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Article Title: Establishing Nebraska's Highway System, 1915-1934

Full Citation: Mary Cochran Grimes, "Establishing Nebraska's Highway System, 1915-1934," Nebraska History 73 (1992): 160-172.

URL of article: http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/publicat/history/full-text/NH1992NE_Hwy_Sys.pdf

Date: 4/15/2013

Article Summary: In 1916, Congress passed the Federal Aid Road Act to provide matching funds to help the states develop standardized state highway systems. After World War I, Nebraska automobile registration exceeded 200,000, and Nebraska had to address how to finance its sprawling highway system without going into debt.

Cataloging Information:

Names: George E Johnson, Robert L (Roy) Cochran, John H Morehead, Keith Neville, David F Meeker, Burt A George, Charles H Roper, Mont C Noble, A A Jones, Adam McMullen, Frank C Zehrung, Samuel McKelvie, Charles E Bryan, Jim Auten, George G Koster, William E Hardy, Will Owen Jones, Tom Dennison, Clifford Shoemaker, Arthur J Weaver, Arthur Bowring, W H Mengel, Leslie Harrop

Keywords: Federal Aid Road Act; State Board of Irrigation; State Board of Irrigation, Highways, and Drainage; US Bureau of Public Roads; HR 722; Lincoln Highway Association; Good Roads Movement; 1919 Civil Administrative Code; Department of Public Works; Nebraska State Journal; HR 114; Nebraska Highways; Financial Post (Toronto, Canada); Farmers Union Educational and Co-operative Association; Bowring Bill; Civil Works Administration; Federal Emergency Relief Administration; Hayden-Cartwright Act

Photographs / Images: June 5, 1926, the installation of the first highway marker: David F Meeker, Burt A George, Charles H Roper, Mont Noble, A A Jones, Robert L Cochran, Adam McMullen, Frank C Zehrung; the laying of the State Capitol cornerstone November 11, 1922, with George Johnson and Samuel R McKelvie and other dignitaries; Robert L Cochran as state engineer, 1924; workmen setting forms on the Lincoln Highway in Douglas County; concrete mixer on Greenwood to Ashland Project; highway flooding north of Lexington, 1929; Highway in Seward County, 1921; Governor Charles Bryan and Leslie Harrop, UP reporter; Arthur Bowring, 1931; Omaha World Herald cartoon, April 2, 1929; road grading, 1929 ESTABLISHING NEBRASKA'S HIGHWAY SYSTEM, 1915-1934

By Mary Cochran Grimes

Early Nebraska roads were often largest single item in state budgets dur­ in 1915, when the legislature approp­ little more than trails, following section ing the 1920s and 1930s. riated $35,000 to pay half the cost of pav­ lines or striking out across country. Nebraska's first road law in 1856 ing roads adjoining the university's Their construction and maintenance made county commissioners or agricultural school in Lincoln. Gover­ was a local responsibility. Only after township supervisors responsible for nor John H. Morehead approved the World War I, when Nebraska designating and maintaining roads. use of six inmates from the state automobile registration exceeded Road districts were to be established penitentiary as laborers on the 200,000, did the state and federal and overseers appointed. An annual project.4 governments begin responding to the poll tax of two days labor from each Modern state highway administra­ need for a coordinated state-wide able-bodied male between the ages of tion dates from the passage of the highway system. twenty-one and sixty was sufficient to Federal Aid Road Act of 1916. The act In 1916 Congress passed the Federal build and maintain the primitive roads required states to h'ave highway Aid Road Act to provide matching of the day and taxation was rarely departments and meet minimum stan­ funds to help the states develop stand­ necessary. By the early twentieth cen­ dards for highway construction. In ardized state highway systems. Most tury poll taxes, local property taxes, order to qualify for federal funds each states responded by raising taxes or inheritance taxes, and motor vehicle state highway department was passing bond issues to fund their share registration fees all were potential required to submit route selections and of the highway program. In Nebraska, sources of revenue for road construc­ construction plans for approval by the relying on property taxes to pay for tion and maintenance.2 Because the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads.' highway construction became increas­ quality of roads remained primarily a The 1917 Nebraska legislature ingly unpopular as the state experi­ local concern, expenditures were passed H.R. 722, which accepted the enced agricultural depression in the governed by a desire to keep taxes as requirements for the Federal Aid Road 1920s. Moreover, the state constitution low as possible. Act and levied a state property tax to prohibited bonded indebtedness In 1911 the legislature changed the raise the required matching funds. The exceeding $100,000. How the state name of the State Board of Irrigation, bill authorized the state highway would finance its sprawling highway created in 1895, to the State Board of bureau to cooperate with the counties system without going into debt, who Irrigation, Highways, and Drainage. and the federal government in would control the administration of The board, consisting of the governor, designating a state highway system.~ highway funds, and how the funds attorney general, and land com­ The Lincoln Highway Association and would be allocated became major missioner, chose a secretary who was the Good Roads Movement, composed issues in Nebraska politics and govern­ required to be a civil engineer and who ofautomobile owners and civic leaders, ment between the two world wars. would have the title of state engineer. were among the groups that lobbied the Under the direction of state engineers The 1911 legislature also authorized an legislature on behalf of better roads. George Johnson (1915-23), and Robert annual state property tax levy of one­ In developing its highway system L. (Roy) Cochran (1923-34), I expend­ fifth mill to be administered by the Nebraska had the advantage of itures for highways became the board as aid to counties in building relatively flat terrain, but it had the dis­ bridges spanning streams more than advantages of a great area (420 miles 100 feet wide.) The levy marked the from east to west and 208 miles from first time that the state assumed a north to south), and a small population Mary Cochran Grimes of New Haven, Con­ necticut, is the daughter of former Nebraska financial obligation to improve Ne­ (ranked thirty-first with 1,343,756 per­ governor and state engineer Robert L. (Roy) braska roads. The first direct state sons in 1924). Many miles of roads had Cochran. involvement in road construction came to be built to serve sparsely populated 160 Nebraska's Highway System

