COMPREHENSIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE
LAGUNA MADRE OF TEXAS & TAMAULIPAS
Compiled by
John W. Tunnell, Jr. Nancy L. Hilbun Kim Withers
Center for Coastal Studies Texas A&M University – Corpus Christi 6300 Ocean Dr. Corpus Christi, Texas 78412
Prepared for The Nature Conservancy of Texas PO Box 1440 San Antonio, Texas 78295-1440
January 2002
TAMU-CC-0202-CCS PREFACE
This Comprehensive Bibiliography of the Laguna Madre of Texas and Tamaulipas includes almost 1,400 citations over a 70 year time span. It is a companion volume for use with The Laguna Madre of Texas and Tamaulipas (J.W. Tunnell and F. W. Judd, editors, 2002, Texas A&M University Press, 346 pages). This bibliography is available in printed and electronic formats. A PDF version is available for download or search (using Adobe Acrobat Reader version 5) on the Center for Coastal Studies website (http://www.sci.tamucc.edu/ccs/welcome.htm.) and the Texas Nature Conservancy website (http://www.texasnature.org/). Both printed and electronic versions consist of three parts: Part I, Laguna Madre – A Sketch (a resumé or executive summary of the book in both English and Spanish); Part II, Comprehensive Bibliography; and Part III, Citations by Keyword. In addition, a Reference Manager for Windows (version 9) CD of the bibliographic entries is available for purchase ($10) from the Center for Coastal Studies, NRC Suite 3200, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, 6300 Ocean Drive, Corpus Christi, Texas, 78412 or by contacting Kim Withers ([email protected]) or Gloria Krause ([email protected]) at the Center.
The Laguna Madre book and bibiolgraphy were funded by The Nature Conservancy of Texas with grants from the Robert J. and Helen C. Kelberg Foundation and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. These organizations are gratefully acknowledged. The Texas Center for Policy and Dr. Ernesto Chavez graciously provided translation of “The Laguna Madre – A Sketch” and both are sincerely thanked.
John W. Tunnell, Jr. January 2002
ii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Preface ……………………………………………………………………………. ii
Part I: Laguna Madre – A Sketch ………………………………………………... 1 El Ecosistema de la Laguna Madre……………………………………….. 10
Part II: Comprehensive Bibliography …………………………………………… 18
Part III: Citations by Keyword ……………………..……………………………. 105
iii PART I
LAGUNA MADRE – A SKETCH
The Laguna Madre of Texas and Tamaulipas is the only coastal, hypersaline lagoon system on the North American continent, comprising two of only five such lagoons worldwide. Together they form the largest hypersaline system in the world. Extending along 455 km (277 mi) of shoreline in South Texas and northeastern México, the Laguna Madre is separated into two bodies of water by 75 km (47 mi) of Rio Grande Delta. Each lagoon is about 185 km (115 mi) in length and each is further divided into subunits; the upper and lower Laguna Madre in Texas are separated by the Land-Cut tidal flats, and the northern and southern Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas are separated by the El Carrizal tidal flats. Both lagoon systems are protected on the east by barrier islands and peninsulas, and bound on the mainland side by vast cattle ranches, farmlands, and the brush country of the Tamaulipan Biotic Province.
These two lagoons are best known for their hypersaline condition, large overwintering Redhead duck population, numerous protected species, vast seagrass meadows, and great fishery productivity. The commonly recorded extreme salinities of over 100 ppt in both systems have been moderated in recent decades due to changes in water circulation [Gulf Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW) and Mansfield Pass in Texas and four passes connecting the Gulf with the lagoon in Tamaulipas]. The two lagoons together contain over 77% of the North American overwintering population of Redhead, a species of duck. Numerous protected species such as Piping and Snowy plovers, Reddish Egret, Brown Pelican, and Peregrine Falcon are found in both lagoons, and colonial waterbird rookeries abound. In Texas, almost 80% of all seagrass beds in the state are found in Laguna Madre and the historically, highly productive commercial fisheries have now given way to some of the best recreational fishing for red drum, black drum, and spotted sea trout in North America. In Tamaulipas, a "boom and bust" cycle of great fishery production alternated with briny, almost sterile waters before the 1970s. The cycle included a highly productive lagoon for several years after a wet hurricane, then dwindling fisheries and species diversity as the barrier island passes closed and the completely enclosed lagoon progressed to higher and higher salinities. During extended droughts, or long periods between hurricanes, the lagoon began to dry up with water level decreasing and salinities increasing due to evaporation. When salinities reached 150 ppt, only brine shrimp existed, and at the highest recorded salinity of 295 ppt, salt had precipitated along the shoreline and in the bottom of the lagoon. Then a hurricane would open Gulf passes, flush the system with floodwaters from rain, and the cycle would begin again. Major hurricanes of 1909, 1933, and 1967 all demonstrated this cycle in Tamaulipas, and it is likely that a similar cycle existed in Texas before channelization of that system (GIWW completed in 1949, Mansfield Pass completed in 1962).
In addition to these best-known features of the Laguna Madre, there are other unique lesser-known, but important characteristics, such as: the most extensive wind-tidal flats and clay dunes in North America; the only strain of high-salinity-adapted oysters in North America; the only natural rocky shoreline in Texas; the only serpulid worm reefs in Texas, and the only locality of oolite (calcium carbonate) and gypsum crystal formation
1 in Texas. Wind-tidal flats occupy 917 km2 (354 mi2) of shoreline in the Texas Laguna Madre and 508 km2 (196 mi2) in Tamaulipas. Clay dunes form a mainland transition zone between the wind-tidal flats and the upland in many areas. A unique population of oysters, adapted to the high salinity conditions of Laguna Madre, are found in South Bay, the southernmost portion of the lower Laguna Madre in Texas. Oysters in the southern Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas may be similarly adapted, but they have not been studied. Penascal Point between Baffin Bay and upper Laguna Madre contains the only natural rocky shoreline (coquina, beach rock) in Texas, and a similar shoreline exists at Punta Piedras between Laguna el Catan and the southern Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas. Relict serpulid worm reefs occupy 16 km2 (6 mi2) of Baffin Bay, providing otherwise absent, hard substrate bottom habitat and an indication of a wetter climate in the past. Calcium carbonate is deposited as irregular sand grains in the quiet waters of upper Laguna Madre near Baffin Bay, a process typically relegated to tropical regions of the world, and gypsum crystals and rosettes are formed below the surface of wind-tidal flats.
The most important issues, characteristics, and facts about the Laguna Madre of Texas and Tamaulipas are topically summarized below:
Geography
• Over 200 natural islands exist in Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas and less than 10 exist in the Texas lagoon, although hundreds of dredged material islands are present.
