Embalming and the Social Construction of the Corpse in Contemporary England
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EMBALMING AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF THE CORPSE IN CONTEMPORARY ENGLAND A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Philip Stephen Gore Department of Sociology, Brunei University December 2005 Contents: Chapter contents 1 Introduction 2 History 3 Embalming and the corpse 4 Methodology 5 Results 6 Conclusions References List of tables and Illustrations Abstract Acknowledgements 1 Introductory Chapter Introduction 1 1. 1 Thesis structure 4 1.2 Origins 5 1.3 The last look 7 1.4 Death as sleep 11 1.5Media images and physical changes at death 14 1.6The procedure 16 1.7The embalming room 18 ,1.8 Cqping with embalming 20 1.90verview 22 2 History chapter 2.1 Religious discourses and embalming 25 2.2 Medical discourses and embalming 32 2.3 Hygienism and embalming constructions 39 2.4 Embalming and the living 52 2.5 The BIE 63 2.5.1 Origins 63 2.5.2 BIE characteristics 65 2.5.3 The BIE as an organisation 68 2.5.3a Growth problems 70 2.5.3b Professional aspirations. 72 2.5.3c The BIE qualification 75 2.6 Overview 79 3 Embalming and the Corpse 3.1 Hertz 82 3.2 Van Gennep 85 3.3 The State 91 3.4 The Corpse 98 3.5 Post industrialism and the sociology of the body 108 3.5.1 Religious discourses 109 3.5.2 Medical discourses 115 3.5.3 Legal discourses 117 3.5.4 . Fragmentation of discourses 119 3.6 Societal exit and the corpse 121 3.6.1 Separation 122 3.6.2 Transition 126 3.6.3 Re-incorporation 134 3.7 Overview 136 4 Methodology 4. 1 Introduction 138 4.2 Ethical issues 143 4.3 Mourners viewing preferences 144 4.3.1 Interviews 147 4.3.2 Parameters 149 4.3.3 Issues 150 4.3.4 Categories and tabulating 151 4.4 East Kent funeral customs 152 4.5 Embalmers checklist of qualities 154 4.6 Historical viewing preferences 156 4.7 Funeral rituals and viewing 158 4.7.1 Definitions of categories 160 4.8 Funeral directors and embalmers 161 4.9 Registered embalmers 161 4.10 Doris and Caroline 163 5 Results Project 1 Mourners viewing preferences 166 5.1.a Relationships 166 5.1.b Gender 167 5.1.c Age 167 1.5.d Reactions 168 5.2 Prior death experience 171 Discussion 174 Project 2 East Kent funeral directors 176 Project 3 Embalmers checklist of qualities 177 Project 4 Historical viewing preferences 180 Project 5 Viewing and funerary ritual 183 Project 6 Embalmers and Funeral Directors 185 Project 7 Registered Embalmers 186 Project 8 Doris and Caroline 188 Overview 190 6 Conclusions 6.1 Death 193 6.2 History 194 6.3 The Corpse 195 6.4 Embalmers 198 6.5 Mourners 200 6.6 The State 201 6.7 Final points 202 References 204 III ustrations The sleeping pope 13 Embalming and liposuction 17 Medieval embalming 29 Hunter 1776 35 Sheldon 1774 36 Civil-war embalmers 42 1937 Exam results 66 Duke of Wellington's death mask 96 Hell money 110 Church mortuaries 112 Male and female gowns 130 Embalmers checklist of qualities 154 Arrangement form 156 Tables 5.1.i Relationships 166 5.1.ii Gender 167 5.1.iii Age 167 5.1.iv Reactions 168 5.2 Viewing/non viewing mourners 172 5.3.i Embalmers 177 5.3.ii Question responses 177 5.3.iii Correct death look 178 5.3.iv Viewing helpful 179 5.3.v Autopsy challenging 179 5.3.vi Important facial features 179 5.3.vii Final presentation 180 5.4 Historical viewing preference 181 5.5 Funeral ritual 184 5.6 Funeral directors and embalmers 185 5.7 Embalmers numbers 187 Abstract This research study analyses the construction of meaning surrounding the embalmed corpse in contemporary England. It documents a process of social change in which Legal, Medica! and Religious discourses concerning the dead, once dominant and unchallenged, now co-exist, if somewhat uneasily, with modern constructions of death and the possibility of an after life. The meaning of the embalmed corpse is considered to be constructed by different elements which are presented historically. Initially religious discourses governed the meaning of the body, which was preserved for religious reasons. 1ih century surgeon-embalmers requisitioned the corpse for reasons of status assertion, presenting their arguments in medical terms. Contemporary hygiene issues, in tandem with legal issues, today have a powerful impact on the corpse, which is usually experienced by mourners in the context of contemporary consumer culture, after the process of embalming has occurred. The decline of religious practices also mean that the contemporary corpse has assumed a far greater significance than in the past. From the perspective of the sociology of the body, based on the seminal work of Turner, this thesis discusses how changing experiences of live bodies are inextricably linked with changing experience of dead bodies in contemporary societies. This is accomplished through an interpretation of the different meaning attributed to embalmed corpses, together with an appreciation of the