Attending the installation ofthe first highway markers in Nebraska on June 5, 1926: David F. Meeker, secretary to governor; Burt A. George, legislative representative ofNebraska Good Roads Association; Charles H. Roper, president, D-L-D [Detroit-Lincoln-Denver} Association; Mont C. Noble, chief, Bureau of Roads and Bridges; A. A. Jones, manager, Outdoor Advertising Company; Robert L. Cochran, state engineer; AdamMcMullen, governor ofNebraska; Frank C. Zehrung, mayor ofLincoln. Courtesy Nebraska Department of Roads.

regions and link rural communities. deputy engineer post went to a close in 1915, realized that politics would Weather extremes made maintenance friend of one of the board members. play an important role in developing difficult. Learning "the unreliability of politics the state highway system. Most Ne­ In 1914 George E. Johnson, a civil and political promises," Cochran braska legislators were from rural areas and electrical engineer, sought accepted the position of state bridge and were more interested in farm-to­ appointment· as state engineer. He inspector.7 Two years later when his market roads than in a statewide sys­ enlisted the help of Roy Cochran of friend Keith Neville was elected gover­ tem of highways. When Johnson North Platte, a civil engineer and nor on the Democratic ticket, CQchran learned that nearly seventy-five per­ graduate ofthe University ofNebraska, urged Neville to reappoint Johnson cent of Nebraska house members who had been urged to seek the job and expressed his continuing interest opposed federal aid for road building in himself. Johnson proposed that in in becoming Johnson's deputy. When 1917, he began an "educational return for Cochran's support, he Johnson was retained in office Cochran program."9 "would see" that Cochran was appoint­ got the deputy engineer post, which he Johnson explained that state ed assistant state engineer. Cochran filled until entering military service in highways would pass through each lined up support for Johnson, whom August 1917. 8 county seat and extend to the county the Board of Irrigation, Highways, and Johnson, who had found only twenty­ lines, connecting with highways from Drainage appointed. However, the nine employees in the highway bureau adjoining counties. He argued that the 161 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