• Five counties with a population of 637,228 people, surround the Texas lagoon and three counties, with 444,096 people exist around the lagoon in Tamaulipas. Population centers along the shores of the Laguna Madre include six cities and towns in Texas with 277,631 people; in Tamaulipas, there are 34 towns and villages with a population of 9,738 people on the lagoon shoreline, and another 1,354 people living on islands within the lagoon.
• There are two barrier islands protecting the Texas Laguna Madre: Padre Island, the longest barrier island in the world, and Brazos Island (now a peninsula). In Tamaulipas, there is one peninsula, Barra el Conchillal, and three barrier islands, Barra Los Americanos, Barra Jesus Maria, and Barra Soto la Marina protecting the Mexican lagoon.
• There are two jettied passes, Mansfield Pass and Brazos Santiago Pass, in Texas connecting the lagoon with the Gulf of México, and there are four in Tamaulipas, El Mesquital, Boca Ciega, Boca el Catan, and Boca de Santa Isabel.
• No rivers drain into the Texas lagoon and only one, Rio San Fernando (also known as Rio Conchos), enters the Tamaulipas lagoon.
2 Climate
• The regional climate is classified as semiarid or subtropical steppe (also as subhumid- to-semiarid east-coast subtropical climate), with extreme variability in precepitation and evapotranspiration two to three times higher than precipitation.
• Persistent southeasterly winds predominate throughout the year, interrupted by strong northerly winds in winter; humidity and temperatures are high, and tropical storms or hurricanes may cause major changes to the system.
Hydrography
• Laguna Madre hydrography is characterized by little freshwater inflow, high evaporation, low tidal range, and shallow bathymetry, all of which contribute to its characteristic hypersalinity.
• Classic, textbook example of a hypersaline lagoon; two of only six hypersaline, coastal lagoons in the world.
• Salinities over 100 ppt were common in both lagoons in the past, with salinities as high as 295 ppt recorded in Tamaulipas.
• Salinities have moderated due to human-induced hydrologic alterations in both systems (GIWW in 1949 and Mansfield Pass in 1962 in Texas; four dredged, jettied passes in Tamaulipas in 1970's).
Origin, Development, and Geology
• Laguna Madre began forming about 5,000 to 4,500 YBP as post-glacial sea level rise slowed and offshore sandbars (like Padre Island) began to develop; the lagoon became enclosed about 2,800 to 2,500 YBP.
• Hypersaline conditions apparently developed in Baffin Bay first, as long as 5000 to 4300 years before present.
• The Rio Grande Delta divided the Texas and Tamaulipas lagoon into two systems during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene.
• Important geological or biogeological features include extensive wind-tidal flats and clay dunes, localized beach rock (coquina), serpulid worm reefs, and geochemically- precipitated oolites (calcium carbonate) and gypsum crystals and rosettes.
Tamaulipan Biotic Province
• The Tamaulipan Biotic Province exhibits greater faunal diversity than any other biotic province in the state of Texas.
3 • The Tamaulipan Biotic Province is important as a dispersal route for tropical species moving northward and for temperate forest and grassland species moving southward.
• The Tamaulipan Biotic Province has suffered serious human perturbations; for example, since the 1920s, more than 95% of the original native brushland in the lower Rio Grande Valley has been cleared and converted to agricultural and urban use.
Ranching Heritage
• Vast South Texas ranches, like the King Ranch and Kenedy Ranch, have afforded protection of the mainland Laguna Madre shoreline (and thus the Laguna Madre) by not allowing access or development; similar conditions, like Rancho Rincon de Anacahuitas, exist in Tamaulipas.
• Some of the first U.S. cattle ranches occurred inland of Laguna Madre.
• The Singer family owned Padre Island at one time and invented the Singer sewing machine there.
• The King Ranch developed the first U.S. cattle breed, the Santa Gertrudis.
The Ecosystem
• The Laguna Madre is characterized as a negative estuary or hypersaline lagoon.
• The food web of the Laguna Madre is predominantly based on submerged aquatic vegetation (seagrass and algae), rather than free-floating phytoplankton.
• Hydrologic alterations in water circulation (dredged channels and passes) have changed the ecosystem from excessively hypersaline (over 100 ppt) to moderately hypersaline (40-80 ppt).
• The ecosystem in Texas is dominated by seagrass habitat in the lagoon and wind-tidal flats along the shore; in Tamaulipas bare, unvegetated bottom predominates over seagrass meadows in the lagoon, and wind-tidal flats, although not as common as in Texas, predominate over emergent marsh shorelines.
• Aquatic biodiversity of Laguna Madre appears to be only 35 to 45% of the normal or positive estuaries to the north, with 938 species from upper Laguna Madre and Baffin Bay, and 706 species from Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas, compared to 2,043 species from the Texas Coastal Bend (3 estuaries). The Tamaulipan lagoon is less studied, and may be more diverse than currently known due to more tropical species.
Seagrass Meadows
• Texas seagrass distribution is concentrated in Laguna Madre (79%), due to geographic and climatic factors.
4 • Seagrass meadows are extremely valuable habitats that provide complex structure in the water column and sediments. This structure is important because it supplies nursery areas, refuge, and rich foraging grounds for a variety of estuarine fish and invertebrates, including species of commercial and recreational importance.
• Shoal grass meadows in Texas and Tamaulipas are essential winter foraging habitat for at least 77% of the North American Redhead population.
• Increasing coverage and changing species composition in the Texas Laguna Madre over the last 30 years has resulted from moderation of hypersalinity due to construction of GIWW and Mansfield Pass.
• Recent losses of seagrass cover and biomass have been caused by turbidity from brown tide and dredging.
Wind-Tidal Flats
• Wind-tidal flats cover over 1,440 km2 (550 mi2) of land adjacent to Laguna Madre in Texas and Tamaulipas.
• Flooding and exposure of wind-tidal flats is unpredictable because they are caused by wind-tides rather than astronomical tides.
• Wind-tidal flats are much more productive than they appear. They convert plant biomass to animal biomass where the water meets the land, filling the role marshes play in less arid climates.
• Wind-tidal flats of the Laguna Madre represent the largest continuous expanse of suitable wintering habitat for shorebirds between northern breeding grounds and more distant wintering grounds in South America. They are vital to several federally protected birds including Piping Plover.
• Dramatic losses in the areal extent of wind-tidal flats since the 1950’s are largely due to global sea-level rise, but human impacts have also contributed.
Barrier Islands
• Barrier islands are dynamic landforms that protect the Laguna Madre.
• Padre Island, extending the entire length of the Laguna Madre of Texas, is the longest barrier island in the world.
• Vegetation zonation is similar for barrier islands in Texas and Tamaulipas, although vegetated areas become less extensive further southward.
• Both natural and artificial passes through the barrier islands provide tidal exchange between the Gulf of México and the lagoons.