work of Hertz and Van Gennep, both of whom identified, in pre-literate societies, the centrality and embedded ness of the treatment of the corpse to funeral rituals. The thesis reports some empirical investigations of embalming related issues which provide an analysis of contemporary meanings of the corpse and cast light upon the contemporary structure of the English funeral world. Embalmers expect to produce a culturally acceptable Ideath disguise' for the benefit of mourners whose encounters with the corpse are surprisingly numerous in contemporary death-denying society. Culturally acceptable death images appear to focus upon the dead being in a condition of 'liminal repose', where the illusion of rest is constructed. Embalmers and funeral directors comprise occupations that are quite distinct, although working with the dead in different parts of the same process. Highlighting the significance of corpse appearance, whereby it is rendered 'normal', has also highlighted the socio-cultural process whereby this transformation occurs. As the dead are carefully re-presented, this has hidden the 'true' condition of the dead and therefore also hidden the covert technicians, embalmers, who accomplish this transformation. Embalming therefore appears a hidden aspect of the social construction of the dead, as death is now estranged from the popular context. Acknowledgements. I would like to highlight the help of Dr Jane Littlewood of Goldsmiths College, London for years of patient help in the early phases of this work and acknowledge with thanks the care, encouragement and guidance of Professor Clive Seale of Brunei University in overseeing the crafting of this work to its terminal point in more recent years. I would also like to acknowledge the support of my wife and family during my years of academic pursuits up to 2005. Chapter one Introduction This thesis is centrally concerned with the role of the corpse in funeral rites and how that role has changed over time. Its origins lie in my occupational experiences concerning the way bereaved people cope with death, particularly concerning the practice of viewing the body. Because of my work, I could also observe the various mortuary personnel who were responsible for presenting death experiences within the funeral firm. It became apparent to me that how the corpse really looked and how mourners expected the corpse to look were two very different things. 'Real' death is rarely 'nice' and can often be grotesque, so for mourners the corpse is often smartened up. In addition, medical and clerical people also regarded the corpse differently to mourners. I will outline this later but it struck me that the habits of regarding the dead were based upon very different assumptions. Consequently the germ of this thesis was propagated. I was also keenly aware that in the later 1980s, interest in death was a new area of sociology and some academics seemed to lack basic occupational knowledge in this area. Consequently I felt some of their work was essentially limited. In addition the focus of other funeral industry researchers such as Howarth (1992), Smale (1985) and Parsons (1997), the latter also being a qualified embalmer, explored funeral directing elements of deathwork and Naylor (1989), while more involved with embalmers, dealt with broad aspects of funerals. Consequently I felt that the role of embalming in the presentation, and hence the social construction, of the corpse in contemporary society and the impact of embalmers and embalming had been overlooked by researchers. It seemed therefore appropriate to analyse the role of embalming which is involved in the re presentation of the corpse to match deeply held cultural expectations. Part of the reason for this lack of attention from researchers concerns the position of embalmers themselves, who are very successfully camouflaged both within and _ without the funeral occupation, due to their inherently sensitive location. Beliefs. , actions and rituals communicate the cultural constructions accommodating death. Adams (cited in Clark 1993) asserted that many of the rituals associated with laying out can be seen as 'a physical and social necessity' but imbued with spiritual overtones, but Bradbury (cited in Dickenson & Johnson 1993) summarises the embalmers task quite simply as being to deny 'bad death'. Further study also involved me in analysis of the competing influences involved in 1 the process of mourners through what Howarth (1992) described as the 'death system'. This has led to a lack of awareness of what embalmers do and more importantly why they do it. However it could be said that embalmers as individuals appear more prominent now than in the past as the embalmer of Royalty (Mr Des Henley) was mentioned in the Queens New Year honours list in 1998 and television programmes such as 'Six feet under' and 'Don't drop the coffin!' in 2004 served to raise embalmers' profiles.