proposed system would connect from army service In France, to received proportionally more federal federal grant-in-aid roads with those of Washington to increase Nebraska's aid than eastern states. The 1924 adjoining states and provide farm-to­ prospects for receiving equipment.17 report of the Department of Public market roads centering on the county Nebraska received fifty large Holt Works indicated that Nebraska seats. IO His arguments must have been caterpillar tractors, over 400 trucks, 74 received $4.15 in federal aid for each persuasive because H.R. 722, the bill touring cars, TNT, and tons of other dollar in federal taxes it paid for acceding to the Federal Aid Road Act, supplies. The state sold much of the highways.23 Nevertheless it became a passed the Nebraska house seventy­ equipment to the counties at bargain constant struggle to raise Nebraska's two to eighteen and the senate thirty to prices. 18 Although it was necessary to share of matching funds during the zero. The bill also appropriated remove wartime armor plate and 1920s while the state's agricultural $640,000 from the state property tax overhaul many of the vehicles, some of economy was depressed. levy for the highway program. I I the equipment was used until the early During a 1922 special session called H.R. 722 required county boards to 1930s, when parts were no longer to cut state appropriations, the legisla­ accept the bill's provisions as well, and available. 19 ture reduced state matching funds for to approve routes for the state highway In 1919 Congress appropriated $200 highway construction and rejected system to be selected in cooperation million in federal aid for highways of Governor Samuel McKelvie's bill pro­ with the state bureau of highways.12 which Nebraska was to receive over $4 posing a one-cent-per-gallon gasoline Johnson and Cochran met with county million. The Department of Public tax to replace the property tax as a officials across the state to fix the Works (which had replaced the old means of financing the highway pro­ routes that would form the state sys­ State Board of Irrigation, Highways, gram.24 Both houses also passed tem. Achieving agreement on the and Drainage) increased its staff from resolutions condemning federal aid routes was a challenge in diplomacy as 54 in 1917 to 273 by 1920. These programs that required state matching well as engineering. As Johnson employees were responsible for the funds. 25 Representatives who were farm­ observed: state highway program for the entire ers or small town businessmen pro­ 20 No single feature of road work has caused the state. vided most of the opposition to the State Highway Department as much trouble as Reflecting its continuing concern gasoline tax measure. Its supporters two problems: that of wanting the highway to with the poor condition of the nation's included small town editors and bank­ 'pass along my door' and securing adequate rights of way properly located.1l roads, Congress in 1921 passed a new ers and the majority of the Omaha and federal aid act based on the "seven per­ Lincoln delegations.26 He recalled that gaining cooperation cent system." Each state was required McKelvie, in his January 1923 from some county boards was a "Her­ to designate its most important road­ farewell message to the legislature, culean task" because the boards were ways, consisting of no more than seven again recommended a one-cent gas­ made up of many "rugged individual­ percent of the state's total highway oline tax as a fair way of assessing road ists who often did not agree among mileage as accredited under the 1916 users for the costs of construction and themselves and who frequently had dif­ act. Federal money could be spent only maintenance.27 Without adequate ferent axes to grind." 14 The two on these roads, divided sixty percent funding the state highway program engineers managed to get the for primary or interstate roads and would languish at a time when there necessary agreements from most forty percent for secondary roads. (In were only about 135 miles of improved county boards by using "as much tact Nebraska 5,619 miles constituted (gravelled) roads in the entire state.28 as we could muster."15 By 19i9 the seven percent of the total state Incoming Governor Charles E. legislature was able to certify the first mileage.)21 The 1921 Nebraska Legisla­ Bryan, a Democrat, viewed federal aid 4,500 miles of the state highway system. ture specified that the Department of as a growing menace and rejected Counties were required to maintain Public Works should prepare all plans McKelvie's call for a gasoline tax, state highways after they had been con­ for construction on the state highway charging that it was a sales tax to shift structed, for which they would be reim­ system, with contracts to be let jointly taxes from the rich to the poor.29 In the bursed by the state.16 by the department and the county 1920s the state's population was nearly The federal government saw boards. If all bids were rejected, the fifty percent rural and many farmers highway construction as a way to stimu­ department was authorized to perform opposed spending on highways. "The late the sluggish postwar economy. In the work by "direct labor."22 state roads don't do the farmer much 1918 Congress passed an amendment Because a state's population, land good," said Representative Jim Auten to the Federal Aid Road Act requiring area, and miles of rural mail routes of Albion. "Besides, they are a detri­ the war department to turn over sur­ determined the ratio of federal funds ment. They promote [the] joyriding of plus equipment to the states. Johnson distribution, western states with large the younger generation."30 sent Cochran, who had just returned areas and more miles of mail routes During Bryan's administration, Ne­ 162 The present state capitol cornerstone the issue that virtllally paralyzed the his administration expenses."]; The was laid November 11, 1922. Among legislative process during the 1923 ses­ controversy hinged on personal and the dignitaries attending were state 32 engineer George Johnson, seated sion the code survived intact. political differences, contrasting views second from left, and Nebraska gover­ In the midst of the code battle came of the benefits of the state-federal nor Samuel R. McKelvie, seated sixth an investigation instigated by State highway program, and varying methods from left. (NSHS-MI34-Album 2) Engineer George Johnson involving of calculating the highway program's the quality of stonework for the new direct impact on the state budget. state capitol. The capitol commission Eventually the furor died down after braska did not completely withdraw rejected Johnson's charges, Johnson the state lost a series oflawsuits against from federal-state cooperation but resigned, and Roy Cochran, who had Johnson.36 appropriated only $1.5 million for the been a district highway engineer in the Cochran had managed to avoid highway program in 1923, which was Department of Public Works through­ entanglement in the Johnson-Bryan over $2 million short ofmatching avail­ out the McKelvie administration, suc­ clash. Nevertheless his job as head of able federal funds.3 1 The unused ceeded him as state engineer.33 the Department of Public Works could federal funds would lapse if the state When Republican Adam McMullen not have been easy. During Bryan's failed to match the full allocation by a was elected governor in 1924, old administration lack of funds forced the specific deadline. animosities relating to state highway Department ofPublic Works to adopt a Bryan's antipathy toward federal aid administration resurfaced. Outgoing low-level construction program, prin­ was only one factor working against Governor Bryan charged former cipally of dirt roads. Emphasis was on more funding for the state highway pro­ engineer Johnson with "irregularities grading only with surface material to be gram. Another was his battle with the and falsification of records" in state added later. All state highway work was Republican-controlled legislature over road and bridge work. 34 In turn handled on a pay-as-you-go basis, repeal ofthe 1919 Civil Administrative Johnson accused Bryan of falsifying through public advertising and opening Code, which had reorganized state reports, not collecting federal funds of bids and awards to the lowest bid­ government. The controversy focused that were due the state, changing con­ derY Cochran insisted on open com­ mainly upon the code's impact on state tracts, and misappropriating a "large petitive bidding by construction spending and how government should amount of the federal collections from companies in and outside the state, be structured. Despite wrangling over old contracts by using the money to pay aided by a 1923 legislative act that 163 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

