulted and Rs. 4.60 crores as excise duty during the year (1997- in encroachments and indiscriminate dumping of municipal 98) DMG (2000). The mines provide job opportunities to and industrial waste around Kalanada in a small pond more than 50,000 persons who are entrepreneurs engaged northwest of Makrana railway station. The water of Kalanada in the mining and related works or skilled, semi-skilled and pond was used as drinking water source till 1967. Kalanada un-skilled labourers or traders. water has analysed, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 70 mg/litre, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) 269.6 gm/ Suggested Remedial Measures litre, Total Coliform organisms (TCO) 1100 Most Probable Use of natural resources and their transformation into Number (MPN) per 100 ml of sample and E coli 23 MPN economically valuable commodities has to be sustainable per 100 ml of sample, (Table 1). It is severely polluted as (WCED, 1987). Otherwise, the very base of development per drinking water norms (BIS, 1988, 1991). During will be eroded. Marble mining at Makrana is a classic rains, Kalanada water starts flooding the slums in the example of unscientific mining and improper waste disposal adjoining areas, burial ground east of Kalanada mine and in total disregard to aesthetics, proper land use practices Bhankron-ki-Dhani area. To prevent flooding of these areas etc. Mining and waste disposal practices prevalent in the excess Kalanada water is released into Kalanada mine area need to be reviewed. Processing waste can be disposed through overflow drains. The polluted Kalanada water of in abandoned pits and gully erosion areas northeast of thus, gets filled up in Kalanada mines and the mines remain Jusri and east of Bidiyad railway station. Segregation of closed for 3-4 months. Thus, contamination of ground­ overburden, mine muck, marble slurry and municipal waste water occurs in the area through subsurface flow of dumps is suggested to prevent contamination of groundwater contaminated Kalanada water. Bhankron-ki-Dhani well and land reclamation and restoration. Land reclamation is about 400 m northeast of Kalanada mine has analysed also easier and cheaper if mining waste is segregated. Value BOD (12), COD (25.4) and TCO (23) indicating bacterial of marble depends on its size, whiteness, fine texture and and industrial contamination of groundwater in the area absence or presence of cracks, fractures, etc. It is, therefore, due to mining in Kalanada range. Thus, diverting the suggested that as far as possible blasting should be avoided polluted water of Kalanada into Kalanada mines solves and deployment of wire saw machines be encouraged for although temporarily, the problem of flooding in the area, is mining. Amalgamation of small lease holds and mining on likely to create a large problem of polluting groundwater co-operative basis needs to be explored in consultation aquifer in the long run "counterintuitive result". with mine owners, government representatives and Prime sources of water pollution in the afea are marble environmentalists for sustainable development of the mining slurry and over burden dumps occupying large area in the area. This will also help in simultaneous reclamation and core zone, water released from mine pits and unsegregated restoration of mines. In addition to these remedial measures, dumps of municipal waste, industrial waste and overburden. vegetation screens all around mining belt, stabilisation of

High values of one or more elements like Ca, Mg, S04, overburden dumps, realignment of Howrah-Jodhpur and N03 and Si02 in Rewat dungri mine pit, Ulodi mine, Makrana-Parbatsar railway lines are suggested for the Borawar tube well, Kolhadungri mine pit, Idgah well, environmental management of the area (Fig.2).

JOVR.GEOL SOC.INDJA, VOL.62, SEPT. 2003 Table 1. Water Quality Data - Mokrana Marble Mining Area, Nagaur District, Rajastban

Elements/ Parameters pH W TDS C1 Ca Mgf Na K SO, NO, F B SiO?' CO, HCO, BOD COD TCO Ecoli Desirable limits (BIS (1 99 1) 6.5- 300 500 250 75 30 Not Not 200 45 1.00 1 30 Nor Not Nil Nil Nil Nil 8.5 defined defined defined defined Maximum permissible limits in absence of alternative # 600 2000 1000 200 100 40 100 1.50 <5 50 Not Not 30 250

S.No Lowtio? Typeof Sample Remarks I pH TH TDS CI Ca Mp* Na , K SO, NO, F B SiO, CO, HC03 BOD COD TCO Ecoli ...... 1. Kala Nada Surface water . Sewage and 8.15 584 2020 505 145 51 500 80.00 ND 50 ( 12. Bhankronki Dug well water Alkaline water; 9.00 395 1020 370 48 67 264 7.00 225 105 cl 2 60 5 133 12 25.4 23 ND P Dhani high SiO, B b & NO, t4 V, - -- -- 3 S.No Location Type of Sample Remarks pH TH TDS Ci Ca Mg* Na K SO, NO, F 8 SiO, CO, HCO, BOD COD TCO Ecoli - 13. Borawar Tube well water Contaminated 7.96 856 1350 50 195 88 119 2.24 632 75 2.50 ND 7 ND 420 ND ND ND ND high Ca, Mg, SO,, F, NO, b -! 14. Cbawandia Dug well water Excessive pH cn 15. Idgah Well Dug cum bore contaminated well water N. 16. Jhato Dug well High TDS,Na, W NO, and Si tica 17. Kalwa Dug welt Unfit for drinking excessive TDS, C1, Na, K, NO, and F Dug well Unfit for drinking Dug well Permissible 20. Manglana Dug well Unfit for drinking 21. Pinkrange Dug well (DMG) High B, COD ~unawati 22. Sabalpur Dug well Low TDS, High NO3 23. Chuck Mine pit water Permissible Doon,gi except fluoride 24 Kolha Mine pit Excessive pH Doongri and NO, 25. Gunawati Pink range mine Contaminated pit high SiO, 26. Rewat Mine pit Permissible Doongri 27. Ulodi Mine pit Contaminated High S04,Na, Si02 and COD

Note: All values are in ppm except pH. Total Coliform Organisms (TCO) and E Coli are in terms of most probable number MPNllOO ml of sample. ND - Analysis not done. *As per BIS 1993; ! As per BIS 1988; #No relaxation below 6.5 and above 8.5 376 SHORT COMMUNICATION

References

BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS, (1988), Methods of sampling and INDIAN BUREAU OF MINFS (1993) Market survey report on Marble, test, I S No 3025, Part 35, pp 1-6 MS-19, 135p BUREAU OFINDIAN STANDARDS (1991) Drinking water specification, NATANI, J V (2001) Geoenvironmental impact assessment of IS No 10500, pp 1-5 Makrana Marble mining area, Nagaur district, Rajasthan Rec BUREAU OF INDIAN STANDARDS (1993) Amendment to I S No 10500, Geol Surv India, v 134, pt 7, pp 63-64 1991, Drinking water specification, pp 1-3 PAREEK, H S (1984) Pre-Quaternary geology and mineral resources DIRECTORATE OF MINES AND GEOLOGY, RAJASTHAN (2000) Mineral of Rajasthan Mem Geol Surv India, v 115, pp 115 Bull, v 21 No 4, pp 22-30 SINHA ROY, S , MALHOTRA, G and MOHANTY, M (1998) Geology GS1 (1997) Quadrangle Geological map of 45 I of Rajasthan, Geo) Soc India, Bangalore, 278p GOVERNMENT or RAJASTHAN (1994) Marble policy published in WORLD COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENT and DEVCLOPMFNT (1987) Department notification Mines (Gr 11), Gazette extra ordinary, Our common future, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U K , October 6, 1994, Jaipur 1987

(Received 21 May 2001, Revised form accepted 9 December 2002)

JOUR GEOL SOC INDIA, VOL 62, SEPT 2003