5 • Barrier islands provide habitat for an extensive food web of resident and migratory species, including the Peregrine Falcon and Snowy and Piping plovers.
Redhead and Other Waterfowl
• Thirty-eight waterfowl species have been documented along the lower Texas coast.
• The Laguna Madre is the primary wintering destination for Redhead. An estimated 77% of the North American population use shoal grass meadows and other habitats within the lagoons as well as nearby coastal ponds on the mainland in both Texas and Tamaulipas.
• Numerous other wintering waterfowl use habitats within the Laguna Madre, as well as coastal ponds, and the Rio Grande Delta. Many waterfowl including Redhead feed primarily in seagrass meadows within the lagoons and rest and drink in nearby coastal ponds.
• Decreases in water flow into the Rio Grande Delta from the river have reduced available wetland habitats.
Colonial Waterbirds and Rookery Islands
• Thirty-four colonies of waterbirds were identified in upper and lower Laguna Madre of Texas between 1973-1998.
• Twenty-three species of herons, egrets, ibises, pelicans, terns, gulls, and skimmers use vegetated and unvegetated shoreline habitats for nesting in Texas.
• Twelve species of colonial waterbirds were documented in northeastern México rookeries.
• The only major American White Pelican coastal colony exists in upper Laguna Madre of Texas, with a smaller nesting population documented in Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas.
• Rookery island use by birds can be affected by island size, presence of vegetation, predation, and human disturbance.
Shorebirds and Wadingbirds
• Laguna Madre in Texas and Tamaulipas contains some of the largest expanses of undisturbed wetland complexes in the Western Hemisphere, and is one of the most significant coastal areas for aquatic bird life on the entire Gulf of México coast.
• Large numbers of migrating and wintering shorebirds use wind-tidal flats and barrier beaches; smaller numbers use various other emergent habitats, such as washover passes and coastal wetlands.
6 • Probably most of the threatened Great Plains population of Piping Plover winter in Laguna Madre. Both barrier islands and tidal flats appear to be essential wintering habitats.
• Snowy Plover are the most abundant species found nesting on tidal flats and related habitats such as washover passes, in both Texas and Tamaulipas.
• Laguna Madre provides plentiful shallow-water foraging habitats for wading birds including flooded tidal flats, seagrass meadows, shallow bay margins and coastal wetlands.
• The largest concentration of Reddish Egret in the world is found in the western Gulf of México and they are the most common wading bird on tidal flats in both Texas and Tamaulipas.
Sea Turtles
• Five species of marine turtles have been documented in the western Gulf of México: Kemp’s ridley, loggerhead, green, leatherback, and hawksbill sea turtles.
• Green and loggerhead sea turtles have been documented in the Laguna Madre of Texas, although historically, other species may have used the areas around natural passes.
• Historically, green turtles were abundant in Texas bays, including Laguna Madre; recent sightings have been documented along the jetties and nearby seagrass meadows in lower Laguna Madre and in South Bay.
• Kemp’s ridley sea turtle has the most restricted distribution and key nesting areas are located on Tamaulipas Gulf shorelines, just south of Laguna Madre.
• Documented nest counts have increased dramatically in recent years, suggesting a recovery of Kemp’s ridley sea turtle.
• Sea turtle strandings along the Texas coast have increased during Gulf shrimping season, and Turtle Excluder Devices are now mandatory for Texas and México.
Fish and Fisheries
• Fish biodiversity appears to be greatest in the Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas with 122 species, compared to 79 in the upper Laguna Madre and 67 in the lower Laguna Madre (Tamaulipas lagoon has more tropical species; lower Laguna Madre in Texas needs more research).
• Thirty-seven of the 44 species of fish and invertebrates identified from the Gulf of México estuaries by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Estuarine Living Marine Resources Program as having ecological, commercial, or
7 recreational value, or that are indicator species of environmental stress have been found within the Laguna Madre of Texas.
• Primary fishery species of Laguna Madre include red drum, black drum, spotted seatrout and penaeid shrimp; the Texas fishery has switched from historically commercial to presently recreational; the Tamaulipas fishery was a cyclical "boom- bust", related to hurricane flushing, but now is more stable with dredged passes to the Gulf.
Red/Brown Tides
Red Tide
• Red tides are not well-documented in Laguna Madre, but localized dinoflagellate blooms may be more common than realized.
• Hypersalinity may limit the organism’s ability to reach bloom populations.
Brown Tide
• The “Texas Brown Tide” caused by a persistent bloom of the pelagophyte Aureoumbra lagunensis has continued for over nine years.
• Persistent phytoplankton blooms in Laguna Madre may not be unusual, only unknown in our limited experiences and lifespans.
• Reduced water clarity due to brown tide caused declines in seagrass cover and biomass.
Information/Knowledge Gaps
• Over 1,300 citations are listed in this comprehensive Bbbliography, 300 of which are specifically on the two laguna systems and 700 on adjacent waters and lands that influence or connect to the Laguna Madre.
• About 80 to 85% of the literature concerns the Texas lagoon and surrounding areas.
• More information is available in Texas on seagrass meadows, Redhead, barrier islands, and brown tide than other topics.
• Little information is readilyly available on the Tamaulipas lagoon. However, a considerable body has been produced in the 1990s, but it is only available through the Mexican government with permission.
8 Conservation Issues
• Conservation issues and recommendations for protection or sustainable use of the Laguna Madre are discussed in four groups: conservation issues, localities of concern, anthropogenic issues, and natural disturbances.
• Critical issues of concern needing (and in some cases receiving) attention are Arroyo Colorado water quality, dredge material placement, barrier island development and habitat loss, brown tide, and seagrass impacts in Texas, and island-living impacts, agricultural contaminants, land management and protection, and seagrass research in Tamaulipas.
• Anthropogenic issues or concerns include island inhabitation impacts, channelization, dredge material placement, artificial passes, contaminants, seismic impacts, seagrass scarring, and trash/debris.
In summary, over 70 years of literature are represented in this bibliography. Almost 1,400 references are listed. The unique biological resources and geological features within this world-renowned ecosystem are definitely worthy of conservation and protection. Monitoring its resources and research on understanding the physical and biological processes that govern its functioning will ensure that sound information is provided for the long-term management and conservation of the Laguna Madre.