defined the state's bid-letting wiping out the state property tax levy motor vehicle registration fees, with process.J8 that had been in effect since 1917.41 the remaining thirty percent going to When McMullen took office in 1925 Legislators from rural areas, pre­ the state to be spent on highway main­ he had to decide whether to reappoint dominantly Democrats, fought the bill tenance. The bill also provided that two popular Democrats, Roy Cochran because it would give the entire two­ after January 1, 1926, the Department and George G. Koster, the state game cent tax to the state for use on the state of Public Works would take over from warden. Retaining Koster was favored highway system instead of giving fifty the counties the maintenance of roads by a number of leading Republicans. percent to the counties to be spent on in the state system.4J Under the pre­ Cochran enlisted the support of William local roads. The bill finally passed both vious system some counties had E. Hardy, a fellow member of the Ne­ houses by significant margins. In the neglected to maintain their roads. braska Capitol Commission. (The state end the vote split mostly along party During 1926 the Department of engineer also served as secretary ofthe lines, although of the twenty-nine Public Works had an average of 600 capitol commission.) Hardy contacted senators and representatives voting employees, compared to 273 in 1920.44 Will Owen Jones, editor of the against the gasoline tax, twenty-two Assuming the maintenance of state Republican Nebraska State Journal in were Democratic farmers or stockmen. highways had greatly increased the Lincoln. Jones agreed to write an Only one Republican farmer voted department's responsibilities and editorial on Cochran's behalf. Cochran no.42 expenditures. Traffic counts showed also received help from Omaha banker Probably to ease the passage of the that improved roads stimulated more Walter Head, another capitol commis­ gasoline tax bill, a companion bill (H.R. traffic, which in turn increased main­ sion member. The rumor that Cochran 114) gave counties seventy percent of tenance costs. So alarmed did the Ne­ was opposed by Tom Dennison, Omaha's powerful political boss, pro­ bably helped him.J9 In the end McMullen retained Cochran, the sole Democratic appointee of his adminis­ tration, evidence that Cochran's stewardship of the public works department had been perceived as effective and non-partisan. By 1925, after two lean years for the Nebraska highway program, it was imperative to raise state funds to avoid losing federal dollars. The number of motor vehicles registered in Nebraska had increased from 221,000 in 1920 to 338,719 in 1925.40 During the legislative debate over a proposed two-cent per gallon gasoline tax, support came from most Republicans (who dominated the legislature), McMullen, Cochran, and from the Nebraska Good Roads Association. The association's field workers promoted better roads to many civic and business groups, such as chambers of commerce and travelers' organizations, as well as to the influential Nebraska Association of County Officials. Cochran argued that the bill would reduce property taxes by

Robert L. Cochran as state engineer, 1924. (NSHS-C663-85) 164 Nebraska's Highway System

Workmen set forms on the Lincoln ness and professional men from many method of construction.49 Engineers Highway in Douglas County. Courtesy of the state's larger communities who from South Africa, South America, Nebraska Department of Roads. saw the benefits of improved roads in Australia, and Cuba also came to Neb­ terms of economic development.46 Its raska to learn about its road building monthly magazine, Nebraska High­ program. The Financial Post (Toronto, ways, first appeared in June 1927. The Canada) admired Nebraska's highway braska Good Roads Association become association argued that improved system: "Having no debt, paying for the when state expenditures for main­ roads lowered the cost of operating roads out of income as they are built, tenance increased $741,544 between motor vehicles, increased farmers' has kept Nebraska free from expensive 1926 and 1927 thatits president called a income and farm values, benefited splurges of road building."50 special meeting June 27, 1928, at which school and church attendance, and Cochran was an advocate of gravel 1,000 representatives were expected. brought business to small-town surfacing in order to build as many Federal aid did not cover maintenance merchants.47 However, some small­ roads as possible at the lowest cost. costs for the 1,800 miles added to the town businessmen, who observed that Sand-gravel surfacing was compatible state highway system by the 1925 their business seemed to improve when with the state's modest rainfall and its legislature, and the NGRA president roads were bad, joined farmers in light, sandy, quick-drying loam. Ne­ warned thatmaintenance might have to opposing higher taxes for roads.48 braska had an abundant supply ofsand come out of construction funds. Mem­ Because of the economy forced by and gravel, particularly from the Platte bers voted to support a one-cent-per­ often limited construction funds, Ne­ Valley. With its "sand-gravel program" gallon increase in the gasoline tax.45 braska became a leader in the design the state was able to expand its The NGRA, organized in 1917, was a and development of graded earth improved road mileage ten times over potent lobbying force for better roads. highways, prompting officials from what would have been possible with a Its leadership was dominated by busi­ other states to visit and examine this paving program.51 165 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

Mixer for concrete on Greenwood to Ashland Project. Courtesy Nebraska Department of Roads.

However, traffic constantly in­ creased and stressed the gravel roads. In 1926 Cochran recommended that $50,000 be spent for experiments on more durable surfacing, mostly oil­ sand and oil-gravel. That year also saw the first appearance of Nebraska's "covered wagon" highway markers, which had been designed by Cochran. 52 The department began hard-surfaced paving on state highways in 1927. Neb­ raska had designated by 1928 a total of 8,012 miles of state and federal highways, the twelfth largest mileage in the nation, including 165miles of paved roads and 3,761 miles of gravel roads. As of November 30, 1928, a total of 6,298 miles were marked and maintained.53 By 1929 the Department of Public Works was facing a crisis because traf­ fic, especially busses and trucks, had increased seventy-six percent in four years and the state had not been able to match $2 million of federal aid during the previous year. The truck traffic was principally of the light, farm-to-market type.54 Clifford Shoemaker, district engineer of the U.S. Bureau of Roads, remarked that although Nebraska ranked near the top in per capita wealth and ownership ofautos, it was near the bot­ tom in its expenditures for highway improvement. He warned that unless Nebraska paved some of its most heavily traveled federal aid roads, the apportionment of the state gasoline gasoline tax increase came from farm­ government might refuse to provide tax. 55 ers and farm organizations. The funding to the state. Shoemaker When Republican Arthur J. Weaver chairman of the Cass County advocated using state bonds to pave became governor in 1929, he reappointed Republican Committee wrote the heavily traveled roads. He argued that Cochran state engineer. Both men governor that an increase in the gas­ hard surfaced highways would save supported doubling the gasoline tax oline tax would "sound the death-knell millions in road maintenance expense from two to four cents per gallon to to the Republican party two years and vehicle wear, a savings that would match a $6 million federal grant over hence. The various Chambers of Com­ enable bonds to be retired. Since 1927 the next three years. State bonds could merce and Good Roads Association do the NGRA had also recommended not be used without a constitutional not fully realize the financial condition legislation authorizing counties to use amendment lifting the restriction on of the farmer, and he will surely bonds for paving high-traffic roads. state bonded indebtedness.56 rebel."57 There were exceptions: The They·would be financed by the county Again, much of the opposition to the thirty-five members of the Farmers 166 Nebraska's Highway System