9 EL ECOSISTEMA DE LA LAGUNA MADRE
Es el único sistema de lagunas hiperhalinas en el continente americano, que comprende dos de los cinco únicos sistemas lagunares de este tipo a nivel mundial. En conjunto constituyen el sistema hiperhalino de mayor tamaño en el mundo. Con una extensión de 455 km (277 mi) de línea de costa en el sur de Texas y noreste de México, la Laguna Madre está dividida en dos cuerpos de agua por 76 km (47 mi) que abarcan el delta del Río Bravo (Río Grande). Cada laguna tiene una extensión de unos 185 km (115 mi) de largo y cada una está dividida en subunidades; la Laguna Madre superior e inferior están separadas por los islotes que emergen durante la bajamar y las porciones norte y sur de la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas están separadas por los llanos expuestos por la bajamar en El Carrizal. Ambos sistemas lagunares están protegidos al este por islas barrera y penínsulas, y sus costas hacia el continente colindan con extensos ranchos ganaderos, granjas y por matorrales de la Provincia Biótica Tamaulipeca. Estas dos lagunas son mejor conocidas por su condición hiperhalina, por la gran población invernal de pato de cabeza roja, por la gran cantidad de especies protegidas, por sus extensos pantanales de pastos marinos y por su gran productividad pesquera. Su salinidad extrema que comúnmente registra concentraciones superiores a los 100 ppt en ambos sistemas, se ha moderado durante las décadas recientes, debido a los cambios que ha experimentado en la circulación del agua [el Canal Intra costero y el Paso de Mansfield en Texas y cuatro pasos que conectan el Golfo con la laguna en Tamaulipas]. Las dos lagunas en su conjunto dan albergue a mas del 77% de la población de pato de cabeza roja que inverna en ellas. Numerosas especies protegidas como el chorlito silbador y el chorlito de las nieves, el airón rojizo, el pelícano café y el halcón peregrino se encuentran en ambas lagunas y los grajos, pájaros de agua coloniales, abundan.
En Texas, casi el 80% de todos los pastizales marinos del estado se encuentran en la Laguna Madre e históricamente, pesquerías comerciales altamente productivas han propiciado a algunas de las mejores pesquerías recreativas de tambor y de trucha pinta en Norte América. En Tamaulipas, un explosivo ciclo de alta producción pesquera alternaba con etapas de salmuera casi estéril antes de los años 70. El ciclo incluía una laguna altamente productiva por varios años después de un huracán húmedo, seguida por una gradual pérdida de las pesquerías y de la biodiversidad. Conforme se iban cerrando los pasos de las islas barrera, la laguna se cerraba por completo y la salinidad aumentaba cada vez mas. Durante las sequías prolongadas, o durante períodos largos entre huracanes, la laguna empezaba a secarse, disminuyendo su nivel y aumentando la salinidad debido a la evaporación. Cuando la salinidad alcanzaba los 150 ppt, solo había artemia (camarón de salmuera); a la mayor salinidad registrada, de 295 ppt, la salinidad se había precipitado a lo largo de la línea de costa y en el fondo de la laguna. Entonces algún huracán abriría los pasos restableciendo la comunicación con el Golfo, drenando el sistema con agua de las lluvias y reiniciando el sistema de nuevo. Los huracanes mas grandes, de 1909, 1933 y 1967, demostraron este ciclo en Tamaulipas y es probable que un ciclo similar haya existido en Texas antes de la canalización de ese sistema (el GIWW quedó terminado en 1949 y el paso Mansfield en 1962). En adición a estas características de la Laguna Madre, que son las mejor conocidas, hay otras características importantes y únicas, aunque menos conocidas, tales como las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de
10 viento y las dunas de arcilla, que son los mas extensos en Norte América; la única cepa de ostiones adaptados a alta salinidad en Norte América; la única costa rocosa natural en Texas; el único arrecife de serpúlidos en Texas y la única localidad de oolitos (carbonato de calcio) y la formación con cristales de yeso de Texas. Las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento ocupan un área de 917 km2 (354 mi2) de la línea de costa en la Laguna Madre de Texas y 508 km2 (196 mi2) en Tamaulipas. En muchas áreas, las dunas de arcilla forman una zona de transición entre las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento y la tierra firme. Una población única de ostiones adaptados a las condiciones de alta salinidad se encuentra en South Bay, la porción mas meridional de la Laguna Madre inferior en Texas. Los ostiones de la parte sur de la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas podrían estar adaptados similarmente, pero no han sido estudiados. Punta Peñascal entre la Bahía de Baffin y la Laguna Madre superior contiene la única costa rocosa natural (coquina, roca de playa) en Texas y una costa similar existe en Punta Piedras, entre la Laguna el Catán y la parte sur de la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas. Arrecifes relicto de serpúlidos ocupan 16 km2 de la Bahía de Baffin y proporcionan un hábitat con substrato duro (de otra manera ausente) y son una indicación de un clima mas húmedo en el pasado. El carbonato de calcio se deposita como granos de arena irregulares en las quietas aguas de la Laguna Madre superior, cerca de la Bahía de Baffin, un proceso típicamente relegado a las regiones tropicales de todo el mundo; los cristales y rosetas de yeso se forman bajo la superficie de las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento. Los hechos y características mas importantes acerca de la Laguna Madre de Texas y la de Tamaulipas se describen brevemente a continuación.
Geografía
Existen mas de 200 islas naturales en la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas y menos de 10 en la de Texas, aunque existen cientos de islas creadas como productos de los dragados. Cinco condados con una población de 637,228 habitantes circundan la laguna de Texas y tres municipios, con 444,096 personas se encuentran alrededor de la laguna de Tamaulipas. Los centros de población a lo largo de las costas de la Laguna Madre incluyen seis ciudades y poblados en Texas con 277,631 personas; en Tamaulipas hay 34 ciudades y pueblos con una población de 9,738 habitantes viviendo en las islas de la laguna. Hay dos islas barrera que protegen la Laguna Madre: Isla del Padre, la isla barrera mas grande del mundo y la Isla Brazos (hoy una península). En Tamaulipas hay una península, la Barra del Conchillal y tres islas barrera: Barra Los Americanos, Barra Jesús María, y Barra Soto la Marina, que protegen a la laguna mexicana. Hay dos pasos con muros de contención, el Paso Mansfield y el Paso Brazos Santiago en Texas, que conectan la laguna con el Golfo de México y hay cuatro en Tamaulipas: El Mezquital, Boca Ciega, Boca El Catán y Boca de Santa Isabel. No hay ríos que drenen hacia la laguna de Texas y en Tamaulipas, hay solo uno, el Río San Fernando (también conocido como Río Conchos), que desemboca a la laguna.
Clima
Se clasifica como una estepa semiárida o subtropical (también como un clima de tipo subhúmedo a semiárido subtropical de la costa este), con variabilidad extrema en la
11 precipitación y la evapotranspiración, que es dos o tres veces mas alta que la precipitación. Vientos persistentes del sureste predominan durante la mayor parte del año, interrumpidos por fuertes vientos del norte durante el invierno; la humedad y la temperatura son altas y las tormentas tropicales o los huracanes pueden causar cambios importantes en el sistema.
Hidrografía
Se caracteriza por el escaso aporte de agua dulce, alta evaporación, estrecho prisma de mareas y escasa profundidad, todos los cuales favorecen su hiperhalinidad característica. Es el ejemplo clásico de una laguna hiperhalina en los libros de texto; son dos de las seis únicas lagunas costeras hiperhalinas en el mundo. Las salinidades superiores a los 100 ppt eran comunes en ambas lagunas en el pasado, con salinidades tan altas como 295 ppt registrada en Tamaulipas. Las altas salinidades se han moderado debido a las alteraciones hidrológicas inducidas por el hombre en ambos sistemas (el GIWW en 1949 y el Paso Mansfield en 1962 en Texas; cuatro pasos dragados, con muros de contención, en Tamaulipas en los años 70).
Origen, Desarrollo y Geología
La Laguna Madre empezó a formarse hace de 5,000 a 4,500 años como resultado del aumento del nivel del mar post-glacial y por la formación de barras de arena mar adentro (como la Isla del Padre); la laguna se cerró hace cerca de 2,800 a 2,500 años. Las condiciones de alta salinidad aparentemente se desarrollaron primero en la Bahía de Baffin desde hace 5,000 a 4,300 años. El delta del Río Bravo dividió la laguna de Texas y Tamaulipas en dos sistemas durante el Pleistoceno tardío y principios del Holoceno. Características importantes geológicas o biogeológicas incluyen extensas llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento y dunas de arcilla, roca de playa (coquina) muy localizada, arrecifes de serpúlidos y oolitos (carbonato de calcio) precipitados geoquímicamente, así como cristales y rosetas de yeso.
Provincia Biótica Tamaulipeca
Esta Provincia exhibe mayor diversidad faunística que cualquier otra provincia biótica en el Estado de Texas. La Provincia Biótica Tamaulipeca es importante como ruta de dispersión para especies tropicales que se desplazan hacia el norte y para especies forestales y herbáceos que se desplazan hacia el sur. Esta provincia biótica ha sufrido serias perturbaciones humanas; por ejemplo, desde los años 20, mas del 95% de los matorrales nativos del bajo Río Bravo fueron removidos y convertidos en terrenos de uso agrícola y urbano.
El Legado de los Ranchos
Vastos ranchos del sur de Texas, como el Rancho King y el Rancho Kennedy, han dado protección a la línea de la costa sobre la margen occidental de la laguna (y por lo tanto a la Laguna Madre), al no permitir el acceso o el desarrollo; en Tamaulipas existen
12 condiciones similares, como en el caso del Rancho Rincón de Anacahuitas. Algunos de los primeros ranchos ganaderos en los EEUU ocurrieron tierra adentro de la Laguna Madre. La familia Singer era dueña de la Isla del Padre y fue ahí donde inventaron la máquina de coser Singer. El Rancho King desarrolló la primera línea de ganado fino en EEUU, el Santa Gertrudis.
El Ecosistema
La Laguna Madre se caracteriza como un estuario negativo o laguna hiperhalina. La trama trófica de la Laguna Madre se basa predominantemente en la vegetación acuática sumergida (pastos marinos y algas), mas que en fitoplancton que flota libremente. Las alteraciones hidrológicas en la circulación del agua (dragado de canales y pasos) han cambiado el ecosistema pasando de ser excesivamente hiperhalino (con mas de 100 ppt) a moderadamente hiperhalino (40 a 80 ppt). En Texas el ecosistema está dominado por el hábitat de pastos marinos en la laguna y en los llanos expuestos por las mareas de viento a lo largo de la costa; en Tamaulipas los fondos desnudos predominan sobre los de pastizales en la laguna y los llanos expuestos por las mareas de viento, predominan sobre la costa con vegetación emergente, aunque no tan comúnmente como en Texas. La biodiversidad acuática de la Laguna Madre parece ser de solo el 35 a 45% con respecto a la de los estuarios positivos al norte, con 938 especies de la Laguna Madre superior y la Bahía de Baffin, y 706 especies de la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas, en comparación con las 2,043 especies del área donde la costa texana hace una curva (Texas Coastal Bend, con 3 estuarios). La laguna tamaulipeca está menos estudiada y podría ser mas diversa que lo que se sabe debido a que tiene mas especies tropicales.
Pastizales Marinos
La distribución de los pastizales se concentra en la Laguna Madre (79%), debido a factores geográficos y climáticos. Las zonas de pastizales marinos constituyen hábitats extremadamente valiosos por que proveen de una compleja estructura a la columna de agua y a los sedimentos. Esta estructura es importante por que proporciona áreas de crianza, refugio y fondos ricos para el forrajeo por parte de una amplia variedad de peces y de invertebrados, que incluyen especies de importancia comercial y recreativa. Los bajos con pastizales en Texas y en Tamaulipas constituyen un hábitat esencial para el forrajeo de por lo menos el 77% de la población del pato de Cabeza Roja de Norte América en invierno. Una mayor cobertura y cambio en la composición de especies en la Laguna Madre de Texas durante los 30 últimos años ha resultado en una moderación de la hiperhalinidad debido a la construcción de los pasos GIWW y Mansfield. Recientes pérdidas de la cobertura y biomasa de los pastizales han ocurrido por causa de la turbiedad provocada por la marea café y por el dragado.
Llanuras Expuestas por las Mareas de Viento
Estas llanuras cubren mas de 1,440 km2 (550 mi2) de terreno adyacente a la Laguna Madre en Texas y Tamaulipas. Las inundaciones y la exposición de estas llanuras son impredecibles, ya que son causadas por el viento, mas que por las mareas astronómicas.
13 Estas llanuras son mucho mas productivas que lo que parece. Convierten la biomasa vegetal en biomasa animal en donde el agua se encuentra con la tierra, realizando la misma función que los pantanales en los climas menos áridos. Las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento representan la mayor expansión continua del hábitat adecuado en invierno para las aves costeras entre las zonas de reproducción en el norte y los mas distantes cuarteles de invierno en América del Sur. Son vitales para varias especies de aves protegidas por el gobierno Federal, que incluyen, entre otros, el chorlito silbador. Pérdidas dramáticas en las extensiones de las áreas de las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento desde los años 50 se deben en gran medida al aumento global en el nivel del mar, pero los impactos humanos también han contribuido.
Islas Barrera
Son formaciones dinámicas que protegen la Laguna Madre. La Isla del Padre se extiende a todo lo largo de la Laguna Madre de Texas y es la isla barrera mas larga del mundo. La zonación vegetal es similar para las islas barrera en Texas y en Tamaulipas, aunque las áreas con vegetación son menos extensas hacia la parte sur. Los pasos y canales naturales y artificiales a través de las islas barrera permiten en intercambio favorecido por las mareas, entre el Golfo de México y las lagunas. Las islas barrera proporcionan el hábitat para una extensa red trófica de especies residentes y migratorias, que incluyen el halcón peregrino, y los chorlitos silbador y de las nieves.