• r' I' f

Highway flooding one mile north of Lexington on u.s. Highway 30, April 25, 1929 .. . . (right) Highway in Seward County, 1921. Both courtesy Nebraska Department of Roads.

167 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

Governor Charles Bryan (left) and Leslie Harrop. United Press reporter. (NSHS-B914-98)

would receive one fourth of total gas­ oline tax revenues, distributed on the basis of their motor vehicle registra­ tion. These funds would supplement the seventy percent ofregistration fees the counties already received. The revenue would go into the county road fund, to be spent on local roads of the farm-to-market type. The NGRA had been advocating a gasoline tax increase for this purpose since 1927.62 Accord­ ing to Governor Weaver, the passage of the Bowring Bill meant that "for the first time in the history of our road legislation we are providing from the gas tax a means of building farm-to­ market roads."63 The Bowring Bill stipulated that half of the additional cent of gasoline tax money going to the state be used at the discretion of the Department of Public Union Educational and Co-operative highway system was 'rural, and most Works to close gaps to provide con­ Association, Local 168, in Talmage revenue was expended on rural tinuity in the highway system. The favored a three-cent gasoline tax, pro­ highways. However, the gasoline tax remainder of the state's share would vided that one cent was spent in the was assessed on all gasoline used in the match federal aid in which the state was county where it originated. Butthe Farm­ state except that for farm tractors and then $3.5 million in arrears. Revenue ers' Union in Yutan opposed any gas­ combines. By 1926 it was estimated for the state highway program doubled oline tax increase.5X that seventy percent of gasoline tax with the passage of the four-cent-per­ Rural opposition to funding the state revenues were derived from mileage gallon gasoline tax in 1929.64 highway system seemed to hinge on the driven on city streets not part of the Bowring pointed out that the $8.5 feeling that the system did not provide state highway system and therefore million projected to be raised by the farm-to-market roads. Many rural Ne­ ineligible for federal aid.60 A later gasoline tax increase was "not large braskans also seemingly failed to real­ Department of Roads study indicated when compared with the immense ize that once the bulk of state highway that by 1937 fifty-five percent ofall cars sums neighboring states were paying revenues began to come from gasoline and fifty-nine percent of trucks in Ne­ for road work."65 Whereas in 1929 Ne­ taxes instead of property taxes, rural braska were owned by rural residents braska spent $3 million on its state highway construction and maintenance (those living in population areas of less highway system out of a total would be subsidized by urban and out­ than 1,000) who paid only forty-four $4,733,717 expended for governmental of-state motor vehicle owners. For percent of the total revenue collected services, Iowa spent over $14 million on example, there were some 39,000 from motor fuel taxes and registration highways out of a total budget of $16 automobiles and 6,205 trucks regis­ fees during the year.61 million; Missouri spent nearly $20 tered in Douglas County in 1925, which To pass a two-cent gasoline tax million for roads (out of $21 million); had only 116 miles of roadway included increase the legislature found the and Kansas spent over $9 million (out within the state highway system. Cus­ necessary compromise with the Bow­ of $11 million). Only the Dakotas spent ter County, with only 6,300 automo­ ring Bill, named for Cherry County less than Nebraska.66 Bad economic biles and 760 trucks, had 186 miles of stockman Arthur Bowring, who was times had driven down the cost of road state highways.5~ also president of the Nebraska Good building materials and wages during Most of the mileage in the state Roads Association. The counties the 1920s. Prices for highway work dur­ 168 Nebraska's Highway System