El Pato de Cabeza Roja y Otras Aves Acuáticas
El ícono, los chorlitos silbador y de las nieves, el pato de cabeza roja y otras treinta y ocho especies de aves acuáticas han sido documentadas a lo largo de costa baja de Texas. La Laguna Madre es el destino primario para el pato de Cabeza Roja en invierno. Se estima que el 77% de la población de Norte América utiliza los bajos con pastizales y otros hábitats en la Laguna Madre, así como estanques costeros cercanos tierra adentro en Texas y Tamaulipas. Gran número de otras aves acuáticas que inviernan, usan los hábitats dentro de la Laguna Madre, así como estanques costeros y el delta del Río Bravo. Muchas aves acuáticas que incluyen al pato de Cabeza Roja se alimentan primariamente en los pastizales de las lagunas y descansan y beben en los estanques costeros de las cercanías. La disminución en el flujo de agua dulce hacia el delta del Río Bravo ha reducido los hábitats de humedal disponibles.
Aves Acuáticas Coloniales y Islas de Grajos
Treinta y cuatro colonias de aves acuáticas se identificaron en la Laguna Madre superior e inferior de Texas entre 1973 y 1998. Veinte y tres especies de garza real, airones, íbices, pelícanos, gaviotas y ralladores hacen uso de los hábitats costeros con vegetación o sin ella para anidar, en Texas. Doce especies de aves acuáticas coloniales se identificaron en los grajos del noreste de México. La única colonia importante del pelícano blanco americano existe en la Laguna Madre superior de Texas, con una de menos tamaño citada para la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas. El uso de las islas con grajos
14 por las aves puede verse afectado por el tamaño de la isla, presencia de vegetación, depredación y por la perturbación humana.
Aves Costeras
La Laguna Madre en Texas y en Tamaulipas contiene algunos de los mas grandes complejos de humedal no perturbado en el hemisferio oeste y es una de las áreas costeras mas significativas para la vida de las aves acuáticas en toda la costa del Golfo de México. Grandes bandadas de aves migratorias en invierno hacen uso de las llanuras expuestas por las mareas de viento de las playas de las barras; en menor número, otras hacen uso de habitas emergentes como los pasos y los humedales costeros. Es probable que la mayor parte de las poblaciones amenazadas de chorlito silbador de las Grandes Planicies hiberne en la Laguna Madre. Tanto las islas barrera como las llanuras de marea parecen ser habitas invernales esenciales. El chorlito de las nieves es la especie mas abundante que anida en los llanos de marea y en hábitats similares como los de los pasos, en Texas y en Tamaulipas. La Laguna Madre provee de abundantes hábitats someros para el forrajeo de las aves, para aves que vadean las orillas, incluso en las áreas inundadas por la marea, en las zonas de pastos marinos, en los márgenes someros de las bahías y humedales costeros. La mayor concentración a nivel mundial del airón rojo se encuentra en el occidente del Golfo de México y constituye la mas común de las aves que vadean por las orillas de las playas emergidas durante la bajamar en Texas y en Tamaulipas.
Tortugas Marinas
Cinco especies de tortugas marinas han sido documentadas en el occidente del Golfo de México: la tortuga verde, la tortuga lora, la tortuga de carey, la tortuga laúd y la cahuama. Las tortugas verde y lora han sido vistas en la Laguna Madre de Texas, aunque históricamente, otras especies podrían haber hecho uso del hábitat cerca de los pasos naturales. Históricamente, la tortuga verde fue abundante alguna vez en las bahías de Texas, e incluso en la Laguna Madre; se le ha visto recientemente cerca de los muros de contención de los pasos y cerca de los pastizales en la Laguna Madre inferior y en South Bay. La tortuga lora tiene la distribución mas restringida y áreas clave de anidación se encuentran en las costas de Tamaulipas, justo al sur de Laguna Madre. El recuento de nidos de la tortuga lora se ha incrementado dramáticamente en los años recientes, lo que sugiere una recuperación de la población. Los encuentros con la tortuga lora han aumentado en la costa de Texas durante la temporada de pesca de camarón y el uso de los dispositivos excluidores de tortuga (TED) es obligatorio para los barcos camaroneros de Texas y México.
Peces y Pesquerías
La diversidad de peces parece ser mas grande en la Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas con 122 especies, comparada con 79 en la Laguna Madre superior y 67 en la Laguna Madre inferior (en Tamaulipas, la laguna tiene mayor numero de especies tropicales; la Laguna Madre inferior en Texas necesita mas investigación). Treinta y siete de las 44 especies de peces e invertebrados de los estuarios del Golfo de México, han sido identificadas por
15 el Programa de Recursos Marinos de los Estuarios de la Administración Oceánica y Atmosférica (NOAA) con valor ecológica, comercial o recreativo, o bien como especies indicadoras de tensión ambiental y se encuentran en la Laguna Madre de Texas.
Las pesquerías primarias de la Laguna Madre incluyen el tambor rojo, el tambor negro, la trucha pinta y el camarón; en Texas, la pesquería ha evolucionado históricamente, habiendo sido comercial en sus inicios y ha cambiado a ser de tipo recreativo en los tiempos recientes; en Tamaulipas, la pesquería antes pasaba por un ciclo de desarrollo explosivo, relacionado con la aportación de agua por los ciclones, pero ahora es mas estable al dragarse con frecuencia los canales de comunicación con el Golfo.
Mareas Rojas
Su aparición no se encuentra bien documentada en la Laguna Madre, pero los florecimientos de dinoflagelados podrían ser mas comunes de lo que se supone. La alta salinidad podría ser un factor que limite el florecimiento explosivo de estos organismos.
Mareas Cafés
La “marea café de Texas” causada por una aparición persistente de la pelagofita Aureogumbra lagunensis ha continuado por mas de nueve años. Florecimientos persistentes de fitoplancton en la Laguna Madre podrían no ser poco usuales, y ser desconocidos solamente durante la limitada experiencia adquirida en el transcurso de una vida humana. La reducida transparencia del agua debida a la marea café causo un decaimiento en la cobertura y biomasa de los pastos marinos.