ing 1929-30 were lower than those of significant effect upon the work of the any previous biennium: thirty percent Department of Roads and Irrigation below 1923-24, fifteen percent below (renamed by the legislature in 1933). W. 1925-26, and about ten percent below H. Mengel, an engineer hired in 1933, 1927-28. Pavement cost $10,000 per recalled: mile less than it had during 1923-24.67 The CWA recognized the highway depart­ The first accurate information on ments as operating organizations that could put traffic on principal highways of the people to work in short order on direct labor pro­ West was gathered in 1929 when the jects where plans were available, but had not been used due to a lack of funds , ... These plans federal Bureau of Public Roads and were used all over the state for the beginning of Rural Engineering coordinated a traf­ work for local people.73 fic survey with the states. It revealed that Nebraska's truck traffic had Atotal of198 CWA projects were car­ increased 246 percent compared to an ried on under supervision of the increase of only 180 percent for Department of Roads and Irrigation. automobiles during the past decade.68 Of the $5,538,869 spent on CWA pro­ In response to complaints that over­ grams in Nebraska, 16.8 percent went weight trucks were ruining the roads, to state highway projects. The max­ the 1929 legislature appropriated imum number of people employed by $30,000 to initiate a highway patrol to the CWA on state highway work was enforce motor vehicle laws, giving spe­ 7,446 in January 1934. When the CWA cial attention to violation of truck went out of existence on March 31,1934 weight laws. A three-man force was to (largely because of its high cost), the police the highways of the entire state, Federal Emergency Relief Administra­ relying upon the cooperation of local tion (FERA) took over uncompleted officials.69 CWA projects. An average of 1,000 per­ By 1929 after passage ofthe Bowring sons were employed by FERA on state Bill, state gasoline tax receipts for the highway projects from April to Decem­ first time exceeded the revenue coming ber 1934.74 from property taxes: Nearly $7.5 Nebraska received another $3.9 million from the gasoline tax compared Arthur Bowring, 1931. (NSHS­ million under the Hayden-Cartwright to $5.8 million from property taxes. The L514) Act in June 1934 without having to put percentage of revenue derived from up any state money. This act provided gasoline taxes continued to increase the first specific allocation of federal throughout the 1930s, although the funds for the construction of feeder, or total dollars available for the Nebraska voted $80 million in emergency funds to farm-to-market roads.75 The 1930s saw road program remained fairly the states to supplement the regular the greatest increase in mileage to the constant.70 federal aid for roads. Nebraska state highway system, but seventy per­ When Charles Bryan was reelected received $4.25 million. Cochran noted cent of construction during the decade governor in 1930, he announced that he that this was the first time in many occurred during the years of federal would not reappoint Cochran as state years that all federal aid apportioned emergency funding, which ended in engineer. Newspapers rallied to for Nebraska could be spent on con­ 1936. Cochran's support, arguing that his struction or placed under contract. To While this additional federal money effective administration of the public speed up the preparation of plans and enabled more road construction, works department and the highway estimates for projects, the state hired federal relief projects were neither effi­ program deserved to be continued.?! additional engineers who had been laid cient nor easy to administer. Relief Bryan, who probably saw fellow off at railroad, architectural, and workers did not always live in the areas Democrat Cochran as a potential municipal offices. Regular and where highway work was needed. political rival, eventually relented. emergency employees worked over­ Employees could not work more than In the early 1930s relief ofunemploy­ time without pay.72 thirty hours a week. Local labor had ment became a primary responsibility The Civil Works Administration, preference. Wage rates offorty cents an of the public works department. To created in November 1933 as a tem­ hour for unskilled labor and sixty cents create jobs that did not compete with porary emergency program to put peo­ an hour for skilled labor prevailed.76 private business, Congress in 1930 ple to work during the winter, had a Supervisors often complained of the 169 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

difficulty of using untrained workers. A federal requirement that only Omaha World-Herald (morning), ninety cents total outlay per hour was April 2, 1929. allowed for each man employed meant that wages, materials, equipment, and other costs had to be kept within that limit. To employ as many people as possi ble, most ofthe highway work had to be done by hand, using shovels and wheelbarrows. Drouth-stricken com­ munities petitioned the governor, ask­ ing that men and teams of horses be provided for local road work. W. H. Mengel recalled that local farmers were employed by Cedar County to work on roads. The county had a tractor to plow dirt, which was loaded in horse-drawn wagons.7 7 Federal expenditure limits made it almost impossible to use relief labor for paving or bridge projects / /'. where a large amount of road-building material or heavy equipment was needed.7 x Nebraska's success in building and maintaining debt-free roads at a low cost during the 1920s and early 1930s was due to several factors. Constrained by the pay-as-you-go system, the Department of Public Works was forced to economize. The threat of losing millions in federal aid stimulated at least a minimum level of state approp­ .~ ~ ... ~ riations for highway development. Sand and gravel were plentiful in Neb­ Oh. Yes! It R·.u1I. but Keep Your Mind on the Pretty Picture! raska and experimentation with improved road surfacing and main­ tenance helped to lower costs. Strong stituencies that the highway system prehensive highway system without leadership maintained a low overhead. proposed to serve, how the roads were bonded indebtedness and at a lower Cochran was aware of no other state to be financed, and who would control cost to motor vehicle owners than the that kept its administrative costs as low the expenditure of funds. They national average.80 From less than 200 as two percent.79 involved competing interests such as miles ofgraded road in 1918 (fewer than The continuity .and dedication of farmers versus businessmen, rural twenty of which were graveled or hard state engineers and highway depart­ areas versus urban areas, and the state surfaced), the state highway system by ment personnel were important fac­ versus the counties. While political or 1934 included 6,791 miles with gravel tors. The role of a strong state engineer personal disputes like that between surfacing, 539 miles with bituminous was defined by George Johnson, who Governor Bryan and State Engineer surfacing, and 792 miles with concrete foresaw development of an adequate George Johnson attracted much atten­ paving. Between 1918 and 1934, 1,057 highway system, and continued by Roy tion, no deliberate malfeasance in the bridges were constructed.8 l Federal Cochran, whose long tenure brought administration of the state highway funds coming to Nebraska amounted to continuity to the Nebraska highway program or in the highway depart­ over $50 million. The state collected program. ment's dealings with private contrac­ over $63 million for the highway pro­ Controversies regarding the state tors was demonstrated. gram from property taxes, gasoline highway program often revolved Spurred on by the promise of federal taxes, and motor vehicle registra­ around the goals of the various con­ funds, Nebraska developed a com­ tions.82 170 Nebraska's Highway System

Much of the initiative leading to the 1951),4. The federal governmentlimited the cost 38Laws of Nebraska, Forty-Second Session, to $10,000 per mile of road. It required the states 1923. 324-25. development of a modern state to assume the cost of maintenance of highways 3"Cochran, Memoirs, Cochran Papers. "Every highway system came from those who constructed with federal funds. engineer who has been asked to take the place 6Laws of Nebraska, Thirty-fifth Session, 1917, thus far by McMullen is said to have declined on saw good roads as bringing economic 420-23. the ground that Cochran ought to be reappoint­ benefits to both urban and rural Ne­ 7Robert L. Cochran, Memoirs (unpublished), ed." Omaha World-Herald, Jan. 5, 1925. braskans. However, the changes 22-23, in Robert 1. Cochran Papers, RG1, SG30, 4"Nineteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department State Archives, Nebraska State Historical ofPublic Works, 1931-1932, 166. brought by the expanding system Society, Lincoln (hereafter cited as Cochran 410maha World-Herald, Feb. 15, Mar. 1, 1925. proved more fundamental than mere Papers). 4'Nebraska House Journal, Forty-third Session, economic development. On the posi­ 'Ibid. 1925, 897; Nebraska Senate Journal, Forty-third "George E. Johnson II, The Nebraskan (Winter Session, 1925, 118-19. The party affiliation, tive side good roads helped get the Park, Florida, Anna Publishing Co., 1981), 40-41. residence, and occupation of each legislator farmers "out of the mud," provided The author wrote the biography of George appears in the journal. Johnson in the first person, "based on 43Laws ofNebraska, Forty-third Session, 1925, rural residents with greater economic statements, notes, and memoranda left by his 401-05. independence and better access to fatber." 44Lobdell, Nebraska Department of Roads, 78 . medical care, and broadened their I"Ibid. 4'Nebraska Highways, July 1928,4-7,10. IINebraska House Journal, Thirty-fifth Session, 46The names of the NGRA leadership appear social and recreational opportunities. 1917, 867-68; Senate Journal, Thirty-fifth Ses­ in Nebraska Highways. The occupations of most Some of the long term effects of the sion, 1917, 902-03. can be found in city directories, county histories, increased mobility made possible by I' Laws of Nebraska, Thirty-fifth Session, or biographical albums. 1917,422. 47Nebraska Highways, Nov. 1927, 4-7; Aug. the motor vehicle and modern 13Nebraska Department of Public Works, 1928,6, 16. highways were less beneficial and may Monthly Highway Report, Aug. 1919, 22 . 480maha World-Herald, Feb. 15, 1925. 14Johnson, The Nebraskan, 37 . 49Koster, Highway Development, 22. not have been foreseen. Improved l'Ibid., 42. ' "From an article written by R. A. Farquharson, transportation hastened the decline of 16Laws of Nebraska, Thirty-seventh Session, published July 23, 1938, and quoted in Lobdell, small towns by diverting trade to larger J919, 1035-48. Nebraska Department ofRoads, 24-25 . 17Aileen Gantt Cochran to author, Mar. 1979. ' ISeventeenth Biennial Report of the Depart­ regional centers. Fewer passengers and I' Thirteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department ment ofPublic Works, 1927-1928, 60. the advent of trucks to haul com­ ofPublic Works, 1919-1920,717-19,724. " Cochran had hoped to use a buffalo in the modities led to the abandonment of 19Arthur B. Chaplin interview quoted in Kos­ logo but found that Manitoba, Canada, had ter, Highway Development, 24. already adopted that symbol for its highway most branch rail lines. Today most '"Arthur T. Lobdell, Nebraska Department of markers. George E . Koster, The Roadrunner, rural areas in Nebraska are totally Roads: A History (Lincoln: 1965), 78. Nebraska Department of Roads, October 1991, ' IFift eenth Biennial Report ofthe Department of 7. dependent upon the motor vehicle Public Works, 1923-1924, 14. '3Sixteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department of in an era of rising fuel prices and un­ 22Nebraska Department of Roads and Irriga­ Public Works, 1925-1926, 10; Seventeenth Bien­ stable supplies.s3 tion, State-Wide Highway Planning Survey, "His­ nial Report of the Department of Public Works, tory' of the Highway Department of the State of 1927-1928, 13. Without ongoing federal supportand Nebraska, 1895-1938" (Lincoln, 1939),8. ' 4Report of a Survey of Traffic on the Federal­ a significant measure offederal control, ' 3Fifteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department of Aid Highway Systems ofEleven Western States by it is unlikely that Nebraska and other Public Works, 1923-1924, 14. the Bureau of Public Roads, '4Nebraska House/Senate Journal, Forty-first Department of Agriculture and the Highway sparsely populated states could have Session (Special), 1922, 157. Departments of Arizona, California, Colorado, created or maintained modern highway " Ibid., 49, 135-36. Idaho, Nebraska, New Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, ' 6S ee Ibid., 157, for house roll call vote to Utah, Washington, and Wyoming (1932), 18. systems meeting their transportation advance the gasoline tax bill. The motion to " Omaha World-Herald, Jan. 11, 24, 1929. Ne­ needs in the twentieth century. advance failed 31 to 67 . braska Highways, Nov. 1927, 9; Dec. 1928, 4-5, Whether this system will remain viable '7 Nebraska Senate Journal, Forty-second Ses­ 7. sion, 1923,331-32. ' 6The national average for the gasoline tax was in the twenty-first century remains to " Cochran radio speech, Sept. 27 , 1936. 3. 25 cents; six states had a five-cent tax, twelve be seen. Cochran Papers, and Fifteenth Biennial Report of had a four-cent tax, and fourteen had a three-cent the Department of Public Works, 1923-1924, 31. tax. Omaha World-Herald, Feb. 2, 1929. Not until Not until 1926 did a gravel road connect Omaha 1968 did Nebraska voters amend the constitution and Lincoln. to permit state bonded indebtedness for highway NOTES '9Nebraska Senate Journal, Forty-second Ses­ construction. ICochran, who served longer than any other sion, 1923,343. " Charles E . Noyes to Governor Adam state engineer, resigned in July 1934 to run for 3110maha World-Herald, Apr. 4, 1923. McMullen, Jan. 13, 1927. Adam McMullen governor. In 1959 he was reappointed state .1 IFifteenth Biennial Report of Department of Papers, RG 1, SG29, State Archives, Nebraska engineer but served only one year. Public Works, 1923-1924, 18. State Historical Society. ' Addison E . Sheldon, ed., Nebraska Blue Book 3'Addison E. Sheldon, Nebraska: The Land " Letters to Governor McMullen from and Historical Register (Lincoln: 1915), 784-85. and The People (Chicago: Lewis Pub. Co., Talmage, Feb. 21 , 1927, and from Yutan, Dec. 28, Jfbid., 785. 1931), 1005. 1926. McMullen Papers. 4George E. Koster, A Story of Highway 33 0 maha World-Herald, Mar. 14, 24, 1923; Ne­ '9SixteenthBienniai Report ofthe Department of Development in Nebraska (Lincoln: Nebraska braska State Journal (Lincoln), Mar. 23, 1923. Public Works, 1925-1926,88,146,272. Department of Roads, 1986), 16. 340maha World-Herald, Jan. 9, 1925. "llIbid., 19. ' W. Stull Holt, The Bureau ofPublic Roads: Its .1' See Johnson's letter in Nebraska Senate "INebraska Department of Roads and Irriga­ History, Activities, and Organization (Baltimore: Journal, Forty-Third Session, 1925, 142-45; tion, "Motor Vehicle Allocation Study" (Lincoln: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1923), 16, Omaha World-Herald, Jan. 15, 1925. 1940), 20 (Table 8). 19; John Doyle, "Public Highway Administration .1"Sheldon, Land and People, 1025-26. "' An Omaha World-Herald editorial, Jan. 22, in Nebraska" (thesis, University of Nebraska, .17Lobdell, Nebraska Department of Roads, 11. 1929, sounded the familiar call to "Get primary 171 Nebraska History - Winter 1992