Lagunas del Conocimiento y Necesidades de Información
Se ha hecho acopio de mas de 1,300 referencias incluidas en lista bibliográfica incluida, 300 de las cuales se refieren específicamente a los sistemas de ambas lagunas y 700 a las aguas adyacentes y a las tierras que tienen influencia directa o conexión con la Laguna Madre. Cerca del 80 u 85% de la literatura se refiere a la laguna de Texas y áreas circundantes. Hay mas información disponible en Texas sobre los pastizales marinos, el tambor, las islas barrera y las mareas cafés que sobre otros temas. Sobre la laguna de Tamaulipas hay realmente muy poca información disponible. Sin embargo, una cantidad considerable se ha generado durante los años 90, pero esta disponible únicamente a través de y con permiso del Gobierno de México.
Conservación
Los asuntos relativos a la conservación y recomendaciones para la protección o utilización sostenible de la Laguna Madre se discuten en cuatro grupos: temas sobre la conservación, localidades que ameritan atención, asuntos antropogénicos y perturbaciones naturales. Asuntos críticos que ameritan atención (y que en algunos casos la deben recibir) son: la calidad del agua del Arroyo Colorado, la disposición de los materiales producto de los dragados, la perdida del hábitat natural provocada por el
16 desarrollo de las islas barrera, las mareas cafés y su impacto sobre los pastizales en Texas y sobre los habitantes de las islas, los contaminantes agrícolas, el manejo y protección de la tierra, así como la investigación sobre los pastizales marinos en Tamaulipas. Los asuntos o preocupaciones antropogénicas incluyen los impactos sobre la colonización de las islas, la canalización, la disposición de los materiales producto de los dragados, los pasos artificiales, los contaminantes, los impactos sísmicos, la destrucción parcial de los pastizales marinos y la basura y otros materiales orgánicos. En resumen, en la lista bibliográfica se presentan datos e investigaciones realizadas durante mas de 70 años. La lista incluye mas de 1,300 referencias.
Los recursos bióticos y características geológicas de este ecosistema reconocido a nivel mundial son únicos y definitivamente ameritan ser protegidos y conservados. La vigilancia mediante esfuerzos permanentes de investigación sobre sus recursos y para el entendimiento de los procesos físicos y biológicos que gobiernan su funcionamiento, podrá asegurar que se disponga de información precisa y confiable para el manejo y la conservación de la Laguna Madre en el largo plazo.
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104 PART III
CITATIONS BY KEYWORD
algae (algas): 55, 56, 114, 115, 274, 356, 361, 591, 651, 711, 738, 778, 779, 780, 827, 853, 930, 1159, 1382
Arroyo Colorado: 31, 128, 162, 292, 293, 294, 295, 421, 544, 600, 602, 1232, 1263, 1276, 1278, 1290
aquatic birds: 667, 865
Baffin Bay: 32, 36, 84, 86, 88, 91, 114, 115, 133, 245, 246, 250, 289, 290, 396, 444, 506, 863, 869, 894, 944, 988, 1118, 1162, 1163, 1164, 1165, 1166, 1167, 1168, 1169, 1193, 1194, 1197, 1282 Alazan Bay: 133, 270, 322, 323, 766, 1197 Laguna Salada: 438, 766, 944
barrier islands: 221, 318, 406, 459, 501, 568, 627, 641, 735, 787, 810, 883, 984, 987, 1077, 1081, 1117, 1119, 1266, 1311, 1335, 1348, 1392
biotic province (Tamaulipan): 111, 112, 314, 441, 468, 1120
brown tide (Aureoumbra lagunensis): 115, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 250, 251, 306, 307, 308, 360, 445, 610, 716, 717, 718, 736, 739, 746, 858, 859, 923, 925, 1028, 1091, 1122, 1171, 1181, 1182, 1187, 1308, 1320, 1355, 1357, 1374
coastal ponds: 1, 2, 57, 395, 794, 844, 860, 1087, 1136,
colonial waterbirds: 215, 222, 273, 283, 393, 678, 823, 866, 1124, 1044, 1173, 1205, 1206
rookery islands: 273, 823, 1142
American White Pelican (Pelecanus erythrorynchos): 222, 715
Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis): 666
Black Skimmer (Rhynchops niger): 282, 305, 669, 1345
terns (Sterna spp.); 669, 843, 943, 1123, 1220, 1221, 1222
Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla): 1344
contaminants: 282, 283, 284, 295, 379, 443, 444, 579, 598, 669, 833, 867, 1038, 1039, 1075
105 copepods (Acartia tonsa): 182, 534 dredging (dredge material): 44, 102, 196, 215, 238, 351, 377, 378, 533, 662, 1023, 1032, 1178, 1364, 1365, 1394 ducks (waterfowl): 1, 2, 3,70, 104, 266, 267, 303, 397, 413, 417, 444, 513, 752, 762, 815, 816, 860, 1133, 1262 Redhead (Aythya americana): 3, 58, 266, 267, 268, 269, 280, 402, 444, 762, 833, 841, 842, 844, 845, 860, 1067, 1262, 1336, 1376, 1377
Whistling ducks (Dendrocygna spp.): 303, 397, 413, 417, 752
Blue-winged teal (Anas discors): 1340
Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola): 120
Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator): 126, 1057
Black duck (Anas rubripes): 513
Mottled duck (Anas fulvigula): 1068
Mexican duck (Anas platyrhynchos): 1078 fish, fishery, fishing: 16, 29, 31, 33, 34, 107, 138, 140, 142, 143, 165, 176, 177, 179, 193, 199, 213, 300, 315, 322, 323, 353, 366, 389, 403, 488, 491, 494, 497, 507, 531, 541, 552, 557, 564, 575, 578, 580, 582, 583, 587, 589, 625, 650, 670, 687, 699, 788, 790, 802, 805, 869, 872, 896, 939, 941, 963, 1016, 1114, 1126, 1130, 1177, 1183, 1199, 1201, 1233, 1234, 1238, 1239, 1240, 1241, 1242, 1243, 1244, 1245, 1246, 1247, 1248, 1249, 1250, 1264, 1288, 1290, 1319, 1334, 1343, 1374
Red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus): 530, 789, 803, 941, 1126, 1016, 1126, 1164, 1317, 1321
Spotted seatrout (Cynoscion nebulosus): 137, 466, 697, 1165
Black drum (Pogonias cromis): 599, 766, 1126, 1168, 1171
Snook (Centropomus undecimalis): 790
Pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides): 107, 908
Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma): 1163
ichthyoplankton, larval fish: 322, 323, 580, 1234 hurricane: 37, 38, 61, 87, 150, 202, 370, 420, 459, 485, 519, 520, 521, 539, 636, 789, 807, 809, 973, 1077, 1132, 1192, 1284
106 invertebrates: 33, 200, 493, 527, 896, 937, 938, 939, 1041, 1143, 1350, 1351, 1352, 1359, 1371 Crustacea: 587 crabs (Brachyura, Anomura): 232, 460, 487, 503, 679, 961, 1014, 1015, 1169, 1176, 1226, 1227 Decapoda: 863, 945, Mysidacea: 248, 249, Tanaidacea: 918 Mollusca: 15, 208, 448, 449, 548, 587, 857, 965, 1361 Eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica): 170, 301, 335, 484, 573, 644, 671, 672, 765, 781, 903, 1309
Laguna Madre de Tamaulipas: 39, 343, 498, 555, 564, 783, 784, 891, 1064, 1066, 1305
Lower Laguna Madre: 116, 135, 137, 139, 144, 153, 161, 239, 266, 267, 268, 280, 285, 390, 540, 551, 645, 646, 659, 706, 797, 800, 812, 814, 816, 836, 838, 841, 842, 843, 844, 865, 866, 1071, 1114, 1134, 1183, 1232, 1245, 1357, 1361, 1394 mammal: 10, 11, 18, 108, 112, 131, 278, 298, 297, 299, 313, 432, 456, 463, 464, 467, 501, 510, 584, 623, 624, 677, 714, 1073, 1074, 1089, 1219, 1311
bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): 131, 1089 mangrove: 384, 387, 644, 818, 1115, 1116 oyster reef: 335, 644, 903 pesticides: 28, 233, 315, 412, 474, 514, 536, 667, 751, 864, 1140, 1228, 1340, 1342 phytoplankton: 186, 718, 1180, 1196, 1357 plants (terrestrial): 309, 310, 385, 388, 409, 461, 509, 605, 723, 726, 728, 732, 968, 1029, 1054, 1218, 1223, 1312, 1313
Sabal palm (Sabal texana): 291, 386, 719 plants (aquatic or benthic; see also seagrass): 252, 433, 587, 673, 1133 red tide: 186
107 Rio Grande/Rio Bravo: 28, 136, 201, 242, 271, 295, 357, 363, 365, 366, 389, 457, 474, 589, 597, 600, 601, 603, 604, 625, 795, 893, 895, 951, 1008, 1085, 1086, 1135, 1176, 1215, 1232, 1259, 1276, 1280, 1281, 1290, 1295, 1331
Rio Grande Delta: 324, 439, 611, 1029
Rio Grande Valley: 7, 9, 34, 64, 65, 69, 117, 119, 201, 216, 241, 271, 281, 284, 296, 304, 381, 386, 388, 404, 405, 420, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 431, 435, 443, 477, 482, 511, 514, 572, 581, 586, 605, 607, 609, 693, 722, 723, 726, 729, 737, 741, 835, 902, 933, 935, 1038, 1054, 1061, 1139, 1140, 1172, 1198, 1207, 1217, 1225, 1252, 1281, 1286, 1296, 1297, 1298, 1303, 1304, 1306, 1312, 1313, 1314, 1315, 1337, 1343, 1378
salinity: 60, 86, 87, 190, 200, 261, 262, 269, 404, 487, 493, 511, 525, 576, 614, 655, 696, 814, 822, 929, 1000
seagrasses (pastos marinos): 48, 51, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 166, 195, 236, 238, 274, 286, 287, 343348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 369, 422, 433, 545, 546, 547, 548, 616, 617, 676, 681, 682, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 831, 856, 868, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 928, 945, 992, 993, 1000, 1032, 1052, 1071, 1114, 1147, 1152, 1209, 1234, 1262, 1273, 1370, 1375, 1385, 1386
Shoalgrass (Halodule): 166, 286, 287, 343, 347, 348, 349, 350, 551, 617, 681, 819, 820, 868, 928, 990, 991, 1236, 1274,
Manatee-grass (Syringodium [Cymodocea]): 744, 819, 820, 1264
Turtle-grass (Thalassia): 286, 287, 398, 545, 546, 547, 574, 646, 647, 648, 649, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 819
Clover grass (Halophila): 821
Widgeon grass (Ruppia): 347, 820, 991 sea turtles (tortugas marinas): 24, 25, 26, 49, 125, 193, 325, 410, 423, 479, 480, 556, 565, 566, 571, 692, 747, 748, 758, 759, 760, 828, 919, 960, 1003, 1017, 1023, 1024, 1025, 1050, 1093, 1094, 1095, 1096, 1098, 1099, 1101, 1102, 1103, 1104, 1106, 1107, 1108, 1302, 1339
Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempi): 47, 124, 125, 192, 410, 423, 479, 556, 747, 748, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 828, 919, 1024, 1050, 1093, 1097, 1099, 1100, 1101, 1105, 1106, 1107, 1109, 1121, 1302, 1303, 1339
Green (Chelonia mydas): 1025, 1026, 1108
Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata): 24
Loggerhead (Caretta caretta): 367, 960, 1026, 1300
108
Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea): 640, 701, 1301 serpulid reef: 36, 246, 506, 1210 shorebirds: 161, 209, 401, 846, 874, 892, 1056, 1084, 1137, 1342, 1368
Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus): 327, 328, 329, 333, 377, 455, 499, 500, 898, 1347, 1392, 1393, 1394
Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus): 327, 333, 1055, 1391, 1394, 1395
shrimp: 33, 76, 77, 440, 1190, 105, 106, 580, 870, 1063, 1183, shrimp fishing/fishery: 165, 193, 447, 488, 493, 495, 553, 567, 618, 619, 663, 688, 847, 848, 850, 851, 1162, 1167, 1170, 1183, white shrimp (Litopenaeus [=Penaeus] setiferus): 163, 553, 655, 1062, 1167, brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus [=Penaeus] aztecus): 447, 554, 655, 849, 1162, rock shrimp (Sicyonia spp.): 164 shrimp mariculture: 41, 63, 615, 1062 South Bay: 582, 583 tidal flats: 21, 23, 90, 110, 259, 290, 377, 407, 408, 517, 721, 733, 839, 876, 877, 996, 996, 997, 1159, 1193, 1265, 1267, 1269, 1271, 1272, 1325, 1326, 1327, 1368, 1369, 1371, 1372, 1373
tides, circulation: 89, 152, 753, 838, 899, 900, 1146, 1149, 1156, 1267, 1271, 1356, 1384, 1388
Upper Laguna Madre: 94, 95, 97, 98, 101, 149, 238, 248, 336, 396, 507, 534, 675, 720, 829, 837, 872, 923, 1032, 1040, 1090, 1092, 1125, 1133, 1149, 1150, 1156, 1157, 1158, 1162, 1163, 1164, 1165, 1166, 1167, 1168, 1169, 1171, 1178, 1180, 1244, 1264, 1268, 1273, 1368, 1371, 1374
wading birds: 215, 227, 1173
Reddish Egret (Egretta rufescens): 13, 14, 390, 391, 392, 598, 823, 942
White-faced Ibis (Plegadis chihi): 19, 283, 412, 668
109