roads out of the mud" by raising the gasoline tax Appendix. 78Cochran Radio Speech, Sept. 8, 1935, to four cents. Nebraska Highways, Nov. 1927, 9. 71See Lincoln Star, Dec. 17,21, 1930. Cochran Papers. 6Webraska State Journal (Lincoln), Mar. 30, 72Nineteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department 79Sixteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department of 1929. ofPublic Works, 1931-1932, iii, 35. Public Works, 1925-1926, 10. ""Ibid., Omaha World-Herald, Mar. 30, 1929. 7JInterview with W. H. Mengel, 1985, quoted in 8°Sheldon, Land and People, 1052. 6sOmaha World-Herald, Apr. 7, 1929. Koster, Highway Development, 38. 8'Twentieth Biennial Report of the Department .6U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of 74Twentieth Biennial Report of the Department of Roads and Irrigation, 1933-1934, 2. Public Roads, Financial Statistics of States ofRoads and Irrigation, 1933-1934, 2, 189. 82Sixteenth Biennial Report ofthe Department of (1929), 100. HDoyle, "Public Highway Administrations in Public Works, 1925-1926, 16; Twentieth Biennial 67Eighteenth Annual Report of the Department Nebraska," 4. Report ofthe Department ofRoads and Irrigation, ofPublic Works, 1929-1930, 2. 76Twentieth Biennial Report of the Department 1933-1934, 18-21. 68Report ofa Survey of Traffic, 53. ofRoads and Irrigation, 1933-1934, 187-98. 8JPhilip H. Burch, Jr., Highway Expenditure 6·0maha World-Herald, Apr. 6, May 5, 1929. 77W. H. Mengel, interview with author, June Policy in the United States (New Brunswick, New Eighteenth Biennial Report of the Department of 1986. Petition dated Aug. 20, 1931, from Center, Jersey: 1962), Chapter I, "The Impact of the Public Works 1929-1930, 103. A fourth traffic Nebraska, to Governor Charles Bryan, asking for Motor Vehicle on America: A Cursory Glance." officer was added in 1934. Koster, Highway a road from Bloomfield to Center to reduce Burch's assessment was made in the absence of Development, 29. unemployment. Charles Bryan Papers, RG 1, SG such 1990s concerns as the effects of greenhouse 7tlNebraska Highway Advisory Committee, 28, State Archives, Nebraska State Historical gases, depletion of the ozone by CFCs, and U.S. Nebraska Highway Needs (Lincoln: 1948), Society. dependence on foreign oil.

, Road grading in J,dy 1929. C'oU1fesy Nebraska Department of8oads.

172